Latin America and the Caribbean:
Key Issues for the 113th Congress
Mark P. Sullivan, Coordinator
Specialist in Latin American Affairs
February 15, 2014
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R42956
CRS Report for Congress
Pr
epared for Members and Committees of Congress
Latin America and the Caribbean: Key Issues for the 113th Congress
Summary
Geographic proximity has ensured strong linkages between the United States and the Latin
American and Caribbean region, with diverse U.S. interests, including economic, political, and
security concerns. U.S. policy toward the region under the Obama Administration has focused on
four priorities: promoting economic and social opportunity; ensuring citizen security;
strengthening effective democratic institutions; and securing a clean energy future. There has
been substantial continuity in U.S. policy toward the region under the Obama Administration,
which has pursued some of the same basic policy approaches as the Bush Administration.
Nevertheless, the Obama Administration has made several significant policy changes, including
an overall emphasis on partnership and shared responsibility.
U.S. policy toward the region is conducted in the context of a Latin America that is becoming
increasingly independent from the United States. The region has diversified its economic and
diplomatic ties with countries outside the region. Over the past few years, several Latin American
regional organizations have been established that do not include the United States, including the
Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) designed to boost regional
integration and cooperation. While to some extent CELAC’s establishment reflects declining U.S.
influence in Latin America, the United States still remains very much engaged in the region
bilaterally and multilaterally. A looming challenge for the United States, however, is how to deal
with the next Summit of the Americas, scheduled to be hosted by Panama in 2015. Several Latin
American leaders have pledged that they will not attend if Cuba is not invited. Cuba had
expressed interest in attending the sixth summit in 2012 in Colombia, but ultimately was not
invited to attend. The United States and Canada had expressed opposition to Cuba’s participation.
Previous summits have been limited to the hemisphere’s 34 democratically elected leaders.
Congress plays an active role in policy toward Latin America and the Caribbean. In recent years,
legislative and oversight attention have focused on the continued increase in drug trafficking-
related violence in Mexico and assistance under the Mérida Initiative; efforts to help Central
American and Caribbean countries contend with drug trafficking and violent crime; and
continued counternarcotics and security support to Colombia. The 2010 earthquake that
devastated Haiti continues to focus attention on the enormous task of disaster recovery and
reconstruction. Other areas of congressional oversight have been the deterioration of democracy
and media freedom in several Latin American countries and the activities of Iran and Hezbollah
in the region. U.S. sanctions on Cuba, particularly restrictions on travel, remain a contentious
issue in the debate over how to support change in one of the world’s last remaining communist
nations. Other broad issues of congressional interest are relations with Mexico and the status of
reforms under the new administration of President Enrique Peña Nieto; prospects for Colombia’s
peace negotiations and the potential ramifications for U.S. policy; the status of democracy in
Venezuela and U.S.-Venezuelan relations in the post-Chávez era; progress on negotiations for the
Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) that includes three Latin American countries (Chile, Mexico, and
Peru); and the operation and activities of the Organization of American States (OAS).
Legislative action to date in the 113th Congress has included: the 2014 farm bill (P.L. 113-79),
with provisions modifying the U.S. cotton program related to a trade dispute with Brazil and
requiring State Department reports on a U.S.-Mexico water dispute in the Rio Grande Basin;
approval of the U.S.-Mexico Transboundary Hydrocarbons Agreement (a provision in P.L. 113-
67); a measure directing the Secretary of State to develop a strategy for adoption of proposed
reforms at the OAS (P.L. 113-41); and omnibus appropriations legislation for FY2013 (P.L. 113-
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Key Issues for the 113th Congress
6) and FY2014 (P.L. 113-76), which included foreign aid appropriations for those years with
numerous provisions on Latin America.
Other legislative action has included Senate approval of comprehensive immigration reform (S.
744); Senate approval of a resolution on Haiti’s recovery and reconstruction (S.Res. 12); and
House approval of a measure requiring State Department reports on specific aspects of Haiti’s
post-earthquake recovering and development efforts (H.R. 3509). In addition, FY2014 Financial
Services and General Government appropriations bills were reported in each house (H.R. 2786
and S. 1371) with different provisions on U.S. policy on travel to Cuba, but ultimately the
FY2014 omnibus appropriations measure (P.L. 113-76) did not include any of these provisions.
This report, which will be updated about twice yearly, provides an overview of U.S. policy
toward Latin America and the Caribbean, including the Obama Administration’s priorities;
examines changes in the region’s economic and political environment that affect U.S. relations
with the region; and analyzes U.S. policy toward the region and various recommendations made
by policy analysts and think tanks. The report then examines the role of Congress and
congressional interests in Latin America, looking at selected regional and country issues,
including key issues that the 113th Congress is facing. Appendices provide U.S.-Latin America
trade statistics and a listing of hearings focused on Latin America.
For additional information and access to over 30 CRS reports on the region, see the CRS Issues in
Focus webpage on “Latin America and the Caribbean.”
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Key Issues for the 113th Congress
Contents
U.S. Policy toward Latin America and the Caribbean ..................................................................... 1
Four Priorities for the Region .................................................................................................... 1
Economic and Social Opportunity ...................................................................................... 2
Citizen Security ................................................................................................................... 3
Democratic Governance ...................................................................................................... 4
Clean Energy Future ............................................................................................................ 4
Latin America’s Economic and Political Environment ............................................................. 4
A Changed Region .............................................................................................................. 5
Latin America’s Increasing Independence .......................................................................... 8
Continuity and Change in U.S. Policy ..................................................................................... 10
Congress and Policy toward Latin America and the Caribbean..................................................... 13
Regional Issues ........................................................................................................................ 16
U.S. Foreign Aid................................................................................................................ 16
Trade Policy ...................................................................................................................... 17
Drug Policy ....................................................................................................................... 18
Terrorism Issues ................................................................................................................ 19
Organization of American States ....................................................................................... 21
Selected Country and Sub-Regional Issues ............................................................................. 21
Argentina ........................................................................................................................... 21
Brazil ................................................................................................................................. 23
Caribbean .......................................................................................................................... 24
Central America................................................................................................................. 25
Colombia ........................................................................................................................... 25
Cuba .................................................................................................................................. 27
Haiti ................................................................................................................................... 28
Mexico ............................................................................................................................... 29
Venezuela .......................................................................................................................... 31
Figures
Figure 1. Map of Latin America and the Caribbean ...................................................................... 15
Tables
Table A-1. U. S. Imports from Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) 2007-2013 ................... 33
Table A-2. U.S. Exports to Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), 2007-2013 ........................ 34
Appendixes
Appendix A. U.S. Trade with Latin America and the Caribbean, 2007-2013 ............................... 33
Appendix B. Hearings in the 113th Congress ................................................................................. 35
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Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 36
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................... 36
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Key Issues for the 113th Congress
U.S. Policy toward Latin America and the Caribbean
U.S. interests in the Western Hemisphere are diverse, and include economic, political, security,
and humanitarian concerns. Geographic proximity has ensured strong economic linkages between
the United States and the region, with the United States being the major trading partner and
largest source of foreign investment for many countries. Free trade agreements (FTAs) have
augmented U.S. economic relations with 11 countries in the region. Latin American nations,
primarily Mexico and Venezuela, supply the United States with almost one-third of its imported
crude oil. The Western Hemisphere is also the largest source of U.S. immigration, both legal and
illegal, with geographic proximity and economic conditions being major factors driving migration
trends. Curbing the flow of illicit drugs from Latin America and the Caribbean has been a key
component of U.S. relations with the region and a major interest of Congress for some three
decades, and in recent years has included close security cooperation with Mexico, Central
America, and the Caribbean to combat drug trafficking and related violence. With the exception
of Cuba, the region has made enormous strides in terms of democratic political development over
the past three decades, but the rise of undemocratic practices in several countries, especially
Venezuela, has been a U.S. concern. The United States has often taken the lead in responding to
natural disasters in the region, as was demonstrated once again in the aftermath of Haiti’s
catastrophic 2010 earthquake.
Four Priorities for the Region
The Obama Administration has set forth a broad framework for U.S. policy toward Latin America
and the Caribbean centered on four pillars or priorities:
• promoting economic and social opportunity;
• ensuring citizen security;
• strengthening effective institutions of democratic governance; and
• securing a clean energy future.
