Temporary Protected Status:
Current Immigration Policy and Issues
Lisa Seghetti
Section Research Manager
Karma Ester
Information Research Specialist
Ruth Ellen Wasem
Specialist in Immigration Policy
January 12, 2015
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RS20844
Temporary Protected Status: Current Immigration Policy and Issues
Summary
When civil unrest, violence, or natural disasters erupt in spots around the world, concerns arise
over the safety of foreign nationals from these troubled places who are in the United States.
Provisions exist in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) to offer temporary protected status
(TPS) or relief from removal under specified circumstances. A foreign national who is granted
TPS receives a registration document and an employment authorization for the duration of TPS.
The United States currently provides TPS to over 300,000 foreign nationals from a total of 11
countries: El Salvador, Guinea, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Sierra Leone, Somalia,
Sudan, South Sudan and Syria. Liberians have had relief from removal for the longest period, first
receiving TPS in March 1991 following the outbreak of civil war and ultimately obtaining DED
on September 30, 2011. In December 2013, the government of the Philippines formally requested
that the United States grant TPS to Filipinos in the United States who are affected by Typhoon
Yolanda (Haiyan). Legislation that would have granted TPS to Filipinos was introduced in the
113th Congress; however, no action was taken on it.
Under the INA, the executive branch grants TPS or relief from removal. The Secretary of
Homeland Security, in consultation with the Secretary of State, has the discretion to issue TPS for
periods of 6 to 18 months and can extend these periods if conditions do not change in the
designated country. Congress, however, has also provided TPS legislatively.
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Contents
Background ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Humanitarian Migrants .................................................................................................................... 1
Temporary Protected Status ............................................................................................................. 2
Nationalities Receiving Temporary Protections .............................................................................. 3
Leading Concerns ............................................................................................................................ 4
Guinea and Sierra Leone ........................................................................................................... 4
Philippines ................................................................................................................................. 4
Syria ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Haiti ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Liberia ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Central America ......................................................................................................................... 7
Legislation ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Tables
Table 1. Countries Whose Nationals in the United States Currently Benefit from
Temporary Protected Status and Deferred Enforced Departure.................................................... 3
Contacts
Author Contact Information............................................................................................................. 8
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Background
The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) provides that all aliens (i.e., persons who are not
citizens or nationals of the United States) must enter pursuant to the INA. The major categories of
aliens are immigrants, refugees and asylees (all admitted for or adjusted to legal permanent
residence), and nonimmigrants (admitted for temporary reasons, e.g., students, tourists, or
business travelers). Foreign nationals who lack proper immigration authorization are generally of
three kinds: (1) those who overstay their nonimmigrant visas, (2) those who enter the country
surreptitiously without inspection, and (3) those who are admitted on the basis of fraudulent
documents. In all three instances, the aliens are in violation of the Immigration and Nationality
Act (INA) and subject to removal.
As a signatory to the United Nations Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (hereinafter,
U.N. Protocol), the United States agrees to the principle of nonrefoulement, which means that it
will not return an alien to a country where his life or freedom would be threatened.
Nonrefoulement is embodied in several provisions of U.S. immigration law. Most notably, it is
reflected in the provisions requiring the government to withhold the removal of aliens to a
country in which the alien’s life or freedom would be threatened on the basis of race, religion,
nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion.1
Humanitarian Migrants
Not all humanitarian migrants are eligible for asylum or refugee status. The legal definition of
asylum in the INA is consistent with the U.N. Protocol, which specifies that a refugee is a person
who is unwilling or unable to return to his country of nationality or habitual residence because of
a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a
particular social group, or political opinion. The definitions of refugee and asylee are essentially
the same in the INA, with the notable difference being the physical location of the persons
seeking the status. Those who are in the United States or at a U.S. port of entry apply for asylum,
while those who are displaced abroad apply for refugee status. The standards of proof and
minimum thresholds are similar, but the procedures and priorities are quite different.2
If the motivation of the migrant is determined to be economic improvement rather than the
political reasons that underpin the legal definition, the person is not considered eligible for
asylum. This distinction is sometimes difficult to discern, because persecution as well as war may
lead to economic hardships, and economic deprivation may trigger persecution or insurrection.
