Community Oriented Policing Services
(COPS): In Brief
Nathan James
Analyst in Crime Policy
January 13, 2015
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL33308
Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
Summary
The Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) program was created by Title I of the Violent
Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 (P.L. 103-322). The mission of the COPS
program is to advance community policing in all jurisdictions across the United States. The
Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-162)
reauthorized the COPS program for FY2006-FY2009 and changed it from a multi-grant program
to a single-grant program. Even though the COPS program is not currently authorized, Congress
has continued to appropriate funding for it.
Between FY1995 and FY1999, the annual appropriation for the COPS program averaged nearly
$1.4 billion. The relatively high levels of funding during this time period were largely the result
of Congress’s and the Clinton Administration’s efforts to place 100,000 new law enforcement
officers on the street. After the initial push to fund 100,000 new law enforcement officers through
COPS grants, Congress moved away from providing funding for hiring new law enforcement
officers and changed COPS into a conduit for providing federal assistance to support local law
enforcement agencies. Decreasing appropriations for hiring programs resulted in decreased
funding for the COPS program overall. Appropriations for hiring programs were almost non-
existent from FY2005 to FY2008, but for FY2009 Congress provided $1 billion for hiring
programs under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5).
Appropriations for hiring programs for FY2009-FY2012 were the result of Congress’s efforts to
help local law enforcement agencies facing budget cuts as a result of the recession either hire new
law enforcement officers or retain officers they might have to lay off. Congress has continued to
provide appropriations for hiring programs even though the effects of the recession have waned
over the past few fiscal years.
Authorized funding for the COPS program expired in FY2009. There are several issues policy
makers might consider if they take up legislation to reauthorize or fund the COPS program. One
potential policy question might be whether the federal government should continue to provide
grants to state and local law enforcement agencies to hire additional officers at a time of
historically low crime rates. Policy makers might also consider whether Congress should
appropriate funding for the COPS program so that law enforcement agencies could take
advantage of the current single grant program authorization, or if Congress should continue to
appropriate funding for individual programs under the COPS account.
Congressional Research Service
Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
Contents
A Brief Legislative History ....................................................................................................... 1
COPS Funding ........................................................................................................................... 1
Select Issues............................................................................................................................... 3
Figures
Figure 1. COPS Funding, FY1995-FY2015 .................................................................................... 3
Tables
Table A-1. COPS’ Requested Funding, Total Enacted Funding, Funding for Hiring
Programs, and Authorized Appropriation, FY1995-FY2015 ........................................................ 6
Table A-2. COPS Funding, by Program, FY2006-FY2015 ............................................................. 8
Appendixes
Appendix. COPS Funding History .................................................................................................. 6
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 10
Congressional Research Service
Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
he Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) program was created by Title I of the
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 19941 (the 1994 Crime Act). The
Tmission of the COPS program is to advance community policing in all jurisdictions across
the United States.2 The COPS program awards grants to state, local, and tribal law enforcement
agencies to advance the practice of community policing.3 COPS grants are managed by the COPS
Office, which was created in 1994 by Department of Justice (DOJ) to oversee the COPS program.
A Brief Legislative History
Under the initial authorization for the COPS program, grants could be awarded for (1) hiring new
police officers or rehiring police officers who have been laid off to engage in community
policing; (2) hiring former members of the armed services to serve as career law enforcement
officers engaged in community policing; and (3) supporting non-hiring initiatives, such as
training law enforcement officers in crime prevention and community policing techniques or
developing technologies that emphasize crime prevention. The 1994 Crime Act authorized
funding for the COPS program through FY2000 (see Table A-1 for authorized appropriations).
The COPS program was reauthorized by the Violence Against Women and Department of Justice
Reauthorization Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-162). The act reauthorized appropriations for the COPS
program for FY2006-FY2009 (see Table A-1). When Congress reauthorized the COPS program it
changed it from a multi-grant program to a single grant program. As currently authorized, state or
local law enforcement agencies are theoretically eligible to apply for a “COPS grant,” which
could be used for a litany of purposes, including hiring or re-hiring community policing officers;4
procuring equipment, technology, or support systems; or establishing school-based partnerships
between local law enforcement agencies and local school systems.5
COPS Funding
As shown in Figure 1, between FY1995 and FY1999, the annual appropriation for the COPS
program averaged nearly $1.4 billion. The relatively high levels of funding during this time
period were largely the result of Congress’s and the Clinton Administration’s efforts to place
100,000 new law enforcement officers on the street.
