Prescription Drug Abuse
Erin Bagalman
Analyst in Health Policy
Lisa N. Sacco
Analyst in Illicit Drugs and Crime Policy
Susan Thaul
Specialist in Drug Safety and Effectiveness
Brian T. Yeh
Legislative Attorney
May 21, 2014
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R43559
Prescription Drug Abuse
Summary
An estimated 6.8 million individuals currently abuse prescription drugs in the United States.
Unlike policy on street drugs, federal policy on prescription drug abuse is complicated by the
need to maintain access to prescription controlled substances (PCS) for legitimate medical use.
The federal government has several roles in reducing prescription drug abuse.
Coordination. The Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) coordinates and tracks
prescription drug abuse reduction efforts and funding of multiple federal agencies.
Regulation. The primary federal statutes governing prescription drug regulation are the Federal
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) and the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and
Control Act of 1970, commonly called the Controlled Substances Act (CSA).
Law Enforcement. Federal law enforcement, primarily the Drug Enforcement Administration
(DEA), aims to prevent, detect, and investigate the diversion of prescription drugs while
regulating the supply for legitimate medical, commercial, and scientific purposes.
Health. Federal agencies and programs involved in health may address prescription drug abuse
through service delivery (e.g., the Veterans Health Administration), financing (e.g., Medicare),
and research (e.g., the National Institute on Drug Abuse).
The federal government, state and local governments, and various private entities (e.g.,
pharmacies) are currently undertaking a range of approaches to reducing prescription drug abuse.
Scheduling of PCS. The scheduling status of a PCS (1) affects patient access to PCS (e.g., by
limiting refills); (2) affects the degree of regulatory requirements (e.g., supply chain
recordkeeping); and (3) determines the degree of criminal punishment for illegal traffickers.
Safe Storage and Disposal. DEA regulates storage of PCS by registered entities (e.g.,
pharmacies); provides registered entities with options for proper disposal of PCS; and sponsors
National Prescription Drug Take-Back Days to assist citizens in safe disposal of PCS.
Enhancing Law Enforcement. Federal law enforcement efforts may focus on geographic areas
with higher rates of prescription drug abuse or on High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas
(HIDTA) that experience a higher volume of illicit trafficking of PCS.
Using Data to Identify Risk. Most states operate prescription drug monitoring programs—
databases of prescriptions filled for PCS. Other public and private entities also have data that may
be analyzed to identify high-risk behavior among prescribers, dispensers, or patients.
Awareness and Education. Efforts to increase awareness and education about prescription drug
abuse may focus on health care providers, patients, or the general public.
Treatment. Some prescription drug abuse may be avoided in treating underlying conditions (e.g.,
pain) or may be treated with pharmacologic or non-pharmacologic interventions. New products
may improve treatment for both underlying conditions and prescription drug abuse.
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Prescription Drug Abuse
Contents
Background ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Federal Roles in Reducing Prescription Drug Abuse ...................................................................... 2
Coordination .............................................................................................................................. 2
Regulation.................................................................................................................................. 3
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) ............................................................... 3
Controlled Substances Act (CSA) ....................................................................................... 6
Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act ............................................ 7
Secure and Responsible Drug Disposal Act of 2010 .................................................... 8
Law Enforcement .................................................................................................................... 10
Health ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Current Approaches Aimed at Reducing Prescription Drug Abuse ............................................... 11
Scheduling of PCS ................................................................................................................... 12
Safe Storage and Disposal ....................................................................................................... 13
Safe Storage: Security Requirements ................................................................................ 13
Safe Disposal: DEA Drug Take Back ................................................................................ 14
Focusing Law Enforcement Efforts ......................................................................................... 15
Using Data to Identify Risk ..................................................................................................... 16
Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs (PDMPs) ........................................................... 16
Other Data Sources............................................................................................................ 16
Awareness and Education ........................................................................................................ 17
Treatment ................................................................................................................................. 18
Treatment of Underlying Conditions ................................................................................. 18
Treatment of Prescription Drug Abuse .............................................................................. 19
New Product Development ............................................................................................... 19
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 20
Congressional Research Service
Prescription Drug Abuse
Background
Prescription drug abuse has been described as an epidemic,1 with an estimated 6.8 million current
prescription drug abusers—including 4.9 million abusing prescription pain relievers. Among
those who report recently initiating illicit use of any drug, 26% report starting with illicit use of a
prescription drug. This represents approximately 2.4 million new prescription drug abusers each
year, or an average of 6,700 each day.2
Prescription Drug Abuse and Prescription Controlled Substances (PCS)
Prescription drug abuse is a commonly accepted term for a wide range of behaviors related to the use of prescription
medications with addictive potential—prescription control ed substances (PCS).
Prescription drug abuse is not limited to addiction; it includes, for example, taking a medication for the purpose of
getting high or taking a medication that was prescribed for someone else.3
PCS generally fall into three categories, although various sources use different categories or terms:4
•
Pain relievers (e.g., OxyContin®) may also be called painkillers, analgesics, or opioids.
•
Depressants (e.g., Xanax®) are used to treat conditions such as anxiety or insomnia; they may also be called
central nervous system (CNS) depressants, tranquilizers, sedatives, or benzodiazepines;
•
Stimulants (e.g., Ritalin®) are used to treat conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD);
they may also be called amphetamine-like drugs.
Prescription drug abuse can have far-reaching effects, including (but not limited to) health effects.
Each year nearly 15,000 overdose deaths are attributed to prescription pain relievers—more than
heroin and cocaine combined. For each overdose death, prescription pain relievers are linked to
an estimated 10 addiction treatment admissions and 32 emergency department visits.5
1 See for example White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), Epidemic: Responding to America’s
Prescription Drug Abuse Crisis, 2011; and Trust for America’s Health, Prescription Drug Abuse: Strategies to Stop the
Epidemic, Washington, DC, October 2013.
2 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
(SAMHSA), Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings, NSDUH
Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795, Rockville, MD, 2013. (Hereinafter, NSDUH 2012.) See Table 1.1A
– Types of Illicit Drug Use in Lifetime, Past Year, and Past Month among Persons Aged 12 or Older: Numbers in
Thousands, 2011 and 2012. NSDUH does not use the term “prescription drug abuse” but refers to non-medical use of
prescription-type drugs. The term “prescription-type drugs” refers to both prescription medications and drugs “that
originally were prescription medications but currently may be manufactured and distributed illegally [(e.g.,
methamphetamine)]” (p. 13). NSDUH asks survey respondents to report only non-medical drug use, defined as “use
without a prescription of the individual’s own or simply for the experience or feeling the drugs caused” (p. 13).
NSDUH defines recent or past-year initiates as “those who reported use of a particular substance for the first time
within 12 months preceding the date of interview” (pp. 51, 58).
3 Such behaviors are variously described as illicit use, non-medical use, or misuse, among other terms. See for example
the terms used in (1) American College of Preventive Medicine, Use, Abuse, Misuse & Disposal of Prescription Pain
Medication: Clinical Reference, Washington, DC, 2011; and (2) Federation of State Medical Boards, Model Policy on
the Use of Opioid Analgesics in the Treatment of Chronic Pain, July 2013, pp. 15-18.
4 See for example the terms used in (1) HHS, National Institutes of Health (NIH), National Institute on Drug Abuse
(NIDA), Prescription Drugs: Abuse and Addiction, Research Report Series, NIH Publication Number 11-4881, revised
October 2011; and (2) HHS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Policy Impact: Prescription Painkiller
Overdoses, November 2011.
5 HHS, CDC, Drug Overdose, http://www.cdc.gov/homeandrecreationalsafety/overdose. See in particular Vital Signs:
Prescription Painkiller Overdoses in the U.S. and Policy Impact: Prescription Painkiller Overdoses.
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Federal policy on PCS aims to balance the need to limit abuse of PCS with the need to maintain
access to PCS for legitimate medical use. The federal government’s approach to addressing
prescription drug abuse has increasingly relied on coordination across agencies, including both
law enforcement and health agencies.