The State Department maintains that these policy “priorities are based on the premise that the
United States has a vital interest in contributing to the building of stable, prosperous, and
democratic nations” in the hemisphere that can play an important role in dealing with global
challenges.1 The Obama Administration has stressed that its policy approach toward the region is
one that emphasizes partnership and shared responsibility, with policy conducted on the basis of
mutual respect through engagement and dialogue.2 President Obama reemphasized the theme of
equal partnership at the sixth Summit of the Americas in April 2012 when he said that “in the
Americas there are no senior or junior partners, we’re simply partners.”3 In remarks at the June
1 U.S. Department of State, Arturo Valenzuela, Assistant Secretary of State, Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs,
“U.S.-Latin American Relations: A Look Ahead,” January 6, 2011.
2 Ibid.; and U.S. Department of State, Arturo Valenzuela, Assistant Secretary of State, Bureau of Western Hemisphere
Affairs, “U.S. Foreign Policy in the Obama Era,” October 9, 2010. The same general policy approach has continued
under current Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs Secretary Roberta Jacobson, who was
confirmed by the Senate in March 2012.
3 White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “Remarks of President Barack Obama—As Prepared for Delivery—
(continued...)
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2012 Organization of American States (OAS) General Assembly meeting in Bolivia, Assistant
Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs Roberta Jacobson reiterated the commitment
of the United States to work with hemispheric nations “in the spirit of genuine and equal
partnership to advance liberty and prosperity for all the citizens of the hemisphere.”4
In a November 2013 OAS address, Secretary of State John Kerry asserted that “the era of the
Monroe Doctrine is over.” 5 He emphasized the importance of the United States working with
other hemispheric nations as equal partners to promote and protect democracy, security, and
peace; to advance prosperity though development, poverty alleviation, and improved social
inclusion; and to address the challenges posed by climate change.
Economic and Social Opportunity
The policy priority of expanding economic opportunity focuses on one of the key problems facing
Latin America: lingering poverty and inequality. At the end of 2013, an estimated 164 million
people in Latin America were living in poverty—almost 28% of the region’s population—while
66 million people or 11.5% were living in extreme poverty or indigence. These statistics reflect a
significant improvement from 2002, when almost 44% of the region’s population lived in
poverty.6 Moreover, the statistics show an improvement from 2009, when the region faced an
uptick in poverty because of the global financial crisis.
In addition to traditional U.S. development assistance programs focusing on health and education,
expanding economic opportunity also has involved several innovative programs and initiatives.
The Pathways to Prosperity Initiative, initially launched in 2008, is designed to help countries
learn from each other’s experiences through the exchange of best practices and the goal of
promoting inclusive growth, prosperity, and social justice.7 The Organization of American States’
Inter-American Social Protection Network began in 2009 with U.S. support to facilitate an
exchange of information on policies, experiences, programs, and best practices in order to reduce
social disparities and inequality and reduce extreme poverty.8 President Obama launched the
100,000 Strong in the Americas initiative in 2011 to increase the number of Latin American
students studying in the United States as well as to increase the number of U.S. students studying
in countries throughout the hemisphere.9 As part of the Obama Administration’s Feed the Future
(...continued)
Summit of the Americas Opening Plenary,” April 14, 2012.
4 U.S. Department of State, Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs Roberta S. Jacobson,
“Remarks to the 42nd OAS General Assembly,” June 4, 2012.
5 U.S. Department of State, Secretary of State John Kerry, “Remarks on U.S. Policy in the Western Hemisphere,”
November 18, 2013. In an address to Congress in December1823, President James Monroe warned European powers
not to interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. This policy eventually became known as the Monroe Doctrine
and emerged in the early 1900s as a foundation of U.S. foreign policy.
6 U.N. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Social Panorama of Latin America 2013, Briefing
paper, November 2013.
7 U.S. Department of State, “Pathways to Prosperity in the Americas, Fact Sheet,” April 18, 2013, available at
http://www.state.gov/p/wha/rls/fs/2014/221495.htm; also see the website of the Pathways initiative, available at
http://www.pathways-caminos.org/en/Home.html
8 U.S. Department of State, “Inter-American Social Protection Network, Fact Sheet,” April 23, 2013, available at
http://www.state.gov/p/wha/rls/fs/2013/208096.htm; also the website of the Inter-American Social Protection Network
at http://www.socialprotectionet.org/
9 U.S. Department of State, “100,000 Strong in the Americas, Fact Sheet,” September 13, 2013, available at
(continued...)
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Initiative to combat global hunger and advance food security, three countries in the Americas—
Guatemala, Haiti, and Honduras—receive targeted funding for the development of poor rural
areas aimed at helping vulnerable populations escape hunger and poverty.10
At the sixth Summit of the Americas held in Colombia in April 2012, President Obama
announced several initiatives to expand economic opportunity. The Small Business Network of
the Americas (SBNA) is an initiative designed to help small businesses participate in
international trade by linking national networks of small business support centers.11 The
Women’s Entrepreneurship in the Americas (WEAmericas) program is a public-private
partnership designed to increase women’s economic participation and address barriers to women
starting and expanding small and medium enterprises.12 The Innovation Fund of the Americas,
launched by USAID, is an initiative to help finance lower cost and more effective solutions to
difficult development challenges.13
Citizen Security
The policy priority of advancing citizen security reflects one of the most important concerns
among Latin Americans. High levels of crime and violence, often associated with drug
trafficking, are a significant problem in many countries. The Central America-Mexico corridor is
the route for 95% of South American cocaine entering the United States, while murder rates in
several Central American and Caribbean countries are among the highest in the world and drug
trafficking-related violence in Mexico has risen to unprecedented levels.
U.S. support in this area includes a series of partnerships to help countries combat drug
trafficking and organized crime such as the Mérida Initiative for Mexico, the Central America
Regional Security Initiative (CARSI), and the Caribbean Basin Security Initiative (CBSI).
The Colombia Strategic Development Initiative (CSDI) aligns U.S. assistance with the follow
up strategy to Plan Colombia that is designed to develop a functioning state presence in remote,
but strategically important, areas.
While these programs only began in the last few years, U.S. support to counter drug trafficking
and production in the region has been a key focus of U.S. policy toward the region for more than
30 years. The most significant U.S. support program was Plan Colombia, begun in FY2000,
which helped the Andean country combat both drug-trafficking and terrorist groups financed by
the drug trade.
(...continued)
http://www.state.gov/p/wha/rls/fs/2013/214201.htm
10 See the website of Feed the Future, The U.S. Government’s Global Hunger and Food Security Initiative, available at
http://www.feedthefuture.gov/
11 U.S. Department of State, “Small Business Network of the Americas,” Fact Sheet, August 26, 2013, available at
http://www.state.gov/p/wha/rls/fs/2013/213495.htm
12 U.S. Department of State, “Women’s Entrepreneurship in the Americas (WEAmericas),” Fact Sheet, October 16,
2012, available at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2012/10/199202.htm
13 USAID, “Innovation Fund of the Americas,” Fact Sheet, December 4, 2013, available at http://www.usaid.gov/news-
information/fact-sheets/innovation-fund-americas
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Democratic Governance
The policy priority of strengthening democratic governance has the goal of building on progress
that the region has made over the past three decades, not only in terms of regular free and fair
elections, but also in terms of respect for political rights and civil liberties. Despite this progress,
many countries in the region still face considerable challenges (see “Latin America’s Economic
and Political Environment” below). The United States provides foreign aid to support the rule of
law and human rights, good governance, political competition, and consensus-building and civil
society. Improving and strengthening democratic governance includes support to improve the
capacity of state institutions to address citizens’ needs through responsive legislative, judicial, law
enforcement, and penal institutions, as well as support to nongovernmental organizations working
on democracy and human rights issues. It also includes defending press freedoms and democratic
rights, such as free and fair elections and the protection of minority rights.
U.S. officials have continued to speak out about human rights abuses in countries such as Cuba
and threats to political rights and civil liberties in other countries in the region. Assistant
Secretary of State Jacobson has spoken out about the erosion in the full respect for freedom of
expression in some countries, and has also contended that hemispheric nations should collectively
remain on guard against efforts to weaken the Inter-American human rights system.14
Clean Energy Future
The Obama Administration introduced the Energy and Climate Partnership of the Americas
(ECPA) in 2009 designed to strengthen inter-American collaboration on clean energy. Many
countries in Latin America and the Caribbean are vulnerable to climate change, and struggle with
energy security. ECPA includes voluntary bilateral and multi-country initiatives to promote clean
energy, advance energy security, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Some of the initiatives
involve international and regional organizations and the private sector.15 At the sixth Summit of
the Americas in April 2012, President Obama joined with Colombia in Connecting the Americas
2022, an initiative with the goal of achieving universal access in the hemisphere to reliable, clean,
and affordable electricity.16
Latin America’s Economic and Political Environment
U.S. policy toward the Latin American and Caribbean region is conducted in the context of
significant economic and political changes in the hemisphere as well as the region’s increasing
independence from the United States.