Since factors such as extreme poverty, deprivation, violence, and the dislocation brought on by
famines or natural disasters may evoke a humanitarian response, the term humanitarian migrants
encompasses all those who emigrate to the United States for such reasons, including those who
receive asylum.3
1 Section 208 of INA (8 U.S.C. §1158); Section 241(b)(3) of INA (8 U.S.C. §1231); and Section 101(a) of INA (8
U.S.C. §1101(a)(42)).
2 CRS Report R41753, Asylum and “Credible Fear” Issues in U.S. Immigration Policy, by Ruth Ellen Wasem; and
CRS Report RL31269, Refugee Admissions and Resettlement Policy, by Andorra Bruno.
3 The term “humanitarian migrant” is not defined in the INA, nor, in this context, is it meant to imply that a
sympathetic policy response is warranted. Rather, it refers to factors underlying the alien’s justification for
(continued...)
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The concept of “safe haven” embraces humanitarian migrants. It covers those who may not meet
the legal definition of refugee but are nonetheless fleeing potentially dangerous situations. Safe
haven also assumes that the host country, in this instance the United States, is the first country in
which the fleeing alien arrives safely, or is the country where the alien is temporarily residing
when the unsafe conditions occur. Safe haven is implicitly temporary in nature because it is given
prior to any decision on the long-term resolution of the alien’s status. It is also a form of blanket
relief because it is premised on more generalized conditions of turmoil or deprivation in the
country of origin, in contrast to the individual circumstances weighed in the case-by-case asylum
process.
In terms of permanent residence over the long term, the United States endorses the internationally
held position that voluntary repatriation is the best outcome for refugees. Resettlement in the
country to which the asylum seeker fled is considered a secondary option, and resettlement in a
third country as the last alternative.
Temporary Protected Status
Temporary Protected Status (TPS) is the statutory embodiment of safe haven for those aliens who
may not meet the legal definition of refugee but are nonetheless fleeing—or reluctant to return
to—potentially dangerous situations. TPS is blanket relief that may be granted under the
following conditions: there is ongoing armed conflict posing serious threat to personal safety; a
foreign state requests TPS because it temporarily cannot handle the return of nationals due to
environmental disaster; or there are extraordinary and temporary conditions in a foreign state that
prevent aliens from returning, provided that granting TPS is consistent with U.S. national
interests.4
The Secretary of Homeland Security, in consultation with the Secretary of State, can issue TPS
for periods of 6 to 18 months and can extend these periods if conditions do not change in the
designated country. To obtain TPS, eligible aliens report to the U.S. Citizenship and Immigrant
Services (USCIS) in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), pay a processing fee, and
receive registration documents and a work authorization. The major requirements for aliens
seeking TPS are proof of eligibility (e.g., a passport issued by the designated country, continuous
physical presence in the United States since the date TPS went into effect, timely registration, and
being otherwise admissible as an immigrant). The regulation specifies grounds of inadmissibility
that cannot be waived, including those relating to criminal convictions and the persecution of
others.5
Aliens who receive TPS are not on an immigration track that leads to permanent residence or
citizenship. The “temporary” nature of TPS is apparent in the regulation. DHS has made clear that
information it collects when an alien registers for TPS may be used to institute exclusion or
deportation proceedings upon the denial, withdrawal or expiration of TPS.6 Moreover, the TPS
(...continued)
immigration.
4 Section 244 of INA (8 U.S.C. §1254a).
5 8 U.S.C. §240.
6 Ibid.
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provision in the INA states that a bill or amendment that provides for the adjustment to lawful
temporary or legal permanent resident (LPR) status for any alien receiving TPS requires a
supermajority vote in the Senate (i.e., three-fifths of all Senators) voting affirmatively.7
Nationalities Receiving Temporary Protections
The United States currently provides TPS to over 300,000 foreign nationals from a total of 11
countries: El Salvador, Guinea, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Sierra Leone Somalia,
Sudan, South Sudan and Syria. Liberians have had relief from removal for the longest period, first
receiving TPS in March 1991 following the outbreak of civil war and ultimately being
redesignated in November 2014 due to the recent Ebola outbreak.8 The estimated number of
aliens currently protected range from 600 Sudanese to 204,000 Salvadorans.