This report is organized in two parts: (1) federal roles in reducing prescription drug abuse and (2)
current approaches aimed at reducing prescription drug abuse. Federal roles include coordination
across agencies; regulation of drugs; law enforcement activities; and health services, financing,
and research. Approaches to reducing prescription drug abuse include scheduling of PCS; safe
storage and disposal; enhancing law enforcement; using data to identify risk; awareness and
education; and treatment.
Federal Roles in Reducing Prescription Drug Abuse
The federal government works to reduce prescription drug abuse in a variety of roles, including
coordination across agencies; regulation of drugs; law enforcement activities; and health services,
financing, and research.6 This section provides an overview of these roles, along with references
to other CRS reports that address some of these roles in more detail.7
Coordination
Multiple federal agencies participate in the mission to reduce prescription drug abuse—the White
House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) coordinates and tracks these agencies’
efforts and related federal funding. In 2011 ONDCP released its prescription drug abuse
prevention plan, Epidemic: Responding to America’s Prescription Drug Abuse Crisis, which
outlines how the federal government intends to address prescription drug abuse.
These coordinated efforts involve (1) educating parents, youth, patients, and health care
providers; (2) tracking and monitoring of prescribing activity; (3) developing prescription drug
disposal regulations and programs; and (4) taking enforcement action against pain clinics and
prescribers who improperly prescribe and dispense narcotics. A number of federal agencies are
directly involved in these efforts, including the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA); in addition, the federal
government financially supports some state prescription drug abuse prevention efforts. State
efforts include the operation of prescription drug monitoring programs and participation in drug
task forces.8
6 The federal government may be involved in efforts to reduce prescription drug abuse in other ways, as many federal
agencies engage in activities related to reducing drug abuse in general (not limited to prescription drug abuse).
7 The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) tracks federal agencies’ drug-related activities
and spending, including but not limited to activities and spending on prescription drug abuse. See Office of National
Drug Control Policy, http://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp.
8 For more information on coordination of federal efforts to reduce prescription drug abuse, see Office of National
Drug Control Policy, Epidemic: Responding to America’s Prescription Drug Abuse Crisis, 2011. For activities within
the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), see HHS, Behavioral Health Coordinating Committee,
Prescription Drug Abuse Subcommittee, Addressing Prescription Drug Abuse in the United States: Current Activities
and Future Opportunities, Washington, DC, 2013.
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For more information about ONDCP, see CRS Report R41535, Reauthorizing the Office of
National Drug Control Policy: Issues for Consideration, by Lisa N. Sacco and Kristin Finklea.
Regulation
The primary federal statutes governing the regulation of prescription drugs are the Federal Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA)9 and the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control
Act of 1970, commonly referred to as the Controlled Substances Act (CSA).10
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA)
The FFDCA gives the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) responsibility for ensuring the safety
and effectiveness of prescription and nonprescription drugs sold in the United States, among other
things. An agency within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), FDA regulates
the full life-cycle of a drug product, starting with initial clinical trials (and sometimes before
that), through the approval process, and then for as long as the product remains on the U.S.
market. FDA activities that apply to all drugs—such as drug approval, labeling, and postapproval
surveillance—can be tailored to the challenges of regulating PCS, where the risk of addiction
may pose a safety concern. Other FDA activities—namely the work of the Controlled Substances
Staff—are focused specifically on curbing prescription drug abuse. (See text box.)
FDA’s Controlled Substances Staff
FDA has a unit specializing in controlled substances within the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Among
other responsibilities, the Controlled Substances Staff
•
recommends drug scheduling actions for HHS to submit to DEA under the Control ed Substances Act, based on
analyses of the scientific and medical aspects of a drug’s risk of abuse and dependence;
•
provides annual estimates of the amounts of specific controlled substances that will be needed for medical and
scientific use, which DEA uses in setting annual manufacturing quotas for control ed substances;
•
represents FDA in relevant activities with other federal offices, including DEA, ONDCP, SAMHSA, and the
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA);
•
makes recommendations regarding abuse liability and possible risk management requirements during the pre-
approval review process (using data from SAMHSA, NIDA, DEA, and FDA surveillance programs); and
•
continues to advise other FDA offices on scheduling, labeling, and risk management programs after drugs are
approved for marketing.11
FDA reviews each new drug application12 submitted by a drug manufacturer13 with three major
concerns: (1) safety and effectiveness in the drug’s proposed use; (2) appropriateness of the
9 21 U.S.C. §§301 et seq.
10 21 U.S.C. §§801 et seq.
11 HHS, FDA, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), Manual of Policies & Procedures (MAPP). See in
particular MAPP 4200.1: Consulting the Controlled Substance Staff on INDs and Protocols That Use Schedule I
Controlled Substances and Drugs; MAPP 4200.3: Consulting the Controlled Substance Staff on Abuse Liability, Drug
Dependence, Risk Management, and Drug Scheduling; and MAPP 4200.4: Office of Generic Drugs (OGD)
Consultation with the Controlled Substance Staff (CSS) on Subject Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA)
Submissions. See also HHS, FDA, “Controlled Substance Staff Functional Roles.”
12 By submitting a new drug application (NDA), a manufacturer requests permission to market a new drug, one whose
active ingredient, or dosage form, or intended use has not yet been reviewed and approved by FDA. The NDA includes
(continued...)
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proposed labeling; and (3) adequacy of manufacturing methods to ensure the drug’s identity,
strength, quality, and purity.14 Reviewers can consider abuse potential (and possibly deterrence
characteristics) within any of these elements. FDA approval of a drug for marketing may include
specific conditions, such as restrictions on distribution, labeling disclosures, or postapproval
studies that the manufacturer must conduct after marketing begins.
FDA may require a risk evaluation and mitigation strategy (REMS) under specified conditions—
including if it determines such a strategy is necessary to ensure that the benefits of a drug (e.g.,
pain relief) outweigh its risks (e.g., potential for abuse).15 A REMS may include drug safety
information for patients and health care providers, as well as elements to assure safe use
(ETASU). An ETASU is a restriction on distribution or use that is intended to (1) allow access to
those who could benefit from the drug while minimizing their risk of adverse events, and (2)
block access to those for whom the potential harm would outweigh potential benefit. By
including these restrictions, FDA can approve a drug that it otherwise would have to keep off the
market because of the risk it would pose.16
As part of the approval process, FDA reviews the manufacturer’s labeling, which must begin with
a highlights section that includes, if appropriate, black-box warnings (so called because they are
bordered in black to signify their importance).17 Regulations specify other required elements of
labeling, including risk of drug abuse and dependence.18 The Food and Drug Administration
Amendments Act of 2007 (FDAAA)19 added authority for the agency to require a labeling change
upon learning of new relevant safety information.20 In September 2013, FDA announced that it
(...continued)
the results of clinical trials, information about the manufacturing process and facilities, labeling information, and a
proposed risk evaluation and mitigation strategy (REMS), if appropriate. After an innovator drug (brand-name new
drug) has run through its patent and other market exclusivity periods, manufacturers may submit abbreviated NDAs
(ANDAs) to request permission to market generic versions of the innovator drug.
13 The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) refers to the sponsor of an application or the holder of an
approved application. Because that entity is often the product’s manufacturer or its employee, this report uses the term
manufacturer throughout. Note that the manufacturer may also be the responsible person, for purposes of enforcement.
14 FDA, “New Drug Application (NDA): Introduction.”
15 FFDCA §505-1 [21 U.S.C. §355-1]. For further discussion of REMS, including ETASU, see CRS Report R41983,
How FDA Approves Drugs and Regulates Their Safety and Effectiveness, by Susan Thaul.
16 FDA may require a REMS when a manufacturer submits a new drug application, after initial approval or licensing,
when a manufacturer presents a new indication or other change, or when the agency becomes aware of new information
and determines a REMS is necessary. A REMS may apply to individual drugs or all drugs in a defined class (e.g., long-
acting and extended-release opioid products). See HHS, FDA, “Approved Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies
(REMS)”; HHS, FDA, “Opioid Drugs and Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS)”; and HHS, FDA,
“Questions and Answers: FDA Requires a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) for Long-Acting and
Extended-Release Opioids.”