14 U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Policy Toward the Americas: The Summit and Beyond,” Remarks by Assistant
Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs Roberta Jacobson, May 11, 2012.
15 U.S. Department of State, Fact Sheet, “Energy and Climate Partnership of the Americas,” May 31, 2012, available at
http://www.state.gov/p/wha/rls/fs/2012/191563.htm; also see the website of the ECPA at http://www.ecpamericas.org/
16 U.S. Department of State, Fact Sheet, “Connecting the Americas 2022,” October 23, 2012, available at
http://www.state.gov/p/wha/rls/fs/2012/199772.htm
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A Changed Region
Political Changes. The Latin American and Caribbean region has made significant advances over
the past three decades in terms of both political and economic development. In the early 1980s,
16 countries in the region were governed by authoritarian regimes, both on the left and the right,
but today, all nations with the exception of Cuba are elected democracies. This past December,
Argentina celebrated 30 years of civilian democratic rule since its military relinquished power in
1983 after seven years of harsh dictatorship. Some observers contend that the region overall,
despite some exceptions, appears to be moving politically toward the ideological center, focusing
on centrist, pragmatic polices.17 The threat to elected governments in the region from their own
militaries has dissipated in most countries, although the 2009 ouster of President Manuel Zelaya
in Honduras is an exception. Colombia’s ongoing peace negotiations with the Revolutionary
Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), which began formally in October 2012, has raised hopes that
the hemisphere’s oldest civil conflict, which dates back to the 1960s, may be resolved.
Free and fair elections have become the norm in most countries in the region, even though some
elections have been controversial with allegations of irregularities, In 2013, seven nations in the
hemisphere held elections for head of government. In the most recent of these, former Chilean
President Michelle Bachelet (2006-2010) was elected to a new four-year term in December and
will be inaugurated in March 2014. Bachelet has promised reforms aimed at reducing inequality,
including a gradual move toward free higher education.
In 2014, El Salvador and Costa Rica held first
2014 Elections
round presidential elections in early February,
Costa Rica—February 2; April 6
and both will hold runoff elections in March
El Salvador—February 2; March 9
and April respectively. In El Salvador, the
Panama—May 4
candidate of the ruling leftist Farabundo Martí
Colombia—May 25; June 15
Brazil—October 5; October 26
National Liberation Front (FMLN), Salvador
Uruguay—October 26; November 30
Sánchez Cerén (a former guerrilla commander
Bolivia—December
and current Vice President), came close to
Antigua and Barbuda—TBD
winning the first electoral round with almost
Dominica—TBD
49% of the vote, 10% more than the candidate
of the rightist National Republican Alliance (ARENA), Norman Quijano. Given his strong
showing in the first round, most observers believe that Sánchez Cerén will win the runoff,
resulting in a second FMLN government. During the campaign, Sánchez Cerén called for
expanding the government’s social welfare benefits, while Quijano emphasized security issues by
criticizing the FMLN’s brokering of a gang truce in 2012 and calling for getting the army
involved in combatting gangs. In Costa Rica’s runoff, Luis Guillermo Solís of the center-left
Citizen Action Party (PAC) is thought to have a slight lead over Johnny Araya of the ruling
centrist National Liberation Party (PLN). Araya has tried to distance himself from the unpopular
ruling PLN government of President Laura Chinchilla, while Solís has run a campaign focused on
reducing inequality, combating corruption and improving government efficiency.
Other upcoming presidential elections in 2014 include Panama and Colombia in May, Brazil and
Uruguay in October, and Bolivia in December. In Panama’s presidential race, the candidate of the
ruling center-right Democratic Change (CD) party, José Domingo Arias, is leading opinion polls
17 Michael Shifter, “Latin America, A Surge to the Center,” Journal of Democracy, January 2011; Daniel Zovatto,
“Latin America 2013: Political and Electoral Balance,” Brooking Institution, January 3, 2014.
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over his rivals from the center-left Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD) and the center-right
Panameñista Party (PP). Support for Arias has been buoyed by the strong performance of the
Panamanian economy. Current President Ricardo Martinelli is constitutionally prohibited from
running for re-election, but his wife, Marta Linares, will be a vice presidential candidate for the
CD. Analysts see her candidacy as a way for the popular Martinelli to retain influence in the next
government. For many observers, Colombia’s upcoming presidential election can be viewed as a
referendum on the ongoing peace talks between the government of President Juan Manuel Santos
and leftist guerrillas. Santos is leading polls for his re-election bid (see more below in Colombia
section). The Caribbean also will see at least two parliamentary elections in 2014, where elections
are due this year in Antigua and Barbuda and Dominica.
Despite significant improvement in political rights and civil liberties, several in the region still
face considerable challenges. In a number of countries, weaknesses remain in the state’s ability to
deliver public services, ensure accountability and transparency, advance the rule of law, and
ensure citizen safety and security. Many of the street protests that swept Latin America in 2013,
most notably in Brazil, were sparked by new middle classes demanding better public services.
There are also numerous examples of elected presidents over the past 25 years who left office
early amid severe social turmoil, often with economic crises, high-profile corruption, or even the
presidents’ own autocratic actions contributing to their ousters.
The quality of democracy in several countries in the region also has been eroded by two key
factors in recent years. One factor is increased organized crime. Mexico and several Central
American countries have been especially affected because of the increased use of the region as a
drug transit zone and the associated rise in corruption, crime and violence.18 A second factor
negatively affecting democracy is the executive’s abuse of power in several countries that has led
to a setback in liberal democratic practices, with elected leaders seeking to consolidate power at
the expense of minority rights. In recent years, there has also been a deterioration of media
freedom in several countries in the region precipitated by the increase in organized crime-related
violence and by politically driven attempts to curb critical or independent media.
Some analysts see the growth of leftist populism in the region in such countries as Venezuela,
Ecuador, Bolivia, and Nicaragua as a threat to democracy because of the tough treatment of
political opponents and the dismantling of institutional checks and balances. They contend that a
type of competitive or electoral authoritarianism is taking hold in these countries, in which
democratic institutions exist but abuse by the incumbent skews the playing field against
opponents.19 Some also fear that El Salvador under Sánchez Cerén could join that group. In
January 2014, Nicaragua’s National Assembly, dominated by President Daniel Ortega’s
Sandinista party, approved constitutional changes eliminating presidential term limits and
eliminating the 35% threshold requirement needed for election. This paves the way for Ortega to
seek a fourth term in 2016.
18 For example, see Emily Edmonds-Poli, The Effects of Drug-War Related Violence on Mexico’s Press and
Democracy, Wilson Center, Mexico Institute and University of San Diego, Trans-border Institute, April 2013.
19 See Kurt Weyland, “Latin America’s Authoritarian Drift, The Threat form the Populist Left,” Journal of Democracy,
July 2013. Also see Sebastián Mazzuca, “The Rise of Rentier Populism,” Journal of Democracy, April 2013; Steven
Levitsky and James Loxton, “Populism and Competitive Authoritarianism in the Andes,” Democratization, January
2013; and Latin American Populism in the Twenty-First Century, ed. Carlos de la Torre and Cynthia J. Arnson
(Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press; Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013).
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The human rights group Freedom House compiles an annual evaluation of political rights and
civil liberties in which it categorizes countries as free, partly free, and not free. In its 2014 report
(covering 2013), the group ranked just one country as not free: Cuba; 10 countries as partly
free—Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay,
and Venezuela; and the remaining 22 countries of the region as free. While the Dominican
Republic was categorized as free, Freedom House noted a decline in civil liberties in the country
because of a court ruling that could render thousands of Dominicans of Haitian descent stateless,
an action that was criticized by other Latin American countries and the United States. In Panama,
Freedom House maintained that political rights declined because of concerns about a lack of
investigations of government corruption and verbal attacks against journalists investigating
corruption. In contrast, political rights and civil liberties were reported to have improved in
Nicaragua because of, among other things, advances in transparency, progress in women’s rights,
and efforts to combat trafficking.20 (The Freedom House evaluation, however, was completed
before Nicaragua’s Sandinista-dominated legislature approved constitutional changes in late
January 2014 that eliminated presidential term limits.)