After the initial push to fund 100,000 new law enforcement officers through COPS grants,
Congress moved away from providing funding for hiring new law enforcement officers and
changed COPS into a conduit for providing federal assistance to support local law enforcement
1 P.L. 103-322; 42 U.S.C. §3796dd.
2 While there are different definitions of “community policing” the COPS Office defines “community policing” as “a
philosophy that promotes organizational strategies, which support the systematic use of partnerships and problem-
solving techniques, to proactively address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime,
social disorder, and fear of crime.” U.S. Department of Justice, Community Oriented Policing Services Office,
Community Policing Defined, p. 3, this document is on file with the author.
3 U.S. Department of Justice, Community Oriented Policing Services Office, About Community Oriented Policing
Services Office, http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/Default.asp?Item=35.
4 Even though current law states that law enforcement agencies that receive a COPS grant could use the funding for
hiring or re-hiring law enforcement officers, the authority for the Attorney General to make grants for hiring or re-
hiring law enforcement officer ended on September 13, 2000 (42 U.S.C. §3796dd(i)).
5 See 42 U.S.C. §3796dd(b).
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Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
agencies. Starting in FY1998, an increasing portion of the annual appropriation for COPS was
dedicated to programs to help law enforcement agencies purchase new equipment, combat
methamphetamine production, upgrade criminal records, and improve forensic sciences.
However, the overall appropriations for the COPS program started to decrease as Congress
appropriated less funding for hiring law enforcement officers.
In the early years of the COPS program, a majority of the program’s enacted appropriations went
to grant programs specifically aimed at hiring more law enforcement officers. Beginning in
FY1998, however, enacted appropriations for the hiring programs began to decline, and by
FY2005, appropriations for hiring programs were nearly non-existent. Funding was revived when
the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5) provided $1 billion for COPS
hiring programs. Appropriations for hiring programs in FY2009-FY2012 were the result of
Congress’s efforts to help local law enforcement agencies facing budget cuts as a result of the
recession either hire new law enforcement officers or retain officers they might have to lay off.
Congress has continued to provide appropriations for hiring programs even though the effects of
the recession have waned over the past few fiscal years.
There is a notable decrease in funding for the COPS starting in FY2011, which can be attributed
to two trends: the congressional earmark ban and Congress restructuring the COPS account (see
Table A-2). Congress implemented a ban on earmarks starting with appropriations for FY2011.
This ban substantially decreased funding for the Law Enforcement Technology and the
Methamphetamine Clean-up programs. By FY2012, Congress did not appropriate any funding for
the Law Enforcement Technology program and the only funding remaining for the
Methamphetamine Clean-up program was transferred to the Drug Enforcement Administration
(DEA) to assist with the clean-up of clandestine methamphetamine laboratories.
Between FY2010 and FY2012, Congress moved appropriations for programs that were
traditionally funded under the COPS account—such as Project Safe Neighborhoods, DNA
backlog reduction initiatives, Paul Coverdell grants, offender reentry programs, the National
Criminal History Improvement program, and the Bulletproof Vest Grant program—to the State
and Local Law Enforcement Assistance (S&LLEA) account. As shown in Table A-2,
appropriations for programs that were moved to the S&LLEA account starting in FY2010 were
traditionally transferred to the Office of Justice Programs.
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Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
Figure 1. COPS Funding, FY1995-FY2015
Appropriations in millions of dollars
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Fiscal Year
Appropriations
Carryover
ARRA
Hiring
Source: FY1995 through FY2011 enacted amounts were provided by the U.S. Department of Justice,
Community Oriented Policing Services; FY2012 enacted amount was taken from H.Rept. 112-284; FY2013
enacted amount was provided by the U.S. Department of Justice; FY2014 amount was taken from the joint
explanatory statement to accompany P.L. 113-76, printed in the January 15, 2014, Congressional Record (pp. H507-
H532); FY2015 amount was taken from the joint explanatory statement to accompany P.L. 113-235, printed in
the December 12, 2014, Congressional Record (pp. H9342-H9363).