17 “Boxed warning. Certain contraindications or serious warnings, particularly those that may lead to death or serious
injury, may be required by the FDA to be presented in a box” (21 C.F.R. §201.57(c)(1)).
18 21 C.F.R. §201.56(d). Additional requirements include indications and usage, dosage and administration, dosage
forms and strengths, contraindications, warnings and precautions, adverse reactions, drug interactions, use in specific
populations, overdosage, clinical pharmacology, nonclinical toxicology, clinical studies, references, how
supplied/storage and handling, and patient counseling information. For older drugs, labeling content requirements are
listed in 21 C.F.R. §201.56(e).
19 P.L. 110-85.
20 FFDCA §505(o) [21 U.S.C. §355].
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would use that new authority to require changes to the labeling of extended-release and long-
acting opioids used to treat pain.21
FDA postmarket drug safety and effectiveness activities address aspects of drug production,
distribution, and use. In addition to REMS and labeling requirements, FDA addresses product
integrity and supply chain security, adverse event reporting, surveillance (including the Sentinel
program), information dissemination, off-label use, direct-to-consumer advertising, and
postmarket studies. The Secretary may require a study or a clinical trial involving a drug that is
already on the market based on newly available information.22 In September 2013, FDA
announced several studies it was directing the manufacturers of extended-release or long-acting
opioid analgesic drugs to conduct.23
FDA has a task force focused on combatting abuse of opioid pain relievers at various points
throughout the drug life cycle described above.24 (See text box.)
FDA Task Force Target Areas
•
Drug Development: workshops and public meetings to improve understanding of basic science and to develop
abuse-deterrent formulations
•
Opioid Labeling: meetings of an advisory committee and (separately) scientific experts and the public
•
Prescriber Education: outreach and collaboration, REMS, labeling
•
Patient Education: REMS, Medication Guides, safe disposal, and partnerships with not-for-profit campaigns and
councils
•
Exploring Innovative Packaging/Storage to Prevent Abuse: medication dispensing systems
•
Encouraging the Development of Products that Treat Abuse and Overdose: public meeting regarding
new formulations of naloxone (a medication that can reverse the effects of an opioid overdose) for use in non-
medical settings
•
Role of Other Agencies: engaging federal, state, and local agencies, as well as health care professionals,
patients, and addiction/pain specialists
For more information about FDA’s role in drug safety and effectiveness—not limited to PCS—
see CRS Report R41983, How FDA Approves Drugs and Regulates Their Safety and
Effectiveness, by Susan Thaul.
21 HHS, FDA, “FDA announces safety labeling changes and post-market study requirements for extended-release and
long-acting opioid analgesics,” FDA News Release, September 10, 2013. Changes to the Indications and Usage
section: from “for the management of moderate to severe pain when a continuous, around-the-clock opioid analgesic is
needed for an extended period of time” to “for the management of pain severe enough to require daily, around-the-
clock, long-term opioid treatment and for which alternative treatment options are inadequate” (emphasis added). An
example of FDA-approved labeling for opioid products is OxyContin® (oxycodone hydrochloride controlled-release)
Tablets, for oral use, CII, Initial U.S. Approval: 1950, label approved April 16, 2013.
22 FDAAA added this authority, codified as FFDCA §505(o).
23 HHS, FDA, “ER/LA Opioid Analgesic Class Labeling Changes and Postmarket Requirements,” letter template to
ER/LA opioid application holders, signed by Bob Rappaport, M.D., Director, Division of Anesthesia, Analgesia, and
Addiction Products), linked to September 10, 2013 press release (“FDA announces safety labeling changes and
postmarket study requirements for extended-release and long-acting opioid analgesics,” FDA News Release, September
10, 2013).
24 HHS, FDA, “FDA’s Efforts to Address the Misuse and Abuse of Opioids,” February 6, 2013.
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Controlled Substances Act (CSA)
The CSA is designed to regulate and facilitate the use of controlled substances for legitimate
medical, scientific, research, and industrial purposes and to prevent these substances from being
diverted for illegal purposes.25 Most prescription drugs are not controlled substances and
therefore are not regulated under the CSA.26 However, some prescription drugs—in particular
those most susceptible to abuse such as powerful pain relievers27—come within the purview of
the CSA because they have a greater potential for abuse than other prescription drugs and may
lead to physical and psychological dependence.
The CSA assigns various plants, drugs, and chemicals to one of five schedules, ranging from
Schedule I, which contains substances that have no currently accepted medical use in treatment
and cannot safely be made available under prescription (such as heroin), to Schedules II, III, IV,
and V, which include substances that have recognized medical uses and may be manufactured,
distributed, and used in accordance with the CSA.28 The order of the schedules reflects substances
that are progressively less dangerous and addictive. Schedule II includes the drugs morphine,
codeine, OxyContin®, and Ritalin®. Schedule III includes Vicodin® and anabolic steroids, while
Schedule IV includes Xanax® and Valium®. Schedule V includes, among other things, cough
medicines that contain a limited amount of codeine (Robitussin AC®).29
The CSA and its implementing regulations contain several provisions that specifically regulate
the acts of prescribing and dispensing controlled substances. For example, it is unlawful for any
person to prescribe or dispense controlled substances without having a current, valid DEA
registration.30 No controlled substance that is a prescription drug (as determined under §503(b) of
the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act) assigned to Schedules II, III, IV, and V of the CSA
may be dispensed without a prescription.31 A prescription for a controlled substance may be
issued only for a “legitimate medical purpose” by a physician “acting in the usual course of his
professional practice.”32 The CSA authorizes the DEA Administrator to suspend or revoke a
physician’s prescription privileges upon a finding that the physician has “committed such acts as
would render his registration ... inconsistent with the public interest.”33
25 The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, commonly referred to as the Controlled
Substances Act (CSA), is codified at 21 U.S.C. §§801 et seq.
26 DEA has estimated that between 10-11% of all drug prescriptions written in the United States are for PCS.
Dispensing of Controlled Substances to Residents at Long Term Care Facilities, 75 Fed. Reg. 37,465 (June 29, 2010).
27 Generation Rx: The Abuse of Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drugs: Hearing Before the S. Comm. On the
Judiciary, 110th Cong. (2008) (statement of Dr. Leonard J. Paulozzi, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).
28 See 21 U.S.C. §812. The list of controlled substances may be found in 21 C.F.R. §1308.11-15.
29 U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Office of Diversion Control,
Practitioner’s Manual: An Informational Outline of the Controlled Substances Act, 2006, pp. 5-6.
30 21 U.S.C. §§822, 841(a)(1).
31 21 U.S.C. §829. As indicated earlier, substances in Schedule I have no currently accepted medical use in treatment in
the United States, a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision, and a high potential for abuse. Thus,
such substances may not be the subject of a valid prescription under federal law.
32 21 C.F.R. §1306.04(a); United States v. Moore, 423 U.S. 122 (1975).
33 21 U.S.C. §824(a)(4); 21 C.F.R. §1301.36.
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The CSA aims to reduce the potential diversion of PCS out of legitimate distribution channels by
imposing specific obligations on the following participants in the prescription drug delivery and
supply chain:34
• Wholesale distributors of controlled substances who supply pharmacies with
their drug inventories must proactively monitor and report to DEA any
“suspicious orders of controlled substances.”35
• Physicians must abide by the federal regulatory requirement to write a controlled
substance prescription only “for a legitimate medical purpose” and “in the usual
course of [their] professional practice.”36
• Pharmacists are responsible for verifying the validity of prescriptions37 before
dispensing38 controlled substance medication to patients (referred to as “ultimate
users” under the CSA).
For more information about the CSA—not limited to PCS—see CRS Report RL34635, The
Controlled Substances Act: Regulatory Requirements, by Brian T. Yeh, and CRS Report R40548,
Legal Issues Relating to the Disposal of Dispensed Controlled Substances, by Brian T. Yeh.
Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act
Although many online pharmacies are legitimate businesses that offer safe and convenient
services similar to those provided by traditional neighborhood pharmacies and large chain
drugstores, other online pharmacies—often referred to as “rogue sites”—engage in practices that
are illegal, such as selling unapproved or counterfeit drugs or dispensing drugs without a
prescription.39 These rogue sites are often difficult for law enforcement to shut down because they
“have an extremely high turnover and may attempt to avoid detection by changing their Web
names and addresses.”40 They also often employ fake logos of government agencies or
professional associations that make them appear to be legitimate or otherwise sanctioned by
law.41
In response to the problem of these rogue Internet websites that illegally sell and dispense PCS in
violation of the CSA, the 110th Congress passed the Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer
Protection Act of 200842 (hereinafter called “Ryan Haight Act”), which amended the CSA to
34 Responding to the Prescription Drug Abuse Epidemic: Hearing Before the Caucus on International Narcotics
Control, U.S. Senate, 112th Cong. (2012) (statement of Joseph T. Rannazzisi, DEA).
35 21 C.F.R. §1301.74.
36 21 C.F.R. §1306.04(a); United States v. Moore, 423 U.S. 122 (1975).
37 21 C.F.R. §1306.04(a).
38 The CSA defines “dispense” to mean “to deliver a controlled substance to an ultimate user or research subject by, or
pursuant to the lawful order of, a practitioner, including the prescribing and administering of a controlled substance and
the packaging, labeling or compounding necessary to prepare the substance for such delivery.” 21 U.S.C. §802 (10).
39 Government Accountability Office, Internet Pharmacies: Federal Agencies and States Face Challenges Combating
Rogue Sites, Particularly Those Abroad (GAO-13-560, July 2013), at 1.
40 Nat’l Ctr. on Addiction & Substance Abuse at Columbia Univ., “You’ve Got Drugs!” V: Prescription Drug Pushers
on the Internet, July 2008, at 9.
41 Ibid. at 10.
42 P.L. 110-425.
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expressly regulate online pharmacies. The Ryan Haight Act added a new provision to the CSA
that prohibits the delivery, distribution, or dispensing of controlled substances over the Internet
without a “valid prescription.”43 Only with respect to this new subsection of the CSA, a “valid
prescription” is statutorily defined to mean a prescription that is issued for a legitimate medical
purpose in the usual course of professional practice, by a practitioner who has conducted at least
one medical evaluation of the patient in the physical presence of the practitioner.44 Although the
Ryan Haight Act does not apply to the Internet sale of non-controlled pharmaceutical drugs,45 the
vast majority of prescriptions sold by an online pharmacy involve controlled substances.46
Under the Ryan Haight Act, pharmacies must be authorized by the DEA to deliver, distribute, or
dispense controlled substances by means of the Internet.47 A registered online pharmacy must
report to the DEA Administrator the total quantity of each controlled substance that the pharmacy
has dispensed each month.48 In addition, online pharmacies must clearly display on their website
homepage a statement that they comply with federal and state law concerning the delivery or sale
of controlled substances, as well as post certain disclosure information such as the name and
address of the pharmacy (as it appears on the pharmacy’s DEA registration certificate), the
pharmacy’s telephone number and email address, a list of states in which the pharmacy is licensed
to dispense controlled substance, and the identification and contact information of the pharmacist-
in-charge.
Finally, the Ryan Haight Act amended the CSA to authorize a state attorney general to bring a
civil action in federal court against an online pharmacy for violations of the Ryan Haight Act, in
order to stop the illegal conduct, enforce compliance with the law, or obtain damages, restitution,
or other compensation that a court finds appropriate.49
Secure and Responsible Drug Disposal Act of 2010
A possible approach to addressing the prescription drug abuse problem is to reduce the
accessibility and availability of unused medications that accumulate in household medicine
cabinets.50 Patients may want to get rid of their expired or unused drugs by giving them back to
pharmacies or to their prescribing physicians. Yet, when Congress originally drafted the CSA, “it
43 21 U.S.C. §829(e).
44 Ibid. The Ryan Haight Act provides exemptions from the in-person evaluation requirement under certain
circumstances in which an evaluation has been conducted via telemedicine.
45 154 CONG. REC. S10,185 (daily ed. Sept. 30, 2008) (statement of Sen. Feinstein)(“The [Ryan Haight Act] does not
address the delivery, distribution, or dispensing of any noncontrolled substance by the Internet or any other means. This
bill does not infringe upon the powers of the Department of Health and Human Services and its Secretary with respect
to noncontrolled substances. Nor does it infringe upon the traditional power of the States to regulate the practices of
medicine and pharmacy with respect to the prescription of noncontrolled substances.”).
46 Online Pharmacies and the Problem of Internet Drug Abuse: Hearing Before the Subcomm. on Crime, Terrorism,
and Homeland Security of the H. Comm. on the Judiciary, 110th Cong. 4 (2008) (statement of Joseph T. Rannazzisi,
DEA).
47 21 U.S.C. §823(f).
48 21 U.S.C. §827(d)(2). However, pharmacies are exempt from such reporting requirement if they do not exceed in a
given month either of two thresholds: (1) 100 or more prescriptions dispensed, or (2) 5,000 or more dosage units of all
controlled substances combined. Ibid.
49 21 U.S.C. §882(c).
50 155 CONG. REC. E386 (daily ed. February 25, 2009) (statement of Rep. Jay Inslee) (“Family medicine cabinets all
across America have turned into the drug dealers of today”).
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did not account for circumstances in which controlled substances were lawfully dispensed to and
possessed by an ultimate user but not fully used.”51 Thus, as originally enacted the CSA
prohibited patients from transferring their unwanted, unused, or expired PCS to any another entity
for disposal purposes, unless local law enforcement had obtained a waiver from DEA to take
custody of the unused controlled substances from patients and destroy them.52
To make it easier and more convenient for patients to dispose of unwanted controlled substances,
the 111th Congress enacted the Secure and Responsible Drug Disposal Act of 2010 (hereinafter
called “Disposal Act”),53 which amended the CSA to allow a patient to deliver controlled
substances to an entity that is authorized by federal law to dispose of them, providing that such
disposal occurs in accordance with regulations issued by the Attorney General to prevent
diversion of controlled substances. DEA has not yet finalized these implementing regulations as
of the date of this report.54 The proposed regulation, published in the Federal Register in
December 2012, would expand the options available to patients for safe and secure disposal of
their unwanted controlled substance medication, specifically allowing for organized take-back
events, voluntary mail-back programs, and special collection receptacles to be located at retail
pharmacies and local law enforcement agencies.55
DEA proposes to allow three options for patient disposal of controlled substances. The first
option is for local law enforcement agencies to conduct periodic drug “take-back” events; private
entities or community groups may also partner with law enforcement to hold community take-
back events.56 Second, DEA-registered manufacturers, distributors, or retail pharmacies that wish
to become collectors of unwanted controlled substances for disposal purposes must seek
authorization from DEA to do so (the proposed rule refers to these entities as “authorized
collectors”). Authorized collectors may then conduct “mail-back” programs that utilize the mail
system for convenient transfer of the unwanted controlled substances, although the physical
packages in which the drugs are placed must comply with certain requirements that DEA has
specified.57 The third option would permit local law enforcement agencies or authorized
collectors to manage, maintain, and empty secure collection receptacles at their DEA registered
location.58 The proposed rule provides requirements that collectors must follow regarding
methods of destroying controlled substances, destruction procedures, and the creation and
maintenance of records that document the destruction.59
Until these regulations are finalized, however, patients may not give back their prescribed
controlled substances to any entity for disposal purposes unless they surrender the drugs to law
51 Disposal of Controlled Substances, 77 Fed. Reg. 75,784, 75,786 (proposed December 21, 2012).
52 Disposal of Controlled Substances by Persons Not Registered With the Drug Enforcement Administration, 74 Fed.
Reg. 3480, 3483 (January 21, 2009); Drug Waste and Disposal: When Prescriptions Become Poison: Hearing Before
the Senate Special Comm. on Aging, 111th Cong., 2nd sess. (2010) (statement of Director Kerlikowske, at 6).