Economic Changes. The region has also undergone a significant economic transformation. While
the 1980s were commonly referred to as the lost decade of development as many countries
became bogged down with unsustainable public debt, the 1990s brought about a shift from a
strategy of import-substituting industrialization to one focused on export promotion, attraction of
foreign capital, and privatization of state enterprises. Latin America experienced an economic
downturn in 2002 (brought about in part because of an economic downturn in the United States),
but recovered with strong growth rates until 2009, when a global economic crisis again affected
the region with an economic contraction of about 2%.21 Some countries experienced deeper
recession in 2009, especially those more closely integrated with the U.S. economy, such as
Mexico, while other countries with more diversified trade and investment partners experienced
lesser downturns. The region rebounded in 2010 and 2011, with growth rates of 5.6% and 4.3%
respectively.22
Economic growth rates declined since to a regional average of 3.1% in 2012 and 2.6% in 2013.
Last year, the weak performances of Brazil (2.4%) and Mexico (1.3%) dragged down the regional
average. ECLAC’s regional forecast for 2014 is for an improved growth rate of 3.2% based on
increasing external demand tied to improving economic conditions in the global economy and
better economic performance in Brazil and Mexico.23 Poor economic performance in China, the
United States, and Europe, however, could have a significant effect on the economic outlook for
Latin America. There is also increasing concern about economic conditions in Venezuela, which
is facing shortages of basic food and consumer items, electricity shortages, high inflation (56% at
the end of 2013), and falling international reserves. The recent plunge of Argentina’s peso, which
fell by 15% in January 2014, has also focused attention on that country’s difficult economic
situation characterized by high inflation and declining international reserves.
20 Freedom House, “Freedom in the World 2014,” 2013.
21 Sidney Weintraub, “An Economic Storm Hits Latin America,” Current History, February 2009.
22 U.N. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Economic Survey of Latin America and
the Caribbean, 2013, July 2013.
23 ECLAC, Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin America and the Caribbean, November 29, 2013;
Economic and Social Panorama of Latin America and Caribbean States, 2013, January 2014.
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As noted above, Latin America has made significant progress in combating poverty and
inequality. Two key factors accounting for this decline are increasing per capita income levels and
targeted public expenditures known as conditional cash transfer programs for vulnerable sectors.
Brazil and Mexico were pioneers in these targeted programs that have spread to other countries.
In terms of income distribution, while Latin America is still the most unequal region in the world,
inequality has declined in many countries since 2002, and there has been a clear downward trend
in income concentration in the region over the past decade.24 Rising growth and income levels
and progress in poverty reduction also have helped expand Latin America’s middle class by about
50% over the past decade, according to the World Bank. Now more than 150 million people in the
region (about 30% of total population) are considered in the middle class.25
Latin America’s Increasing Independence
Latin America’s relatively stable economic performance in recent years has increased the region’s
confidence in solving its own problems, and has lessened the region’s dependency on the United
States. The region’s growing ideological diversity in recent years has also been a factor in the
region’s increased independence from the United States, as has Brazil’s rising regional and global
influence.
Latin American and Caribbean countries have diversified their economic and diplomatic ties with
countries outside the region. China, for example, has become a major trading partner for many
countries in the region, ranking as one of the top two export and import markets. Total Chinese
trade with the region grew from almost $18 billion in 2002 to about $259 billion in 2012.26
(Nevertheless, the United States remains the single largest trading partner for many countries;
total U.S. trade with the region amounted $845 billion in 2012, more than three times that of
China’s trade with the region.)27
Several Latin American regional integration organizations have been established in the past few
years, a reflection of both the region’s increasing independence and its growing internal
cooperation. In December 2011, 33 hemispheric nations—excluding the United States and
Canada—met in Caracas to establish the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
(CELAC) to boost regional integration and cooperation. While some observers have concerns that
CELAC could be a forum for countries that have tense or difficult relations with the United
States, others point out that strong U.S. partners in the region are also members. Some observers
have predicted that CELAC could diminish the role of the OAS, while others maintain that
CELAC does not have a permanent staff or secretariat that could compete with the OAS. CELAC
held its first summit in Chile in January 2013, in which Cuban President Raúl Castro assumed the
presidency of the organization for a year. CELAC’s second summit was held in late January 2014
in Havana, Cuba. At the summit, leaders declared their region a “zone of peace” pledging to
resolve disputes as respectful neighbors. The leaders also committed their nations to
24 ECLAC, Social Panorama of Latin America 2012, p. 21. For further discussion of progress in reducing inequality in
the region, see Nora Lustig, “Latin America’s Inequality Success Story,” Current History, February 2013.
25 World Bank, Economic Mobility and the Rise of the Latin American Middle Class, by Francisco H.G. Ferreira et al,
2013.
26 Trade figures cited are drawn from the Global Trade Atlas, using trade statistics reported by China.
27 U.S. trade statistics are drawn from the Global Trade Atlas, using statistics reported by the U.S. Department of
Commerce.
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nonintervention and pledged to respect “the inalienable right of every state to choose its political,
economic, social, and cultural system.” 28
While to some extent CELAC’s establishment reflects declining U.S. influence in Latin America,
the United States still remains very much engaged in the region bilaterally and multilaterally
through the OAS and its numerous affiliated organizations. In addition, the Summit of the
Americas process (affiliated with the OAS) remains an important mechanism for the United
States to engage with Latin American nations at the highest level. While the sixth Summit of the
Americas held in Colombia in April 2012 displayed U.S. divergence from the region in terms of
policy toward Cuba and anti-drug strategy, the meeting also included a variety of initiatives to
deepen hemispheric integration and address key hemispheric challenges.
A looming challenge for the United States, however, is how to deal with the next Summit of the
Americas, scheduled to be hosted by Panama in 2015. Several Latin American leaders have
pledged that they will not attend if Cuba is not invited; such a scenario could be a significant
policy dilemma for the Obama Administration. Cuba had expressed interest in attending the sixth
summit in 2012 in Colombia, but ultimately was not invited to attend. The United States and
Canada had expressed opposition to Cuba’s participation. Previous summits have been limited to
the hemisphere’s 34 democratically elected leaders, and the OAS (in which Cuba does not
participate) has played a key role in summit implementation and follow-up activities.
Another regional organization is the 12-member Union of South American Nations (UNASUR),
established in 2008 (largely because of Brazil’s influence) to promote political, economic, and
security coordination in South America. It has served as a forum for dispute resolution. For
example, the organization played a role in defusing tensions between Colombia and Venezuela in
2008, and helped resolve internal political conflicts in Bolivia in 2008 and Ecuador in 2010.
Some analysts, however, have raised questions about UNASUR’s overall efficacy, financial
support, and ability to develop specialized capabilities and programs.29
The Venezuelan-led Bolivarian Alliance of the Americas (ALBA, originally established as the
Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas), was launched by President Hugo Chávez in 2004 with
the goals of promoting regional integration and socioeconomic reform and alleviating poverty. In
addition to Venezuela, this nine-member group currently includes Bolivia, Cuba, Ecuador, and
Nicaragua, as well as the Caribbean island nations of Dominica, Antigua and Barbuda, St.
Vincent and the Grenadines, and most recently St. Lucia, which became a member in July 2013.
Some observers maintain that ALBA has lost its initial energy. Director of National Intelligence
James Clapper maintained in January 2012 congressional testimony that ALBA was “created in
part to spread Chávez’s influence in the region” but “is only muddling through.”30 In the
aftermath of President Chávez’s death in March 2013, some observers question the future of the
Venezuelan-founded alliance.
28 Peter Orsi, “LatAm Leaders Declare Region a ‘Zone of Peace,’” Associated Press, January 29, 2014.
29 Michael Shifter, “The Shifting Landscape of Latin American Regionalism,” Current History, February 2012;
Testimony of James R. Clapper, Director of National Intelligence, before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence,
January 31, 2012, “Worldwide Threat Assessment of the U.S. Intelligence Community,” available at
http://intelligence.senate.gov/120131/clapper.pdf
30 Ibid.
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There was strong reaction among Latin American governments to the case of Edward Snowden,
wanted on espionage charges for releasing classified information about U.S. National Security
Agency (NSA) surveillance programs. In July 2013, Venezuela announced that it would offer
asylum to Snowden; Bolivia and Nicaragua also reportedly agreed to take him, and Ecuador said
that it would consider granting him asylum if he could reach Ecuadorian territory.31 On August 1,
2013, Russia granted temporary asylum to Snowden for one year, but some observers speculated
that Snowden could eventually end up in Latin America. There would likely be a significant
negative effect on U.S. bilateral relations with any Latin American country that might grant
Snowden asylum.