Notes: “ARRA” is the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5). The FY2013 enacted
amount includes the amount sequestered per the Budget Control Act of 2011(P.L. 112-25). Between FY1998
and FY2002, Congress directed the COPS Office to use unobligated balances from previous fiscal years to fund
grant programs, which included grants for hiring, school safety, law enforcement technology, combating
methamphetamine, armor vests for law enforcement officers, improving tribal law enforcement, and combating
domestic violence.
Select Issues
Authorized funding for the COPS program expired in FY2009. There are several issues policy
makers might consider if they take up legislation to reauthorize or fund the COPS program.
One potential question facing Congress is whether the federal government should continue to
provide grants to state and local law enforcement agencies to hire additional officers at a time of
historically low crime rates. The Federal Bureau of Investigation reported that the violent crime
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Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
rate for 2013 was 368 violent crimes per 100,000 people, the lowest violent crime rate since
1969.6 Opponents of the program stress that state and local governments, not the federal
government, should be responsible for providing funding for police forces.7 They also argue that
the purported effect of COPS hiring grants on crime rates in the 1990s is questionable.8 They
maintain that it is not prudent to increase funding for the program at a time when crime is
decreasing and the federal government is facing annual deficits.9
Proponents of the COPS program assert that COPS hiring grants contributed to the decreasing
crime rate in the 1990s.10 Three studies identified by CRS attempted to quantify the impact that
COPS grants had on crime rates from the mid-1990s to 2001. In general, the studies suggest that
COPS grants had a negative impact on crime rates, but the impact was not universal.11 The
studies suggest that COPS grants might not have been as effective at reducing crime in cities with
populations of more than 250,000 people. Proponents believe that the federal government has a
role to play in supporting local law enforcement because it is the federal government’s
responsibility to provide for the security of U.S. citizens, which means protecting citizens from
crime.12 Some policy makers might also be interested in using COPS hiring grants to promote
community policing activities after the fallout from recent civilian deaths at the hands of law
enforcement officers in Ferguson, MO, and Staten Island, NY.
As discussed above, the COPS program is currently authorized as a single-grant program,
whereby law enforcement agencies can apply for a “COPS grant” that they can use for one or
more of several programs outlined in current law. However, Congress has continued to
appropriate funding for specific grant programs under the COPS account in the Commerce,
Justice, Science and Related Agencies (CJS) appropriations act (see Table A-2).
Appropriations for the COPS account do not provide law enforcement agencies with the
flexibility envisioned in the current authorizing legislation. Instead of being able to apply for one
grant to use for one or more programs, law enforcement agencies must apply for funding under
several different programs. Law enforcement agencies are also limited to using their grants for the
programs specified by Congress in the annual CJS appropriations act.
6 Violent crime rates for the years 1960-2012 can be found in University at Albany, School of Criminal Justice,
Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics (online), Table 3.106.2012. The
violent crime rate for 2013 can be found in Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, 2013, Table 1.
7 U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Markup of: H.R. 1139, the “COPS Improvement Act of 2009” and
H.R. 985, the “Free Flow of Information Act of 2009,” 111th Cong., 1st sess., March 25, 2009, pp. 20-21, hereinafter
“March 25 Markup of H.R. 1139.”
8 March 25 Markup of H.R. 1139, pp. 7-9. U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Markup of: H.R. 1107, to
Enact Certain Laws Relating to Public Contracts as Title 41, United States Code, “Public Contracts;” H.R. 1139, the
“COPS Improvement Act of 2009;” and H.R. 1575, the “The End GREED Act,” 111th Cong., 1st sess., March 18, 2009,
p. 47, hereinafter “March 18 Markup of H.R. 1139.”
9 Ibid.
10 Rep. Conyers et al., “COPS Improvement Act of 2007,” House Debate, Congressional Record, daily edition, vol.
153 (May 15, 2007), pp. H4985-H4995.