In 1990, when Congress enacted the TPS statute, it also granted TPS for one year to nationals
from El Salvador who were residing in the United States. Subsequently, the Attorney General, in
consultation with the State Department, granted TPS to aliens in the United States from the
following countries: Liberia from March 1991 to October 2007; Kuwait from March 1991 to
March 1992; Rwanda from June 1995 to December 1997; Lebanon from March 1991 to March
1993; the Kosovo Province of Serbia from June 1998 to December 2000; Bosnia-Herzegovina
from August 1992 to February 2001; Angola from March 29, 2000, to March 29, 2003; Sierra
Leone from November 4, 1997, to May 3, 2004; and Burundi from November 4, 1997, to May 2,
2009.
Table 1. Countries Whose Nationals in the United States Currently Benefit
from Temporary Protected Status and Deferred Enforced Departure
Country Status
Dates
Estimated
Numbera
El Salvador
TPS
March 2, 2001-September 9, 2016b 204,000
Guinea
TPS
November 21, 2014-May 20, 2015
2,000
Haiti
TPS
January 15, 2010-January 22, 2016
51,000
Honduras
TPS
December 30, 1998-July 5, 2016
61,000
Liberia
TPS
October 1, 2007-May 20, 2015
4,000
Nicaragua
TPS
December 30, 1998-July 5, 2016
2,800
Sierra Leone
TPS
November 21, 2014-May 20, 2015
2,000
Somalia
TPS
September 16, 1991-September 17, 2015
400
South Sudan
TPS
November 3, 2011-May 2, 2016
300-500
Sudan
TPS
November 4, 1997-May 2, 2016
600
Syria
TPS
March 23, 2012-September 30, 2016
5,000
Source: CRS compilation of USCIS data.
7 Section 244(h) of INA (8 U.S.C. §1254a).
8 In September 2011, the Liberians who had TPS received relief through Deferred Enforced Departure (DED). The
Attorney General can provide, under certain conditions, discretionary relief from deportation by means of the
suspension of enforcement of the immigration laws against a particular group of individuals. DED is a common
discretionary procedure to provide such relief.
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a. Estimates based upon USCIS data for designated status or work authorizations. These approximate
numbers do not necessarily include al aliens from the countries who are in the United States and might be
eligible for the status. USCIS updates these numbers when it renews TPS for nationals from a given country.
b. Rather than extending TPS when it expired in 1992, the George H.W. Bush Administration granted DED to
what was then estimated to be 190,000 Salvadorans through December 1994.
Rather than extending Salvadoran TPS when it expired in 1992, the George H.W. Bush
Administration granted DED to what was then estimated as 190,000 Salvadorans through
December 1994.
On July 9, 2011, South Sudan became a new nation.9 With South Sudan’s independence from the
Republic of Sudan, which has had TPS since 1997, some questioned their continued eligibility for
TPS under the Sudan designation. With the new designation of South Sudan, some individuals
now qualify for TPS under the South Sudanese designation, while others may still qualify under
the Sudan designation.10
Leading Concerns
Guinea and Sierra Leone
On November 21, 2014, Secretary of Homeland Security Jeh Johnson designated Guinea and
Sierra Leonne for TPS through May 20, 2015,11 citing the outbreak of the Ebola Virus Disease
(EVD) in West Africa.12 The current EVD, the first in West Africa, is the largest outbreak and as
of November 21, 2014, over 2,400 have died in the two countries and there have been over 6,700
reported cases.13 Secretary Johnson granted TPS status through May 20, 2015.14
Philippines
On November 8, 2013, Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) became one of the strongest typhoons
(cyclones) ever recorded to strike land. The typhoon struck with a force equivalent to a Category
5 hurricane and sustained winds of up to 195 mph. It directly swept through six provinces of the
Philippines. The Philippine government reported that more than 6,000 people were killed and
more than 3.43 million were displaced. Overall, the typhoon affected an estimated 13.7 million
Filipinos.15 Within a few days of the typhoon, USCIS announced a limited set of immigration
9 CRS Report R41900, The Republic of South Sudan: Opportunities and Challenges for Africa’s Newest Country, by
Ted Dagne (available upon request).