Revelations about the U.S. surveillance program not only rankled leftist populist Latin American
governments that have had adversarial relations with the United States in recent years and often
spout anti-U.S. rhetoric, but it also raised concerns among other countries that have close
relations with the United States such as Colombia, Chile, and Brazil. Press reports regarding
alleged NSA activities in Brazil (including surveillance of President Dilma Rousseff) led Brazil to
postpone a state visit to the United States in October 2013. For Latin American countries that
have made transitions to democracy from military dictatorships, the issue of spying and
surveillances is very sensitive, and raises memories of past U.S. support for military dictatorships
in the region. Many Latin American leaders were also incensed over the treatment of Bolivian
President Evo Morales, whose plane, after leaving Moscow, was denied fly-over permission by
several European countries in early July 2013 because of the suspicion that Snowden was on
board; many believed that U.S. pressure was behind the airspace denial.32
Continuity and Change in U.S. Policy
Under the Obama Administration, there has been significant continuity in U.S. policy toward
Latin America from the Bush Administration. Some of the same basic policy approaches have
been continued, although in many cases there has been a change of emphasis.
Like the Bush Administration, the Obama Administration has provided significant anti-drug and
security support to Colombia and significant support to Mexico and Central America to combat
drug trafficking and organized crime through the Mérida Initiative and CARSI. Assistance to
Mexico, however, has shifted toward more support for rule of law programs (including police,
judicial, and penal reform) and programs to help communities withstand the pressures of crime
and violence. In anticipation of a potential “balloon effect” of drug trafficking shifting to the
Caribbean region, the Obama Administration also established the CBSI, the origin of which,
however, dates back to the Bush Administration. Assistance for Colombia has become more
evenly balanced between enhancing rule of law, human rights and economic development
programs on the one hand, and continuing efforts on security and drug interdiction on the other.
Overall U.S. assistance levels to Colombia have begun to decline as the country is increasingly
taking over responsibility for programs once funded by the United States.
31 In mid-2012, Ecuador provided asylum to WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange at the Ecuadorian Embassy in London,
where he remains; Assange is wanted for questioning by Sweden on charges of sexual assault and could eventually face
charges in the United States for the dissemination of classified information.
32 “William Neuman and Alison Smale, “Barring of Bolivian Plant Infuriates Latin America as Snowden Case
Widens,” New York Times, July 4, 2013.
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Implementing bills for FTAs with Colombia and Panama that were negotiated under the Bush
Administration ultimately were introduced and enacted into law in October 2011 after extensive
work by the Obama Administration to resolve outstanding congressional concerns related to both
agreements. Another trade initiative begun informally under the Bush Administration and
continued by the Obama Administration through formal trade negotiations is the proposed Trans-
Pacific Partnership (TPP) free trade agreement, which involves negotiations with Mexico, Chile,
and Peru and eight other Pacific countries. A framework for a TPP agreement was announced in
November 2011; the goal was to reach an agreement in 2013, but negotiations are still
continuing.33 In July 2013, the United States became an observer to the Pacific Alliance, a
regional integration initiative formed by Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru.
Just as the Bush Administration had, the Obama Administration has expressed support for
comprehensive immigration reform, an especially important issue in U.S. relations with Mexico
and Central America. Reform efforts were stymied in 2007 when the Senate failed to invoke
cloture and limit debate on two comprehensive reform measures, and Congress did not return to
consideration of such measures. In January 2013, however, a bipartisan group of Senators
announced their efforts to draft comprehensive reform legislation for passage this summer. The
bipartisan framework, which led to Senate passage of a comprehensive bill in June 2013, includes
a pathway for citizenship for some 11 million undocumented immigrants living in the United
States, including an estimated 6.7 million from Mexico. To date the House, has not considered
comprehensive immigration reform and it is unclear whether it will do so before the end of the
113th Congress.
In other areas, the Obama Administration has made policy changes on Latin America that have
more clearly differentiated it from the Bush Administration. Early on, the Administration put
more of an emphasis on partnership and shared responsibility in its policy toward the region. The
Administration increased and sustained higher levels of development assistance to the region
even in recent years as overall U.S. assistance to the region has declined. The Administration has
also implemented several changes in Cuba policy by lifting restrictions on family travel, easing
restrictions on other types of purposeful travel, and restarting semi-annual talks with Cuba
(although talks have not been held since January 2011). At the same time, the Administration has
continued the long-standing U.S. policy of maintaining economic sanctions on Cuba and speaking
out about the poor human rights situation on the island.
In assessing U.S. policy toward Latin America under the Obama Administration, many observers
and policy analysts have commended the Administration for its emphasis on partnership and
multilateralism; for deepening security cooperation with Mexico, Central America, and the
Caribbean focused on ensuring citizen security; for broadening relations with Colombia beyond
counternarcotics and counterterrorism issues; and for a strong U.S. response to the earthquake in
Haiti. According to a former State Department official, U.S. diplomacy in the region today “is
focused on being relevant to practical needs widely felt by other peoples—the way it should be,”
and that socioeconomic changes in the region, which the United States helped support, “are
fostering a convergence of basic values and interests that can and should define relationships that
are bright, cooperative, and productive for decades to come.”34
33 See CRS Report R42694, The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) Negotiations and Issues for Congress, coordinated
by Ian F. Fergusson.
34 William McIlhenny, “Get the Story Right: Time for Stories of Fading U.S. Interest to Fade,” Americas Quarterly,
AQ Web Exclusive, November 26, 2012.
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On the other hand, a number of analysts have urged the Administration to articulate a strategic
vision and more cohesive policy approach toward Latin America.35 In looking at President
Obama’s first term, some analysts contend that as problems have arisen in the region, U.S.
responses have been reactive rather than proactive, and can be characterized “as improvised and
lacking a sense of strategic direction.”36 Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)
senior associate Howard Wiarda argues that a “coherent, mature policy for the region” needs to be
articulated, although he contends that the United States has accomplished a great deal at
individual country-level policies in terms of democracy, development, modernization, and in
fostering good bilateral relations.37 Peter Hakim of the Inter-American Dialogue has described
U.S. policy toward Latin America as adrift, with a growing separation of the United States from
Latin America and a shrinking U.S. vision for Latin America. He contends that while U.S. leaders
regularly affirm the importance of the region to the United States, they have not been able to
devise a strategy to effectively exploit what former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton
described as the “power of proximity.”38
Many policy analysts and think tanks across the political spectrum have called for the
Administration to elevate U.S. relations with both Brazil and Mexico, the two economic
powerhouses of the region. Many advocate a deepening and broadening of U.S. relations with
Brazil in the areas of defense and security, trade, energy, and also multilateral issues given
Brazil’s rising global profile. With regard to Mexico, many argue that the Obama Administration
should, in addition to continuing strong security cooperation, seize the opportunity to work with a
new government in Mexico in deepening economic relations, including energy cooperation, and
engaging Mexico on global issues.39 On immigration, in particular, many Latin America policy
analysts have called for U.S. efforts to fix its immigration system as a means of improving
relations not only with Mexico, but with the region overall. Michael Shifter of the Inter-American
Dialogue maintains that meaningful immigration reform would be welcomed throughout Latin
America, especially in Mexico, “where the issue has long been a source of tension in the bilateral
relationship.”40
Think tanks and policy analysts have made numerous other recommendations for U.S. policy
toward the region.41 With regard to drug policy, there are calls for the United States to reevaluate
35 Shifting the Balance, Obama and the Americas, ed. Abraham F. Lowenthal, Theodore J. Piccone, and Lawrence
Whitehead (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2011), p. 21.
36 Laurence Whitehead and Detlef Nolte, “The Obama Administration and Latin America: A Disappointing First
Term,” GIGA Focus, German Institute of Global and Area Studies, Number 6, 2012.
37 Howard J. Wiarda, “Recommendations for a New Administration: Base Hemispheric Relations on Opportunities,
Not Threats,” CSIS, November 26, 2012.