11 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Community Policing Grants: COPS Grants Were a Modest Contributor to
Declines in Crime in the 1990s, GAO-06-104, October 2005; William N. Evans and Emily G. Owens, “COPS and
Crime,” Journal of Public Economics, vol. 91 (2007), pp. 181-201; and David B. Muhlhausen, Impact Evaluation of
COPS Grants in Large Cities, The Heritage Foundation, CDA06-03, Washington, DC, May 26, 2006.
12 March 18 Markup of H.R. 1139, p. 52.
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Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
Congress might consider whether in the future it should fund COPS as a single-grant program or
if it should continue to appropriate funds for individual programs. If Congress chooses to fund
COPS as a single-grant program, it could relieve the administrative burden on local law
enforcement agencies because they would have to apply for and manage only one grant award
rather than applying for grants under different programs. A single-grant program would provide
law enforcement agencies with a degree of freedom to expend their grant funds on programs that
address the needs of their communities. However, if Congress chooses to fund COPS as a single-
grant program, it would lose some control over how COPS funds are spent, and hence the impact
that the grant funding has on shaping state and local policies. A single-grant program would mean
that Congress could not ensure that a certain amount of funding was spent on hiring law
enforcement officers or used to upgrade law enforcement’s use of new technology. In addition,
awarding COPS grants under a single-grant program might make it more difficult to monitor
program performance because there would most likely be a wide variety of programs.
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Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
Appendix. COPS Funding History
Table A-1. COPS’ Requested Funding, Total Enacted Funding, Funding for Hiring
Programs, and Authorized Appropriation, FY1995-FY2015
Amounts in millions of dollars
Carryover
Fiscal
President’s
New Budget
(from prior
Hiring
Year
Request
Authority
fiscal years)
Total
Programs
Authorized
1995
$1,720 $1,300
— $1,300 $1,057 $1,332
1996
1,903 1,400 — 1,400 1,128 1,850
1997
1,976 1,420 — 1,420 1,339 1,950
1998
1,545 1,430 203 1,633 1,338 1,700
1999
1,420 1,430 90 1,520 1,201 1,700
2000
1,275 595 318 913 481 268
2001 1,335 1,037
5
1,042
408
—
2002 855 1,050
55 1,105 385
—
2003 1,382
978a — 978 199 —
2004 164 748
—
748 114
—
2005
97 598 — 598 10 —
2006 118 472
—
472
— 1,047
2007 102 542b — 542 —
1,047
2008 32 587 — 587
20
1,047
2009 —c 551 — 551
1,000d 1,047
2010 761 792
—
792 298
—
2011 690 495
—
495 247
—
2012 670 199
—
199 141
—
2013 290 210
—
210 155
—
2014 440 214
—
214 151
—
2015 274 208
—
208 135
—
Source: CRS presentation of the Administration’s budget requests for the respective years. FY1995-FY2011
appropriations were provided by the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services; FY2012 appropriation was taken from H.Rept. 112-284; FY2013 appropriation was provided by the U.S.
Department of Justice; the FY2014 appropriation was taken from the joint explanatory statement to accompany
P.L. 113-76, printed in the January 15, 2014, Congressional Record (pp. H507-H532); FY2015 amount was taken
from the joint explanatory statement to accompany P.L. 113-235, printed in the December 12, 2014,
Congressional Record (pp. H9342-H9363). Authorized funding taken from P.L. 103-322 and P.L. 109-162.
Notes: New budget authority does not include any rescissions of unobligated balances. The FY2013 enacted
amount includes the amount sequestered per the Budget Control Act of 2011(P.L. 112-25).
a. Includes a $929 million appropriation and a $55 million supplemental appropriation.
b. Does not include an across-the-board rescission of 0.5% to OJP and COPS programs to fund the Office of
Audit, Assessment and Management (OAAM).
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Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
c. For FY2009, the Administration did not request funding for any specific COPS grant program. Rather, the
Administration requested $4 million for community police training and technical assistance under the State
and Local Law Enforcement Assistance account in the Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies
appropriations bill.
d. The $1 billion COPS received for hiring grants for FY2009 was appropriated under the American Recovery
and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5).