10 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Designation of Republic of
South Sudan for Temporary Protected Status,” 76, 198 Federal Register 63629-63635, October 13, 2011.
11 Liberians were also designated for TPS in the announcement. See Liberians below.
12 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Designation of Guinea and Sierra Leonne for Temporary Protected
Status,” 79 Federal Register 69502-69502, November 21, 2014.
13 Nearly 3,000 individuals have died from EVD in Liberia and there have been over 7,000 reported cases. See CRS
Report IF00044, Ebola: 2014 Outbreak in West Africa, by Nicolas Cook and Tiaji Salaam-Blyther.
14 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Designation of Guinea for Temporary Protected Status,” 79 Federal
Register 69511-69515, November 21, 2014; and U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Designation of Sierra
Leone for Temporary Protected Status,” 79 Federal Register 69506-69511, November 21, 2014.
15 CRS Report R43309, Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda): U.S. and International Response to Philippines Disaster,
(continued...)
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relief measures that Filipinos impacted by the typhoon might be eligible for, but it did not grant
TPS.16 The government of the Philippines formally requested on December 16, 2013, that
President Barack Obama designate TPS for Filipinos in the United States.17
Syria
On March 29, 2012, then-Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano designated the Syrian
Arab Republic (Syria) for TPS through September 30, 2013, citing temporary extraordinary
conditions that would make it unsafe for Syrian nationals already in the United States to return to
the country.18 Foreign nationals from Syria are among those subject to additional security
screenings and background checks in order to obtain a visa to come to the United States because
Syria is deemed a state sponsor of terrorism.19 The ongoing uprising against Syrian President
Bashar al Asad had escalated to the point that then-DHS Secretary Napolitano said “conditions in
Syria have worsened to the point where Syrian nationals already in the United States would face
serious threats to their personal safety if they were to return to their home country.” In the initial
granting of TPS, Napolitano made clear that DHS would conduct full background checks on
Syrians registering for TPS.20 On January 5, 2015, TPS was once again extended for Syria
through September 30, 2016.21
Haiti
The devastation caused by the January 12, 2010, earthquake in Haiti prompted calls for the
Obama Administration to grant TPS to Haitians in the United States at the time of the
earthquake.22 The scale of humanitarian crisis after the earthquake—estimated thousands of
(...continued)
coordinated by Thomas Lum and Rhoda Margesson.
16 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS Reminds Filipino Nationals Impacted by Typhoon Haiyan of
Available Immigration Relief Measures,” press release, November 15, 2013, http://www.uscis.gov/news/alerts/uscis-
reminds-filipino-nationals-impacted-typhoon-haiyan-available-immigration-relief-measures.
17 Embassy of the Philippines, Washington DC, “PH Seeks Additional Immigration Relief for Pinoys in US,” press
release, December 16, 2013, http://www.philippineembassy-usa.org/news/3774/300/PH-SEEKS-ADDITIONAL-
IMMIGRATION-RELIEF-FOR-PINOYS-IN-US/d,phildet/.
18 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Designation of Syrian Arab
Republic for Temporary Protected Status,” 61 Federal Register 19026-19030, March 29, 2012.
19 No nonimmigrant visa under §101(a)(15) of the INA shall be issued to any alien from a country that is a state
sponsor of international terrorism unless the Secretary of State determines, in consultation with the Attorney General
and the heads of other appropriate U.S. agencies, that such alien does not pose a threat to the safety or national security
of the United States.
20 Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano, “Temporary Protected Status (TPS) for Syrian Nationals,” press
release, March 23, 2012, http://www.dhs.gov/ynews/releases/20120323-napolitano-statement-syria-tps.shtm.
21 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Extension and Redesignation
of Syrian Arab Republic for Temporary Protected Status,” 77, 80 Federal Register 245-252, January 5, 2015.