38 Peter Hakim, “The Incredibly Shrinking Vision: U.S. Policy in Latin America,” Política Exterior (Madrid), July 5,
2012.
39 Wiarda, op. cit.; Andrew Selee and Christopher Wilson, “A New Agenda with Mexico,” Wilson Center, November
2012; Duncan Wood, “Recommendations for a New Administration: Safeguarding Progress with Mexico,” CSIS,
December 10, 2012; Peter Hakim and Sergio Munoz Bata, “A Second Term Agenda for Latin America,” Infolatam,
January 22, 2013; James M. Roberts and Ray Walser, “Latin America and the Caribbean: A Wish List for 2013,” Issue
Brief, Heritage Foundation, January 7, 2013; Roger F. Noriega and José R. Cárdenas, “An Action Plan for US Policy in
the Americas,” American Enterprise Institute, December 2012; Johanna Mendelson Forman, with Alek Suni,
“Recommendations for a New Administration: Building a Dynamic U.S.-Brazil Partnership,” CSIS, December 19,
2012; and “A More Ambitious Agenda, A Report of the Inter-American Dialogue’s Commission on Mexico-U.S.
Relations, Inter-American Dialogue,” February 2013.
40 Michael Shifter, “Will Obama Kick the Can Down the Road?” Revista Ideele (Peru), December 27, 2012.
41 In addition to the various reports cited in footnote 31, also see Stephen Johnson, “Recommendations for a New
(continued...)
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its anti-drug strategy, pointing to efforts by some Latin American leaders and others to explore
drug policy alternatives. While some stress the need to sustain a strong international drug control
regime focused on eradication and interdiction, others appear to emphasize the need for more
efforts to address U.S. domestic drug addiction and consumption. With regard to Cuba, some
argue for moving away from the sanctions-based approach toward Cuba, while others contend
that sanctions should be maintained as long as the government continues its harsh human rights
violations. With regard to democracy promotion, some analysts argue that U.S. engagement with
the region should include a more vibrant democracy promotion component, especially in
countries facing challenges; others contend that the United States already has strong democracy
and human rights programs; and some question the efficacy of such programs.
Congress and Policy toward Latin America and
the Caribbean
Congress plays an active role in policy toward Latin America and the Caribbean. Legislative and
oversight attention to the region during the 112th Congress focused on the increase in drug
trafficking-related violence in Mexico and U.S. assistance to Mexico under the Mérida Initiative;
efforts to help Central American and Caribbean countries contend with drug trafficking and
violent crime; and continued counternarcotics and security support to Colombia. The 2010
earthquake that devastated Port-au-Prince, Haiti, continued to focus congressional attention on
the enormous task of disaster recovery and reconstruction. As in past years, U.S. sanctions on
Cuba, particularly restrictions on travel and remittances, remained a contentious issue in the
debate over how to support change in one of the world’s last remaining communist nations.
Another area of congressional oversight was the deterioration of democracy in several Latin
American countries, especially Nicaragua and Venezuela. Congressional concern also increased
about Iran’s growing relations in the region, especially with Venezuela, and about the activities of
Hezbollah.
Many of these issues have continued to be the focus of congressional attention in the 113th
Congress. Hearings on Latin America have focused on a variety of topics, including: an overview
of U.S. interests and policy in the Western Hemisphere; energy security issues centering on
Mexico and Canada; the posture of the U.S. Northern and Southern Commands; U.S. security
cooperation with Mexico under the Mérida Initiative, with Central America under CARSI, and
with the Caribbean under CBSI; U.S.-Brazil trade and investment relations; Iranian activities in
Latin America and U.S. policy; human rights in Honduras; Cuba’s attempted transfer of weapons
to North Korea; challenges to democracy in the Western Hemisphere, including media freedom;
assistance to Haiti; human rights and peace talks in Colombia; security and commerce at the
border with Mexico; NAFTA after 20 years; and terrorist groups in Latin America. (see
Appendix B).
(...continued)
Administration: Interests, Policies, and Challenges in the Americas,” CSIS, November 21, 2012; Anton Edmunds,
“Recommendations for a New Administration: Be a Good Neighbor to the Caribbean,” CSIS, December 26, 2012;
Phillip McLean, “Recommendations for a New Administration: Move Beyond the Drug Focus in the Andes,” CSIS,
January 3, 2013; and Cynthia J. Arnson, “Setting Priorities for U.S. Policy in Latin America,” Wilson Center, January
2013.
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Other broad issues of congressional interest in the 113th Congress include relations with Mexico,
and the status of reforms, under the new administration of President Enrique Peña Nieto; the
status of democracy in Venezuela and U.S.-Venezuelan relations in the post-Chávez era; prospects
for Colombia’s peace negotiations with the FARC and the potential ramifications for U.S. policy
and foreign aid; whether and how to strengthen relations with Brazil; progress on negotiations for
the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) that includes three Latin American countries (Chile, Mexico,
and Peru); and the operation and activities of the OAS.
Legislative action to date in the 113th Congress has included:
• the 2014 farm bill (P.L. 113-79), with modifications to the U.S. cotton program
related to a trade dispute with Brazil over U.S. subsidies and a reporting
requirement on a U.S.-Mexico water dispute in the Rio Grande Basin;
• approval of the U.S.-Mexico Transboundary Hydrocarbons Agreement in the
Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013 (P.L. 113-67);
• the Organization of American States Revitalization and Reform Act of 2013 (P.L.
113-41), which directs the Secretary of State to develop a strategy for the
adoption of proposed reforms at the OAS; and
• omnibus appropriations legislation for FY2013 (P.L. 113-6) and FY2014 (P.L.
113-76), which included foreign aid appropriations for those years, with
numerous provisions on Latin America. (The explanatory statement to the
FY2014 omnibus measure also referenced reports accompanying the House and
Senate Appropriations Committee reported versions of the foreign operations
appropriations bills, H.Rept. 113-76 to H.R. 2855 and S.Rept. 113-81 to S. 1372,
that contained numerous directives and reporting requirements unless specifically
contradicted by the explanatory statement or enacted measure.)
Other legislative action has included Senate approval of comprehensive immigration reform (S.
744); Senate approval of a resolution on Haiti’s recovery and reconstruction (S.Res. 12); and
House approval of a measure requiring State Department reports on specific aspects of Haiti’s
post-earthquake recovering and development efforts (H.R. 3509). In addition, FY2014 Financial
Services and General Government appropriations bills were reported in each house (H.R. 2786
and S. 1371) with different provisions on U.S. policy on travel to Cuba, but ultimately the
FY2014 omnibus appropriations measure did not include any of these provisions.
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Figure 1. Map of Latin America and the Caribbean
Source: Map Resources, edited by CRS.
Notes: While Belize is located in Central America and Guyana and Suriname are located on the northern coast
of South America, all three countries are members of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).
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Regional Issues
U.S. Foreign Aid
Although many Latin American and Caribbean nations have made significant development
progress in recent years, foreign aid remains an important tool for advancing U.S. policy
priorities in the hemisphere. Current aid programs reflect the diversity of the region. Some
nations receive a broad range of U.S. assistance, with projects in areas such as democracy
promotion, economic reform, basic education, human health, environmental protection, citizen
security, and counternarcotics. Others have largely outgrown U.S. assistance but continue to
receive low levels of aid, usually targeted toward strengthening security capabilities. Absolute
assistance levels for the region have declined each year since FY2010. In FY2013, the United
States provided an estimated $1.7 billion of aid to Latin American and Caribbean nations through
the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and the State Department. Some
countries in the region received additional assistance through the Department of Defense, the
Inter-American Foundation, the Millennium Challenge Corporation, and/or the Peace Corps.
Key Policy Issues: The 113th Congress has spent a substantial amount of time considering
appropriations for foreign aid and other programs. Final action on FY2013 appropriations was not
completed until March 2013, when Congress approved the Consolidated and Further Continuing
Appropriations Act, 2013 (P.L. 113-6). That measure generally provided funding at FY2012-
enacted levels, but country allocations were reduced by budget sequestration. Final action on
FY2014 appropriations was also delayed, with the President signing into law the Consolidated
Appropriations Act, 2014 (P.L. 113-76) on January 17, 2014. Prior to the adoption of P.L. 113-76,
FY2014 funding had been provided through two continuing resolutions (P.L. 113-46 and P.L.
113-73).