53 P.L. 111-273.
54 See Regulations.gov, Disposal of Controlled Substances: Docket Folder Summary (Docket ID: DEA-2012-0008), at
http://www.regulations.gov/#!docketDetail;D=DEA-2012-0008.
55 Disposal of Controlled Substances, 77 Fed. Reg. 75,784 (proposed December 21, 2012).
56 Ibid. at 75,815, proposing to add new 21 C.F.R. §1317.65(a).
57 Ibid. at 75,816, proposing to add new 21 C.F.R. §1317.70(a).
58 Ibid. at 75,816, proposing to add new 21 C.F.R. §1317.75(a).
59 Ibid. at 75,816, proposing to add new 21 C.F.R. §§1317.90-100.
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enforcement or under the direction of the DEA Special Agent in Charge in the area in which they
are located.
Law Enforcement
Prescription drug abuse presents unique challenges to law enforcement because unlike illicit
substances such as heroin, prescription drugs are often initially obtained through lawful channels
and subsequently diverted from their lawful purpose. Federal law enforcement, primarily DEA,
aims to prevent, detect, and investigate the diversion of prescription drugs while regulating the
supply for legitimate medical, commercial, and scientific purposes.60 State governments, law
enforcement agencies, and health departments also engage in diversion control efforts through the
development and operation of prescription drug monitoring programs (PDMPs) among other
activities.61
DEA directly engages in diversion control. The mission of DEA’s Office of Diversion Control is
“to prevent, detect, and investigate the diversion of controlled pharmaceuticals and listed
chemicals from legitimate sources while ensuring an adequate and uninterrupted supply for
legitimate medical, commercial, and scientific needs.”62 In addition to diversion control activities,
such as sponsoring National Prescription Drug Take-Back Days,63 the Office of Diversion Control
also oversees registrations for those who seek to manufacture, import, export, sell, or dispense
narcotics.64 DEA actions generally focus on doctors prescribing PCS or traffickers of PCS (rather
than individuals using PCS); DEA lists 31 administrative actions against registrants (primarily
doctors) in CY2013 and maintains a multi-year list of criminal cases against doctors.65
60 DEA enforces the provisions of the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. §§801 et seq); the framework through
which the federal government regulates the use of controlled substances for legitimate medical, commercial, and
scientific purposes.
61 Other actions taken by state law enforcement include participation in the High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area
(HIDTA) Program and other enforcement activity to address doctor shopping and pill mills.
62 U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Office of Diversion Control, Program
Description..
63 See “Safe Disposal: DEA Drug Take Back” section of this CRS report.
64 In addition, this office oversees quota applications for drugs used in producing methamphetamine (i.e., ephedrine,
pseudoephedrine, and phenylpropanolamine). The Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 (CMEA; P.L.
109-177) established that the Attorney General must determine the total quantity and establish production quotas for
ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and phenylpropanolamine to be manufactured each calendar year. CMEA also prohibits
the importation of ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, or phenylpropanolamine, except in amounts the Attorney General
allows as necessary to provide for medical, scientific, or other legitimate purposes. The Assessment of Annual Needs
(AAN) establishes the quantities of ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and phenylpropanolamine that may be manufactured
domestically and/or imported into the United States to provide adequate supplies of each chemical for (1) the estimated
medical, scientific, research, and industrial needs of the United States, (2) lawful export requirements, and (3) the
establishment and maintenance of reserve stocks. The responsibility of developing and calculating the AAN was
delegated to the DEA Administrator, and the Administrator, in turn, delegated this function to the Deputy
Administrator. CMEA also requires behind-the-counter sales of ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and
phenylpropanolamine, among other restrictions.
65 DOJ, DEA, Office of Diversion Control, Cases Against Doctors, http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/
crim_admin_actions/.
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Health
Federal agencies and programs that provide health care services may prescribe PCS for
underlying conditions (e.g., pain, insomnia, or ADHD) and may treat patients for prescription
drug abuse or related problems (e.g., overdose or withdrawal). Relevant federal agencies include
the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), the Department of Defense (DOD), the Indian Health
Service (IHS) within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the Bureau of
Prisons (BOP) within Department of Justice (DOJ), and some smaller programs. Some agencies
that deliver health care services also finance health care services and conduct research.
Federal agencies and programs may also support health care services by providing grants,
reimbursing providers, or paying a portion of insurance premiums. In so doing, they may pay for
the treatment of underlying conditions, prescription drug abuse, or related problems. Relevant
federal programs include Medicare, the federal portion of Medicaid, grant programs within the
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) and other agencies, and
the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP).
Federal agencies and programs may also conduct or support research activities relevant to
prescription drug abuse, ranging from bench science conducted in laboratories to program
evaluations conducted in the field. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) conducts and funds
relevant research—primarily but not exclusively through the National Institute on Drug Abuse
(NIDA).66 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) conducts public health
surveillance (including, for example, deaths attributable to PCS overdoses) through the National
Center for Health Statistics and provides information about PCS overdose through the National
Center for Injury Prevention and Control.67 SAMHSA fields surveys about drug use that provide
national statistics68 and also maintains a National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and
Practices.69 FDA has required manufacturers of extended-release and long-acting opioid drugs to
conduct specific postmarket studies within designated time periods.70
Current Approaches Aimed at Reducing
Prescription Drug Abuse
The federal government, state and local governments, and various private entities (e.g.,
pharmacies) are currently undertaking a range of approaches to reducing prescription drug abuse.
Such approaches may focus on health care professionals, law enforcement, or current or potential
abusers.
66 HHS, NIH, NIDA, Drugs of Abuse: Prescription Drugs, http://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/prescription-drugs.
67 HHS, CDC, Saving Lives and Protecting People: Preventing Prescription Painkiller Overdoses, http://www.cdc.gov/
injury/about/focus-rx.html.
68 HHS, SAMHSA, National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), http://www.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH.aspx.
69 See http://www.nrepp.samhsa.gov/.
70 HHS, FDA, “ER/LA Opioid Analgesic Class Labeling Changes and Postmarket Requirements,” letter template to
ER/LA opioid application holders, signed by Bob Rappaport, M.D., Director, Division of Anesthesia, Analgesia, and
Addiction Products, linked to September 10, 2013 press release.
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Scheduling of PCS
The particular scheduling status of a PCS has several significant consequences: (1) it directly
affects patient access to the medication (in terms of the number of allowable refills and whether
prescriptions must be written or may be conveyed over the telephone by the physician to the
pharmacist); (2) it affects the degree of regulatory requirements that controlled substance handlers
(manufacturers, distributors, pharmacies, and physicians) must follow (such as security
restrictions and recordkeeping obligations); and (3) it determines the degree of criminal
punishment for illegal traffickers of the controlled substance.
The CSA and its implementing regulations offer limitations on the prescribing and dispensing of a
PCS that vary depending on the schedule in which the medication is placed. For example, no
controlled substance listed in Schedule II may be dispensed to a patient by a pharmacist without a
written prescription71 from a practitioner, except in certain cases where the practitioner
administers the controlled substance directly to the patient.72 However, controlled substances in
Schedules III-V may be dispensed by a pharmacy pursuant to either a written or oral prescription,
including a facsimile of a written prescription;73 these substances may also be administered or
dispensed directly by the practitioner in the course of his professional practice without a
prescription.74 Pharmacists are prohibited from refilling prescriptions for Schedule II
substances.75 Pharmacists may fill or refill prescriptions for controlled substances in Schedules III
and IV up to five times within six months after the date on which the prescription was issued,
unless the prescribing practitioner authorizes a renewal of the prescription.76
The schedule status of a PCS also determines the nature and extent of federal regulatory
requirements for lawful handlers of controlled substances. For example, manufacturers and
distributors are required to store Schedule I and II substances in electronically monitored safes,
steel cabinets, or vaults that meet or exceed certain specifications,77 while Schedule III, IV, or V
substances may be stored in less secure enclosures. They must also receive a special order form
from a purchaser prior to shipping Schedule I and II drugs.78 The form is preprinted by DEA with
the name and address of the purchaser, and the drugs must be shipped by the supplier filling the
order to the purchaser’s registered location.79 DEA further monitors the distribution of controlled
substances by requiring manufacturers and distributors of Schedule I and II drugs to file reports80
71 21 U.S.C. §829(a); see also 21 C.F.R. §1306.05 (manner of issuance of prescriptions for Schedule II controlled
substances). Written prescriptions include electronic prescriptions using applications that meet specified requirements.