22 The issue of Haitian TPS has arisen several times in the past few years, most notably after the U.S. Ambassador
declared Haiti a disaster in September 2004 due to the magnitude of the effects of Tropical Storm Jeanne. A series of
tropical cyclones in 2008 resulted in hundreds of deaths and led some to label the city of Gonaives uninhabitable.22 The
Administration of President George W. Bush did not to grant TPS or other forms of blanket relief to Haitians, nor was
legislation that would have provided TPS to Haitians, such as H.R. 522 in the 110th Congress, enacted. Opponents to
Haitian TPS traditionally argue that it would result in an immigration amnesty for unauthorized Haitians and foster
illegal migration from the island. CRS Report RS21349, U.S. Immigration Policy on Haitian Migrants, by Ruth Ellen
(continued...)
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Haitians dead and reported total collapse of the infrastructure in the capital city of Port au
Prince—led DHS to grant on January 15, 2010 TPS for 18 months to Haitian nationals who were
in the United States as of January 12, 2010. Then-Secretary Janet Napolitano stated: “Providing a
temporary refuge for Haitian nationals who are currently in the United States and whose personal
safety would be endangered by returning to Haiti is part of this Administration’s continuing
efforts to support Haiti’s recovery.”23 On July 13, 2010, Napolitano announced an extension of
the TPS registration period for Haitian nationals. Citing the difficulties nationals were
experiencing in obtaining documents to establish identity and nationality, and the difficulty in
gathering the funds required to apply for TPS, the registration period was extended through
January 18, 2011.24
Napolitano extended and re-designated TPS for Haitians on May 17, 2011. The extension was
effective July 23, 2011, and enabled eligible individuals who arrived up to one year after the
earthquake in Haiti to receive TPS. The re-designation targeted individuals who were allowed to
enter the United States immediately after the earthquake on temporary visas or humanitarian
parole but were not covered by the initial TPS grant. The extension and re-designation was for a
period of 18 months, through January 22, 2013.25 Subsequently, the DHS Secretary extended the
designation of Haiti for TPS for 18 months from January 23, 2013, through July 22, 2014.26 In
March 2014, TPS for Haiti was extended until January 22, 2016.27
Liberia
Liberians had relief from removal for the longest period of those who have had TPS or other
forms of blanket relief from deportation. They first received TPS in March 1991 following the
outbreak of civil war. In 1999, approximately 10,000 Liberians in the United States were given
DED after their TPS expired September 28, 1999. Their DED status was subsequently extended
to September 29, 2002. On October 1, 2002, Liberia was re-designated for TPS for a period of 12
months, and the status continued to be extended. On September 20, 2006, however, the George
W. Bush Administration announced that Liberian TPS would expire on October 1, 2007, and they
were once again granted DED until March 31, 2009. On March 23, 2009, President Obama
extended DED for Liberians until March 31, 2010, and on March 18, 2010, President Obama
once again extended DED for Liberians through September 30, 2011.28 Previously, Liberia’s DED
(...continued)
Wasem.
23 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “Statement from Secretary Janet Napolitano,” press release, January 15,
2010.
24 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Extension of the Initial Registration Period for Haitians Under the
Temporary Protected Status Program,” 75 Federal Register 39957, July 13, 2010.
25 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “Secretary Napolitano Announces Extension of Temporary Protected Status
for Haitian Beneficiaries,” press release, May 17, 2011.
26 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Extension of the Designation of Haiti for Temporary Protected Status,”
77 Federal Register 2012-23826, October 1, 2012.
27 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Extension of the Designation of Haiti for Temporary Protected Status,”
79 Federal Register 11808-11814, March 3, 2014.
28 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Filing Procedures and Automatic Extension of Employment
Authorization and Related Documentation for Liberians Provided Deferred Enforced Departure,” 75 Federal Register
15715, March 30, 2010.