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Table A-2. COPS Funding, by Program, FY2006-FY2015
Amounts in thousands of dollars
FY2006 FY2007 FY2008 FY2009 FY2010 FY2011 FY2012 FY2013a FY2014 FY2015
Law Enforcement Technology Program
$128,245 $166,145 $205,366
$187,000 $170,223
$1,243
—
—
—
Community Policing Development
3,949
9,546
3,760
4,000
12,000
9,940
10,000
9,405
7,500
7,500
Tribal Law Enforcement Programs
14,808
15,808
15,040
20,000
40,000
33,134
35,000b 32,914c 33,000d 33,000
Methamphetamine Enforcement and Clean-up
62,778
70,000
61,187
39,500
40,385
12,425
12,500
12,241
10,000
7,000
COPS
Hiring
Program
—
— 20,000
— 298,000 246,845 141,000 155,170 151,000 134,500
COPS Hiring Recovery Program
—
—
— 1,000,000
—
—
—
—
—
—
Interoperable
Communications
Technology 9,872 — — — — — — — — —
COPS Management & Administration
—
1,541
28,200
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Police
Integrity
Program
— — — — — — — — — —
School Safety Initiatives/ Secure Our Schools
— — —
16,000
16,000
13,253 — — — —
Act
Training and Technical Assistance on the
— — — — — — — —
5,000
5,000
Col aborative Reform Model
Anti-methamphetamine Task Forces
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
7,500
7,000
Anti-heroin Task Forces
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
7,000
Regional Gang Task Forces
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
7,000
Child Sexual Predator Elimination/Sex
— —
15,608
18,000
24,000
19,880 — — — —
Offender Management
Sex Offender Management
— —
(4,162)
(5,000)
(11,000)
(9,112) — — — —
National Sex Offender Registry
— —
(850)
(1,000)
(1,000)
(828) — — — —
Bullet-proof Vest Program
29,617
29,617
25,850
25,000
30,000
24,850 — — — —
Crime Identification Technology Programs
28,407
28,407 — — — — — — — —
CRS-8
FY2006 FY2007 FY2008 FY2009 FY2010 FY2011 FY2012 FY2013a FY2014 FY2015
National Criminal History Improvement
9,872
9,872
9,400
10,000 — — — — — —
Program
NICS Improvement
— — —
10,000 — — — — — —
DNA Backlog Reduction Programs
107,145
112,145
152,272
156,000
161,000
133,363 — — — —
Coverdell Forensic Science Grants
18,264
18,264
18,800
25,000 — — — — — —
Project Safe Neighborhoods
14,808
20,613
20,000
15,000 — — — — — —
Offender Re-entry Program
4,936
14,879
11,750
25,000 — — — — — —
Anti-gang Program
39,489
45,000 — — — — — — — —
Total
472,191 541,838 587,233
1,550,500 791,608 494,933 198,500 209,730 214,000 208,000
Source: FY2004-FY2011 appropriations were provided by the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services; FY2012 appropriation was
taken from H.Rept. 112-284; FY2013 appropriation provided by the U.S. Department of Justice; FY2014 appropriation was taken from the joint explanatory statement to
accompany P.L. 113-76, printed in the January 15, 2014, Congressional Record (pp. H507-H532); FY2015 appropriation was taken from the joint explanatory statement to
accompany P.L. 113-235, printed in the December 12, 2014, Congressional Record (pp. H9342-H9363).
Notes: Amounts in bold were transferred to the Office of Justice Programs.
a. The FY2013 enacted amount also includes the amount sequestered per the Budget Control Act of 2011(P.L. 112-25).
b. This amount includes $15.0 million that was transferred from the appropriation for the COPS Hiring Program.
c. This amount includes $14.1 million that was transferred from the appropriation for the COPS Hiring Program.
d. This amount includes $16.5 million that was transferred from the appropriation for the COPS Hiring Program.
CRS-9
Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS): In Brief
Author Contact Information
Nathan James
Analyst in Crime Policy
njames@crs.loc.gov, 7-0264
Congressional Research Service
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