72 21 U.S.C. §829(a); see also 21 C.F.R. §1306.11(b) (authorizing individual practitioners to administer or dispense
controlled substances directly to patients without prescription).
73 21 U.S.C. §829(b). If the prescription is made orally, the pharmacist must promptly reduce to writing all of the
information required to be in a prescription under 21 C.F.R. §1306.05, except for the signature of the practitioner. 21
C.F.R. §1306.21(a).
74 21 U.S.C. §829(b); 21 C.F.R. §1306.21(b).
75 21 U.S.C. §829(a) (“No prescription for a controlled substance in schedule II may be refilled.”).
76 21 U.S.C. §829(b); 21 C.F.R. §1306.22(a).
77 See 21 C.F.R. §§1301.72(a)(1)(i)-(iii) (specifications required for safes and steel cabinets storing Schedule I and II
drugs or substances); see also 21 C.F.R. §§1301.72(a)(2) and 1301.72(a)(3)(i)-(vi) (specifications required for vaults
storing Schedule I and II drugs or substances).
78 DEA Form 222 is only issued to customers who are properly registered with the DEA.
79 21 C.F.R. §1305.13(c).
80 21 C.F.R. §§1304.31 and 1304.32.
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on acquisition and distribution of controlled substances through the Automated Reports and
Consolidated Orders System (ARCOS).81 DEA also limits the quantity of Schedule I and II
controlled substances which may be produced in a given calendar year.82
Finally, the authorized criminal penalties and fines are greater for drug trafficking offenses
involving Schedule I and II substances than for those in the other schedules.
The CSA provides both legislative and administrative mechanisms for substances to be added to a
schedule; removed from the scheduling framework altogether; and rescheduled or transferred
from one schedule to another. Congress may change the scheduling status of a drug or substance
through legislation. For example, in the 113th Congress, legislation has been introduced that
would reschedule hydrocodone combination drugs (pain treatment medication such as Vicodin®,
Lortab®, and Lorcet®) from their current placement in Schedule III to Schedule II.83
DEA, HHS, or (by petition) any interested person may initiate federal rulemaking proceedings to
add, delete, or change the schedule of a drug or substance administratively.84 For example, DEA
in 2009 requested from HHS an evaluation and recommendation concerning whether to
reschedule hydrocodone combination products (HCPs) such as Vicodin® from Schedule III to
Schedule II. In December 2013, HHS recommended to DEA that HCPs should be reclassified to
the more restrictive schedule II.85 On February 27, 2014, DEA published a notice in the Federal
Register that sets in motion the formal rulemaking process to administratively reschedule HCPs.86
Safe Storage and Disposal
Safe storage and proper disposal of medication are viewed as ways to prevent the diversion of
prescription drugs.87 The federal government supports these prevention measures in several ways.
DEA regulations require all applicants and registrants to comply with strict storage requirements
for prescription medication. Also, as required under the Controlled Substances Act and DEA
regulations, registrants have several options for proper disposal of medication. Congress may
have an interest in monitoring the effectiveness of existing safe storage and disposal activities to
determine whether additional legislative action (e.g., changes in authorizations or funding) is
warranted.
Safe Storage: Security Requirements
For the purposes of ensuring the secure storage and distribution of controlled substances and
listed chemicals, all applicants and registrants must generally “provide effective controls and
81 21 C.F.R. §1304.33.
82 See 21 U.S.C. §§826(a)-(e) (general provisions regarding the establishment of production quotas for Schedule I and
II controlled substances).
83 See for example H.R. 1285 and S. 621.
84 21 U.S.C. §811(a).
85 DEA, DEA Publishes Proposal to Reschedule Hydrocodone, Feb. 27, 2014, at http://www.justice.gov/dea/divisions/
hq/2014/hq022714.shtml.
86 Schedules of Controlled Substances: Rescheduling of Hydrocodone Combination Products From Schedule III to
Schedule II, 79 Fed. Reg. 11037 (Feb. 27, 2014).
87 Office of National Drug Control Policy, Epidemic: Responding to America’s Prescription Drug Abuse Crisis, 2011.
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procedures to guard against theft and diversion of controlled substances.”88 DEA regulations
further require all applicants and registrants to substantially comply with specific security
standards for storage of controlled substances (and other specified chemicals).89 Applicants and
registrants must also be prepared to make adjustments to their security systems in the event that a
controlled substance is transferred to another schedule or removed from control under the CSA.90
DEA regulations also detail specific security requirements for the different types of applicants
and registrants. Non-practitioners (i.e., manufacturers, distributors, and narcotic treatment
programs) are required to store Schedule I and II substances in electronically monitored safes,
steel cabinets, or vaults that meet or exceed certain specifications.91 Licensed practitioners must
store controlled substances in a “securely locked, substantially constructed cabinet”92 and must
notify DEA of the theft or significant loss of any controlled substances within one business day of
discovering such loss or theft.93 Furthermore, all practitioners are prohibited from hiring
employees who have been convicted of a drug-related felony or who have had a DEA registration
denied or revoked.94 DEA regulations recommend that non-practitioners carefully screen
individuals before hiring them as employees, to ensure that job applicants do not have convictions
for crimes or have engaged in unauthorized use of controlled substances.95
Safe Disposal: DEA Drug Take Back
To assist citizens in proper disposal, DEA sponsors several different types of take-back programs,
including the following: permanent locations where unused prescription drugs are collected;
special one-day events in which patients can drop off unwanted drugs at pharmacies or hazardous
waste collection sites; and mail-in/ship-back programs.96
On April 26, 2014, DEA hosted the eighth National Prescription Drug Take-Back Day, during
which expired or unwanted medications were collected for proper disposal. Since the first take-
back event in September 2010, DEA and supporting state, local, and tribal law enforcement
agencies have collected 2,123 tons of prescription drugs from citizens who seek to safely dispose
of their medication.97
88 See 21 C.F.R. §1301.71 (general security requirements and standards for measuring compliance).
89 21 C.F.R. §1301.71(b) states: “Substantial compliance with the standards set forth in §§1301.72-1301.76 may be
deemed sufficient by the Administrator after evaluation of the overall security system and needs of the applicant or
registrant.” Section 1301.71(b) also sets forth a list of fifteen discretionary factors for Administrator to consider when
evaluating the overall security system of an applicant or registrant; see also 21 C.F.R. §1309.71(a)-(c) (general security
requirements for List I chemicals).
90 21 C.F.R. §1301.71(c).
91 See 21 C.F.R. §§1301.72(a)(1)(i)-(iii) (specifications required for safes and steel cabinets storing Schedule I and II
drugs or substances); see also 21 C.F.R. §§1301.72(a)(2) and 1301.72(a)(3)(i)-(vi) (specifications required for vaults
storing Schedule I and II drugs or substances).
92 See 21 C.F.R. §1301.75 (physical security controls for practitioners).
93 21 C.F.R. §1301.76(b).
94 21 C.F.R. §1301.76(a).
95 21 C.F.R. §1301.90.
96 Drug Waste and Disposal: When Prescriptions Become Poison: Hearing Before the Senate Special Comm. on Aging,
111th Cong., 2nd sess. (2010) (statement of Director Kerlikowske, at 6).
97 U.S Drug Enforcement Administration, DEA’s National Prescription Drug Take-Back Days Meet a Growing Need
for Americans, Press Release, May 8, 2014, http://www.justice.gov/dea/divisions/hq/2014/hq050814.shtml. For more
(continued...)
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Some local and state government agencies and grassroots organizations have established drug
disposal programs (often referred to as pharmaceutical “take-back” programs) to facilitate the
collection of unused, unwanted, or expired medications for incineration or other methods of
destruction that comply with federal and state laws and regulations, including those relating to
public health and the environment.98
Focusing Law Enforcement Efforts
Federal law enforcement efforts to combat prescription drug abuse may focus on specific
geographic regions or on specific types of drugs, depending on how priorities are established.