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status had been extended through September 30, 2014, but with the Ebola outbreak, the country
was once again granted TPS status through May 20, 2015.29
Central America
Whether to grant blanket relief to nationals from neighboring Central American countries has
perplexed policy makers for several decades. The only time Congress has specifically granted
TPS was in 1990 to nationals of El Salvador. 30 In the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch in November
1998, then-Attorney General Janet Reno announced that she would temporarily suspend the
deportation of aliens from El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. On December 30,
1998, the Attorney General designated TPS for undocumented Hondurans and Nicaraguans in the
United States as of that date because, they maintained, Honduras and Nicaragua had such
extraordinary displacement and damage from Hurricane Mitch as to warrant TPS. Prior to leaving
office in January, the Clinton Administration said it would temporarily halt deportations to El
Salvador. In 2001, the George W. Bush Administration decided to grant TPS to Salvadorans
following two earthquakes that rocked El Salvador.
Over the years, the George W. Bush Administration granted, and now the Barack Obama
Administration has continued to grant, TPS to Central Americans from El Salvador, Honduras,
and Nicaragua. Their rationale has been consistent when announcing the re-designation: “There
continues to be a substantial, but temporary, disruption of living conditions in Nicaragua resulting
from Hurricane Mitch, and Nicaragua remains unable, temporarily, to handle adequately the
return of its nationals.”31 Similarly, the Federal Register notice re-designating Salvadoran TPS
stated: “There continues to be a substantial, but temporary, disruption of living conditions in El
Salvador resulting from a series of earthquakes in 2001, and El Salvador remains unable,
temporarily, to handle adequately the return of its nationals.”32
Legislation
Legislation that would have granted TPS to Filipinos had been introduced in the 113th Congress.33
The bill would have provided TPS for 18-months to a national of the Philippines who: (1) has
been continuously physically present in the United States since November 8, 2013, (2) is
admissible as an immigrant and not ineligible for TPS, and (3) registers for TPS with DHS. It also
would have permitted Filipinos with TPS to travel abroad if they establish to the satisfaction of
the Secretary that emergency and extenuating circumstances beyond their control require their
departure for a brief, temporary trip abroad. No action was taken on the bill.
29 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Designation of Liberia for Temporary Protected Status,” 79 Federal
Register 69502-69502, November 21, 2014.
30 For historical analysis, see out of print CRS Report 97-810, Central American Asylum Seekers: Impact of 1996
Immigration Law, by Ruth Ellen Wasem (available upon request.)
31 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Extension of the Designation of Nicaragua for Temporary Protected
Status,” 78 Federal Register 20128-20133, April 3, 2013.
32 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Extension of the Designation of El Salvador for Temporary Protected
Status,” 78 Federal Register 2013-12793, May 30, 2013.
33 See H.R. 3602, the Filipino Temporary Protected Status Act of 2013.
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Because aliens granted TPS are not eligible to become legal permanent residents (LPRs) in the
United States, a special act of Congress is required for such aliens to adjust to LPR status.34
Legislation that would have allowed nationals from various countries that have had TPS to adjust
to LPR status had been introduced in past Congresses, but not enacted. Similar provisions had
also been included as part of comprehensive immigration reform (CIR) legislation in the 113th
Congress.35 The Senate-passed CIR legislation, S. 744, did not include specific provisions for
foreign nationals with TPS to adjust status, but many would have qualified for the registered
provisional immigrant status that S. 744 as passed would have established.36
Author Contact Information
Lisa Seghetti
Ruth Ellen Wasem
Section Research Manager
Specialist in Immigration Policy
lseghetti@crs.loc.gov, 7-4669
rwasem@crs.loc.gov, 7-7342
Karma Ester
Information Research Specialist
kester@crs.loc.gov, 7-3036
34 For example, Congress enacted legislation in 1992 that allowed Chinese who had deferred enforced departure
following the Tiananmen Square massacre to adjust to LPR status (P.L. 102-404). The 105th Congress passed
legislation enabling Haitians to adjust status (P.L. 105-277).
35 See archived CRS Report R40848, Immigration Legislation and Issues in the 111th Congress, coordinated by
Andorra Bruno; archived CRS Report RL34204, Immigration Legislation and Issues in the 110th Congress, coordinated
by Andorra Bruno; and archived CRS Report RS22111, Alien Legalization and Adjustment of Status: A Primer, by
Ruth Ellen Wasem.
36 See archived CRS Report R43097, Comprehensive Immigration Reform in the 113th Congress: Major Provisions in
Senate-Passed S. 744, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
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