Since P.L. 113-76 and its explanatory statement do not provide specific funding allocations for
most countries, it is currently unclear how much aid will go to Latin America and the Caribbean
in FY2014. The Administration requested almost $1.6 billion in assistance for the region through
State and USAID, including most foreign aid accounts with the exception of food aid (P.L. 480).
Without considering food aid, the request represents a cut of some $116 million, or about 7%,
compared to the estimated amount provided in FY2013. All of the funding levels that are
specified in P.L. 113-76 or its explanatory statement either meet or exceed the Administration’s
request. Congress also included numerous conditions on assistance to various Latin American and
Caribbean countries and programs in the legislation, explanatory statement, and two related
committee reports (S.Rept. 113-81 and H.Rept. 113-185, which act as directives unless
contradicted by the explanatory statement). In the coming months, Congress will begin
consideration of the President’s foreign aid request for FY2015.
For additional information, see CRS Report R43043, State, Foreign Operations, and Related
Programs: FY2014 Budget and Appropriations, by Susan B. Epstein, Alex Tiersky, and Marian L.
Lawson. For historical trends, see CRS Report R42582, U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America
and the Caribbean: Recent Trends and FY2013 Appropriations, by Peter J. Meyer and Mark P.
Sullivan.
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Trade Policy
The Latin America and Caribbean region is one of the fastest-growing regional trading partners
for the United States. The average rate of growth in trade between the United States and the
region since 1998 surpasses that of U.S. trade with Asia and the European Union. Despite
challenges such as diplomatic tensions or violence in certain countries, economic relations
between the United States and most of its trading partners in the region remain strong. The United
States accounts for roughly 40% of the region’s imports and exports. Most of this trade is with
Mexico, which accounts for 60% of U.S. imports from and 54% of U.S. exports to the region. In
2013, total U.S. exports to Latin America and the Caribbean were valued at $407 billion, while
U.S. imports were valued at $438 billion (see Appendix A).
The United States has strengthened economic ties with the region over the past two decades
through the negotiation and implementation of free trade agreements (FTAs). Starting with the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which entered into force twenty years ago, in
January 1994, the United States has entered into a total of six FTAs involving 11 countries in the
region, including Mexico, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and Peru. Some of the largest economies in South
America, however, such as Argentina, Brazil, and Venezuela, have resisted the idea of forming
trade integration agreements with the United States. As a result, there are numerous other bilateral
and plurilateral trade agreements throughout the Western Hemisphere that do not include the
United States. In addition to FTAs, the United States extends unilateral trade preferences to some
countries in the region through trade preference programs such as the Generalized System of
Preferences (GSP) and the Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA). In the early 1990s,
the United States began extending unilateral trade preferences to certain countries in the Andean
region under the Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA). However, trade preferences for Ecuador,
the only remaining designated beneficiary country under ATPA, expired on July 31, 2013; in late
June 2013, Ecuador had renounced its participation in the program.
As wages rise in East Asia and productivity increases in countries that have an FTA with the
United States, such as Mexico, numerous analysts have proposed that the United States employ
trade policy to further hemispheric cooperation and focus on improving regional supply networks.
The next possible step toward trade integration may be the proposed Trans-Pacific Partnership
(TPP), which could have significant implications for U.S. trade and investment ties with the three
Latin American countries participating in the negotiations—Mexico, Chile, and Peru—as well as
with Canada and seven other countries in the Pacific involved in the negotiations (other Latin
American countries could also join in the future). The proposed TPP may open some issues
related to NAFTA and strengthen provisions in areas such as intellectual property rights (IPR)
protection, labor rights, and environmental protection.
Key Policy Issues. The TPP negotiations are likely to continue to be of congressional interest,
especially in the areas of services trade, IPR protection, worker rights, environmental issues, and
regulatory cooperation. Given that only three countries from Latin America are participating in
the negotiations, this could raise questions as to whether the United States should consider
broadening trade policy efforts to the region as a whole. Another possible issue of interest for
Congress is the Pacific Alliance, a trade liberalization initiative among Chile, Colombia, Mexico,
and Peru. The United States was granted observer status to the Alliance in July 2013, which will
allow it to attend negotiating rounds and also makes it a candidate for full membership. Congress
may also be interested in the recent passage of energy reform in Mexico and the implications for
U.S. oil imports from Mexico and for investment or business opportunities for U.S. companies.
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Congress also could consider trade policy with Brazil in an effort to boost U.S. exports, especially
now that there is a possibility of trade talks between Mexico and Brazil. (Also see sections on
“Brazil” and “Mexico” below.)
For additional background, see CRS Report R42965, NAFTA at 20: Overview and Trade Effects,
by M. Angeles Villarreal and Ian F. Fergusson; CRS Report R42694, The Trans-Pacific
Partnership (TPP) Negotiations and Issues for Congress, coordinated by Ian F. Fergusson; CRS
Report R41429, Trade Preferences: Economic Issues and Policy Options, coordinated by Vivian
C. Jones; and CRS Report RS22548, ATPA Renewal: Background and Issues, by M. Angeles
Villarreal.
Drug Policy
Latin America and the Caribbean feature prominently in U.S. counternarcotics policy due to the
region’s role as a source and transit zone for several illicit drugs destined for U.S. markets—
cocaine, marijuana, methamphetamine, and opiates. Contemporary drug trafficking and
transnational crime syndicates in the region have contributed to degradations in citizen security
and economic development, often resulting in record levels of violence and drug trafficking-
related homicides. Despite significant efforts to combat the drug trade, many governments in
Latin America continue to suffer from overtaxed criminal justice systems and overwhelmed law
enforcement and border control agencies. Moreover, extensive government corruption,
entrenched by deeply influential criminal kingpins, frustrates efforts to interdict drugs, investigate
and prosecute traffickers, and recover illicit proceeds. There is a widespread perception,
particularly among many Latin American observers, that continuing U.S. demand for illicit drugs
is largely to blame for the Western Hemisphere’s ongoing crime and violence problems.
Ongoing struggles to deal with the violent and destabilizing effects of the illicit drug trade,
however, have spurred some Latin American leaders and others to explore drug policy
alternatives. In 2009, the Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy (later renamed
the Global Commission on Drug Policy) advocated the decriminalization of drug consumption
and treatment of drug addiction as a public health matter as well as a redoubling of law
enforcement efforts to crack down on drug trafficking-related organized crime. At the sixth
Summit of the Americas held in April 2012, several Latin American presidents criticized current
international drug control efforts. As a result, Summit participants tasked the OAS Inter-
American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD) to prepare two inter-related reports to
evaluate current Latin American drug policies and provide policy options for alternative drug
control approaches.
The first of these two OAS reports assessed the scope of the drug problem in the Americas. It
concluded that there is no single manifestation of the drug problem in the region. For example, it
found that health-related consequences of drug consumption were most apparent in end-user
countries while criminal activity and related violence predominantly affected drug production and
transit countries. As a result, the report suggests that regional responses may benefit from greater
policy flexibility that allows for a diversity of approaches tailored to the problems facing
individual countries. Such flexibility may include changes in national legislation or international
law to permit the decriminalization or legalization of marijuana.
The second OAS report presents four potential scenarios for the future direction of the drug
problem in the Americas, depending on the policy decisions taken by regional actors between
2013 and 2025. Collectively, policy options identified include (1) addressing insecurity and weak
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governance through institutional capacity building in the justice sector; (2) experimenting with
alternatives to the current prohibitionist drug control regime, including but not limited to the
decriminalization or legalization of marijuana; (3) mitigating drug-related violence and addiction
through local community and civic engagement; and (4) allowing drug traffickers to operate
freely and with impunity in order to reduce the visibility of drug trafficking-related violence.
The OAS drug reports were highlighted at its most recent General Assembly session in June
2013, where the theme of the conference was “For a Comprehensive Policy Against the World
Drug Problem in the Americas.” Many stakeholders had hoped that the OAS reports would spur
further consideration of alternative drug policy options, including in particular changes in policy
approaches to marijuana-related crimes. To date, the Obama Administration’s position on this
issue remains firmly against national-level policies that would legalize or decriminalize
controlled substances, including marijuana. Some countries in Latin America have already begun
the process of modifying domestic drug laws to decriminalize and reduce or alter the penalties
and consequences of certain aspects of the drug control regime, such as for drug possession and
consumption. In an unprecedented move, Uruguay enacted legislation to establish a nationally
regulated legal market for domestic, recreational consumption of cannabis in late December 2013.