ONDCP analyzes geographic patterns of drug trafficking in High Intensity Drug Trafficking
Areas (HIDTA).99 For example, a 2011 drug market analysis of the Rocky Mountain HIDTA100
shows that abuse of illegally diverted prescription drugs is “very high” in the region, and
additionally this area has experienced increased overdose deaths.101 Using drug trafficking
metrics is more consistent with federal law enforcement’s emphasis on traffickers and prescribers
than, for example, using drug abuse metrics. While geographic patterns of prescription drug abuse
are available for analysis,102 the extent to which traffickers and prescribers are located in
proximity to the individuals abusing prescription drugs is unclear.
Within the HIDTA Program, ONDCP funds the National Methamphetamine & Pharmaceuticals
Initiative (NMPI), which targets specific types of drugs and chemicals. In addition to reducing the
availability of methamphetamine and its precursor chemicals, NMPI aims “to reduce
pharmaceutical drug crimes by utilizing best practices for investigations and intelligence
collection and analysis.”103 NMPI strategic priorities that support prescription drug abuse
prevention include
[e]ffective pharmaceutical drug monitoring programs;
[t]raining to federal, state, local, and tribal personnel on methamphetamine and
pharmaceutical drug crimes, trends, drug-endangered children, and best practice solutions;
and
(...continued)
information about the National Take-Back Initiative, see U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement
Administration, Office of Diversion Control, National Take-Back Initiative, http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/
drug_disposal/takeback/index.html.
98 For a survey of these programs, see Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant College Program, Unwanted Medicine Take-back
Programs: Case Studies, April 2, 2009, available at http://www.iisgcp.org/UnwantedMeds/toolkit/2.0CaseStudies.pdf.
99 The HIDTA program, originally authorized by the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 (P.L. 100-690), provides assistance
to federal, state, and local law enforcement operating in areas deemed as most-impacted by drug trafficking. The
ONDCP director has the authority to designate areas within the United States that are centers of illegal drug production,
manufacturing, importation, or distribution as HIDTAs—of which there are currently 28.
100 The Rocky Mountain HIDTA region consists of 34 counties in Colorado, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming.
101 U.S. Department of Justice, National Drug Intelligence Center, Rocky Mountain High Intensity Drug Trafficking
Area, Drug Market Analysis 2011, September 2011, p. 11.
102 In 2012, for example, 25.1% of the population in the West reported abusing prescription drugs in their lifetime as
compared to 20.9% of the national population reporting this behavior. NSDUH 2012. The NSUDH refers to
nonmedical use of prescription-type psychotherapeutics rather than prescription drug abuse.
103 Office of National Drug Control Policy, HIDTA Initiatives, http://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp/hidta-initiatives.
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[e]nhance parcel interdiction and investigations.104
As part of this initiative, ONDCP also monitors pharmacy robberies, which may help identify
trends in PCS diversion.105
Using Data to Identify Risk
Various data sources may support analyses that can identify high-risk behavior indicating
potential PCS diversion and abuse among prescribers, dispensers, patients, and others.
Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs (PDMPs)
Prescription drug monitoring programs (PDMPs) maintain statewide electronic databases of
prescriptions dispensed for PCS. Analysis of information collected by PDMPs may help identify
potential PCS diversion and abuse. Law enforcement uses of PDMP data include (but are not
limited to) investigations of physicians who prescribe controlled substances for drug dealers or
abusers, pharmacists who falsify records in order to sell controlled substances, and people who
forge prescriptions.106 Public health uses of PDMP data include (but are not limited to) preventing
dangerous combinations of medications when physicians check a patient’s PDMP record prior to
prescribing a PCS or other medication. Congress appropriates funds to support state PDMPs
through DOJ-administered grants—and previously through HHS-administered grants as well.
For more information about PDMPs, see CRS Report R42593, Prescription Drug Monitoring
Programs, by Kristin Finklea, Lisa N. Sacco, and Erin Bagalman.
Other Data Sources
In addition to PDMPs, which were designed specifically to track PCS, various public and private
entities have data potentially related to prescription drug abuse. For example, New York City’s
RxStat program combines multiple sources of health and crime data (including PDMP data) with
sophisticated analytics to help target efforts to reduce prescription drug abuse.107 At the federal
level, FDA (along with public and private partners) is building a national system of health care
104 Ibid.
105 U.S. Department of Justice, Community Oriented Policing Services, ONDCP Working with Partners to Address
Pharmacy Robberies and Rx Drug Abuse, Statement by Gil Kerlikowske, Community Policing Dispatch, Volume 5,
Issue 4, April 2012. For data on pharmacy robberies, see Jeff Browning, “Drug Theft Prevention,” presentation at
Pharmacy Diversion Awareness Conference, Albuquerque, NM, March 2-3, 2013.
106 DOJ, DEA, Office of Diversion Control. Of note, DEA is not involved with the administration of any state PDMP.
In February 2014, the U.S. District Court for the District of Oregon became the first court to rule that law enforcement
agencies must obtain a search warrant to gain access to confidential prescription drug records from a state PDMP.
Because prescription records are entitled to a heighted expectation of privacy, the federal court found that the DEA’s
use of its administrative subpoena power (under 21 U.S.C. §876) to obtain the records violates the Fourth
Amendment’s protection against “unreasonable searches and seizures.” Oregon Prescription Drug Monitoring Program
v. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, No. 3:12-cv-02023 (D. Or. Feb. 11, 2014).
107 Mayor’s Task Force on Prescription Painkiller Abuse, Interim Report, New York, NY, January 2013; Mayor’s Task
Force on Prescription Painkiller Abuse, RxStat: Opioid Analgesic Use and Misuse in New York City, New York, NY,
September 2013; and “RxStat Program: Pooling Data to Impact New York City’s Prescription Problem,” presentation
at Bureau of Justice Assistance Harold Rogers Prescription Drug Monitoring Program National Meeting, Washington,
DC, September 25, 2013.
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databases that FDA can search for adverse events possibly associated with its regulated
products—including PCS.108
Medicare, Medicaid, and private health insurers have data about the medical care for which they
pay. Analyses similar to those used to detect potential fraud may be applied to identify behavior
potentially contributing to prescription drug abuse. For example, Iowa’s Medicaid program refers
members who receive prescriptions from multiple pharmacies or multiple prescribers (among
other possible criteria) to a “lock-in” program, which limits them to one primary care physician,
one pharmacy, one hospital, and one specialist.109 The Alliance to Prevent the Abuse of Medicines
is reviewing how to implement a similar program in Medicare, which would restrict certain
beneficiaries to a single pharmacy and avoid disrupting access to needed medications.110
Pharmacies have data about prescriptions written by providers and filled by patients. For
example, a large chain pharmacy identified high-risk prescribers and (after multiple attempts to
contact them) stopped filling prescriptions for controlled substances written by those who were
unable or unwilling to provide legitimate reasons for their high-risk prescribing patterns.111
Similarly, large health care service delivery systems have data about their patients’ diagnoses and
treatments, as well as providers’ practice patterns.
Awareness and Education
ONDCP has described raising awareness through education as a “crucial first step in tackling the
problem of prescription drug abuse.”112 Efforts to increase awareness and education about
prescription drug abuse may focus on health care providers, patients, or the general public.
Although federal agencies do not generally regulate the practice of medicine, they may convene
expert panels or encourage state-level activities to explore clinical decision support tools (e.g.,
electronic alerts or treatment guidelines).113 In conjunction with a REMS specifically for
extended-release and long-acting opioid analgesics,114 FDA has published a “blueprint” for
108 HHS, FDA, “Sentinel Initiative,” http://www.fda.gov/safety/fdassentinelinitiative/default.htm. See also “Mini-
Sentinel,” http://mini-sentinel.org/; and “Assessments of Exposures to Medical Products Details,” http://mini-
sentinel.org/assessments/medical_products/details.aspx?ID=204.
109 HHS, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), Center for Program Integrity, Drug Diversion in the
Medicaid Program: State Strategies for Reducing Prescription Drug Diversion in Medicaid, January 2012.
110 Alliance to Prevent the Abuse of Medicines, Legislative Concepts, April 2014, http://rxabusesolutions.org/
legislative-concepts/. The Alliance to Prevent the Abuse of Medicines includes stakeholders in the PCS supply chain
(e.g., American Medical Association, CVS Caremark, Cardinal Health) with the mission to “raise awareness of the
issue of prescription drug abuse, partner with legislators to craft achievable solutions, and serve as a resource for
policymakers and the media.”
111 Mitch Betses and Troyen Brennan, “Abusive Prescribing of Controlled Substances—A Pharmacy View,” New
England Journal of Medicine, no. 269 (September 12, 2013), pp. 989-991.
112 White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), Epidemic: Responding to America’s Prescription
Drug Abuse Crisis, 2011, p. 2.
113 HHS, Behavioral Health Coordinating Committee, Prescription Drug Abuse Subcommittee, Addressing Prescription
Drug Abuse in the United States: Current Activities and Future Opportunities, Washington, DC, 2013.
114 HHS, FDA, Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) for Extended-Release and Long-Acting Opioids,
Reference ID: 3292572, April 2013.
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prescriber education115 and has established a searchable on-line repository for educational
activities that comply with the REMS.116 The REMS also includes development of materials to
educate patients when the prescription is written and when it is filled.117 SAMHSA offers
reports,118 pamphlets,119 and continuing medical education120 about prescription drug abuse at no
cost.
In addition to federal efforts, state or local governments and private entities may also engage in
awareness and education activities. Several states have produced or sponsored Public Service
Announcements to raise public awareness of prescription drug abuse.121 The Federation of State
Medical Boards has published a model policy to encourage state medical boards to adopt
guidelines for use of prescription pain relievers in treating chronic pain.122
Treatment
Prescription drug abuse may be prevented in some cases through choices in treatment of
underlying conditions (e.g., pain), and it may be treated effectively through pharmacologic or
non-pharmacologic interventions. New products may be developed for treating both underlying
conditions and prescription drug abuse.
Treatment of Underlying Conditions
Decisions about how to treat underlying conditions (e.g., pain, ADHD, or insomnia) might be
made with attention to minimizing the risk of prescription drug abuse. For example, alternatives
to prescription medications—such as surgery or physical therapy instead of pain relievers—may
be available for some conditions.123 VA and DOD have jointly issued clinical practice guidelines
for treating chronic pain with prescription pain relievers, taking into account not only managing
pain effectively but also limiting risk of abuse and monitoring for signs of abuse.124 As an
115 HHS, FDA, FDA Blueprint for Prescriber Education for Extended-Release and Long-Acting Opioid Analgesics,
April 2013.
116 See https://search.er-la-opioidrems.com/Guest/GuestPageExternal.aspx.
117 HHS, FDA, FDA Works to Reduce Risk of Opioid Pain Relievers, web page updated as of November 25, 2013,
http://www.fda.gov/forconsumers/consumerupdates/ucm307821.htm.
118 See for example HHS, SAMHSA, Prescription Medications: Misuse, Abuse, Dependence, and Addiction, SMA 12-
4175, May 2006.
119 See for example HHS, SAMHSA, Talking to Your Patients About Prescription Drug Abuse, SMA 09-4445.
120 See for example HHS, SAMHSA, Clinical Challenges in Prescribing Controlled Drugs: Prescribing Opioids for
Chronic Pain.
121 See for example (1) Ohio Department of Health, Prescription for Prevention: Stop the Epidemic,
http://www.healthy.ohio.gov/vipp/drug/p4pohio; (2) Kentucky Office of the Attorney General, Stop Rx Abuse Before It
Starts, http://www.healthy.ohio.gov/vipp/drug/p4pohio; and (3) North Carolina Department of Justice, Stop Rx Abuse,
http://www.ncdoj.gov/stoprxabuse.aspx.
122 Federation of State Medical Boards, Model Policy on the Use of Opioid Analgesics in the Treatment of Chronic
Pain, July 2013.
123 Institute of Medicine, Relieving Pain in America: A Blueprint for Transforming Prevention, Care, Education, and
Research, June 2011. This report was published pursuant to section 4305 of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care
Act (ACA, P.L. 111-148).
124 Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and Department of Defense (DOD), Clinical Practice Guidelines:
Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain, May 2010.
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example of a state-level effort, Ohio’s guidelines for prescribing controlled substances in
emergency departments and acute care facilities suggest limiting prescriptions to a three-day
supply, thus putting less of the medication in circulation.125
Treatment of Prescription Drug Abuse
The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) recognizes both medications and behavioral
treatments as effective approaches to treating drug abuse in general and prescription drug abuse in
particular.126 Which treatment is effective—particularly among pharmacologic treatments—varies
by the drug of abuse. Addiction to opioids (including prescription pain relievers) may be treated
using medication-assisted treatment such as methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone.127 NIDA
is funding research into medications to treat addiction to stimulants (e.g., Ritalin®); no
medications are currently FDA-approved for this indication.128 The federal government may
support treatment of prescription drug abuse through direct service delivery, financing or grant
funding, and regulation of opioid treatment programs.
New Product Development
New pharmaceutical products may come in the form of new formulations of existing medications
(e.g., tamper-resistant or abuse-deterrent pain relievers), new medications to treat underlying
conditions (e.g., pain or insomnia) without addictive properties, or new medications to treat
addiction. Non-pharmaceutical products or interventions may also be developed to treat
underlying conditions such as pain, reducing the demand for PCS.
Abuse-deterrent drug formulations include additional substances intended to make the primary
drug less subject to abuse. An example is the combination of buprenorphine and naloxone, where
the naloxone is meant to prevent the buprenorphine from taking effect if the drug is injected
rather than dissolved under the tongue.129
Tamper-resistant drug formulations are manufactured to prevent potential abusers from crushing
them into a powder that can be snorted or dissolving them into a liquid that can be injected. An
example is the reformulated version of extended release oxycodone, which is manufactured with
a highly viscous (i.e., gooey) substance that prevents the pill from being crushed or dissolved.130
NIDA has identified the “development of effective, nonaddicting pain medications [as] a public
health priority.”131 NIDA funds research into new treatments of drug abuse (including prescription
drug abuse), focusing on (1) genomics and epigenetics (i.e., the study of the genome and how
125 Ohio Governor’s Cabinet Opiate Action Team, Ohio Emergency and Acute Care Facility Opioids and Other
Controlled Substances (OOCS) Prescribing Guidelines, April 18, 2012.
126 HHS, NIH, NIDA, Drug Facts: Treatment Approaches for Drug Addiction, revised September 2009.
127 HHS, NIH, NIDA, Topics in Brief: Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction, revised April 2012.
128 HHS, NIH, NIDA, Prescription Drugs: Abuse and Addiction, updated October 2011.
129 Jennifer P. Schneider, Michèle Matthews, and Robert N. Jamison, “Abuse-Deterrent and Tamper-Resistant Opioid
Formulations: What is their Role in Addressing Prescription Opioid Abuse?” CNS Drugs, vol. 24, no. 10 (2010), pp.
805-810.
130 Ibid.
131 HHS, NIH, NIDA, Prescription Drugs: Abuse and Addiction, updated October 2011.
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parts of it may be switched on or off), (2) detailed mapping of parts of the brain implicated in
addiction, (3) anti-addiction vaccines, and (4) combinations of medication modeled on the
“cocktails” used to treat HIV or cancer.132
Author Contact Information
Erin Bagalman
Susan Thaul
Analyst in Health Policy
Specialist in Drug Safety and Effectiveness
ebagalman@crs.loc.gov, 7-5345
sthaul@crs.loc.gov, 7-0562
Lisa N. Sacco
Brian T. Yeh
Analyst in Illicit Drugs and Crime Policy
Legislative Attorney
lsacco@crs.loc.gov, 7-7359
byeh@crs.loc.gov, 7-5182
132 HHS, NIH, NIDA, Topics in Brief: Medications Development at NIDA, revised November 2011.
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