Bolivia has also sought a different approach to counternarcotics policy, including a reduced
reliance on U.S. counternarcotics support and the decriminalization of certain activities involving
coca leaf.
Advocates of counternarcotics policy reform have hailed recent Latin American initiatives as a
breakthrough, praising such efforts as overdue, given the perception that existing policies have
not translated into enduring counterdrug progress for the region. Others, however, consider the
prospect of a growing divide between U.S. and Latin American drug control policy as one of the
most serious threats to the integrity of the global drug control regime. Such critics are concerned
that variations in national drug control policies could provide criminal elements additional
opportunities to exploit gaps in drug enforcement. It remains unclear whether such policy debates
may translate into lasting improvements to reduce the production, trafficking, use, and
consequences of illegal drug trade.
Key Policy Issues: The future direction of regional debates on drug policy reform may have
implications for the 113th Congress as it evaluates the Obama Administration’s counternarcotics
goals in the Western Hemisphere, including counternarcotics and foreign aid budget plans. The
113th Congress may also address this issue as it evaluates the distribution of domestic and
international drug control funding, and the relative balance of civilian, law enforcement, and
military roles in regional anti-drug efforts.
For additional information, see CRS Report RL34543, International Drug Control Policy:
Background and U.S. Responses, by Liana Rosen; and CRS Report R41215, Latin America and
the Caribbean: Illicit Drug Trafficking and U.S. Counterdrug Programs , coordinated by Clare
Ribando Seelke.
Terrorism Issues
U.S. attention to terrorism in Latin America intensified in the aftermath of the September 2001
terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, with an increase in bilateral and regional
cooperation. In its 2012 Country Reports on Terrorism (issued in May 2013), the State
Department maintained that the threat of a transnational terrorist attack remained low for most
countries in the hemisphere. It reported that the majority of terrorist attacks in the hemisphere
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were committed by the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). With regard to
Mexico, the State Department maintained that “international terrorist organizations do not have a
known operational presence in Mexico and no terrorist group targeted U.S. citizens in or from
Mexican territory.”
Cuba has remained on the State Department’s list of state sponsors of terrorism since 1982
pursuant to Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act. Both Cuba and Venezuela are on the
State Department’s annual list of countries determined to be not cooperating fully with U.S.
antiterrorism efforts pursuant to Section 40A of the Arms Export Control Act. U.S. officials have
expressed concerns over the past several years about Venezuela’s lack of cooperation on
antiterrorism efforts, its relations with Iran, and potential support for Colombian terrorist groups,
although improved Venezuelan-Colombian relations have resulted in closer cooperation on
antiterrorism and counter-narcotics efforts and border security. Both Cuba and Venezuela have
actively supported ongoing peace talks between the Colombian government and the FARC being
held in Cuba since 2012.
Over the past several years, policymakers have been concerned about Iran’s increasing activities
in Latin America. Concerns center on Iran’s attempts to circumvent U.N. and U.S. sanctions, as
well as on its ties to the radical Lebanon-based Islamic group Hezbollah. Both Iran and Hezbollah
are reported to be linked to two bombings against Jewish targets in Argentina in the early 1990s.
The 112th Congress enacted the Countering Iran in the Western Hemisphere Act of 2012 (P.L.
112-220) in December 2012, which required the Administration within 180 days to conduct an
assessment and present “a strategy to address Iran’s growing hostile presence and activity in the
Western Hemisphere.” In June 2013, the State Department submitted the required report to
Congress. While most of it was classified, an unclassified annex stated that “Iranian influence in
Latin America and the Caribbean is waning.” Critics maintain that the State Department is
playing down the threat posed by Iran in the region, while others contend that while Iran’s
involvement in the region is a concern, its level and significance are being exaggerated. As in past
years, the State Department 2012 terrorism report maintains that there are no known operational
cells of either Al Qaeda or Hezbollah in the hemisphere, but noted that “ideological sympathizers
in South America and the Caribbean continued to provide financial and ideological support to
those and other terrorist groups in the Middle East and South Asia.”
Key Policy Issues. The 113th Congress is continuing its oversight of terrorism concerns in the
Western Hemisphere, especially the activities of Iran and Hezbollah. The State Department
assessment of Iranian activities in the region and the U.S. strategy to address was the subject of
two House hearings in 2013, and another House hearing on terrorist groups in Latin America was
held in February 2014 (see Appendix B). In terms of legislative initiatives, two have been
introduced so far in the 113th Congress related to Cuba. H.R. 1917 (Rush) would, among its
provisions, rescind any determination of the Secretary of State in effect on the date of enactment
of the Act that Cuba has repeatedly provided support for acts of international terrorism. H.Res.
262 (King) would call for the immediate extradition or rendering to the United States of all
fugitives from justice who are receiving safe harbor in Cuba in order to escape prosecution or
confinement for criminal offenses in the United States. The issue of Cuba’s harboring of fugitives
wanted in the United States has been mentioned for several years in the State Department’s
annual report on terrorism.
For additional information, see CRS Report RS21049, Latin America: Terrorism Issues, by Mark
P. Sullivan and June S. Beittel.
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Organization of American States
Since its foundation in 1948, the Organization of American States (OAS) has served as a forum
through which the United States has sought to foster regional cooperation and advance U.S.
priorities in the Western Hemisphere. OAS actions reflected U.S. policy for much of the 20th
century as other members sought to closely align themselves with the dominant economic and
political power in the region. As the other 34 members have developed more independent foreign
policies, however, the OAS has become less receptive to U.S. initiatives and more prone to
inaction. A number of Members of Congress have expressed concern about the organization’s
direction in recent years. Some assert that the OAS advances policies counter to U.S. interests and
argue that the United States should no longer fund the organization. Others assert that the OAS
continues to be an important hemispheric institution but worry that administrative and financial
problems are preventing it from effectively carrying out its core missions of democracy
promotion, human rights protection, economic and social development, and regional security
cooperation.
Key Policy Issues: The 113th Congress has maintained considerable interest in the OAS, and has
adopted legislation designed to strengthen the organization. On October 2, 2013, President
Obama signed into law the OAS Revitalization and Reform Act of 2013 (P.L. 113-41), which had
been passed by both houses of Congress in September 2013. The measure expresses support for
the OAS, asserts that the organization could carry out its mission more effectively by
implementing certain management and programmatic reforms, and directs the Secretary of State
to develop a strategy to ensure the proposed changes are adopted. It also directs the Secretary of
State to submit the strategy to Congress within 180 days of enactment, and provide quarterly
briefings on the implementation of the proposed reforms.
The 113th Congress has also continued to demonstrate support for the Inter-American
Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), an autonomous OAS institution. The explanatory
statement accompanying the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (P.L. 113-76), which was
signed into law on January 17, 2014, designates $2 million for the IACHR. Likewise, S.Rept.
113-81, which accompanied the Senate Appropriations Committee’s FY2014 foreign aid funding
measure, recognized “the essential role of the IACHR in providing justice for victims of human
rights violations and protecting basic freedoms in many Latin American countries whose justice
systems are weak and influenced by corruption.” Moreover, a provision of the Countering ALBA
Act of 2013 (H.R. 1687), introduced in April 2013, would direct the U.S. Permanent
Representative to the OAS to use the voice, vote, and influence of the United States to protect and
strengthen the IACHR.
For additional information, see CRS Report R42639, Organization of American States:
Background and Issues for Congress, by Peter J. Meyer.
Selected Country and Sub-Regional Issues
Argentina
U.S.-Argentine relations generally have been strong since the country’s return to democracy in
1983, although at times there have been tensions in the bilateral relationship. While the United
States and Argentina have a bilateral investment treaty in place, Argentina has taken actions in
recent years that have dampened the investment climate, especially for new entrants to the
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market, according to the Department of State (2013 Investment Climate Statement). There are
some eight pending U.S. arbitration cases against Argentina at the World Bank’s International
Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) out a total of some 24 Argentine cases.
Moreover, Argentina has not complied with ICSID rulings involving a total of $300 million, plus
interest, to two U.S. companies. As a result, in March 2012 the United States announced the
suspension of Argentina’s eligibility as a beneficiary of the Generalized System of Preferences.
A significant economic challenge for the government of President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner
(who leads the leftist faction of the Peronist or Justicialist Party, PJ) is how to resolve Argentina’s
outstanding defaulted external debt, including debt owed to Paris Club countries (almost $6.5
billion, not including interest and penalties, with debt to the U.S. government amounting to some
$550 million) and remaining private creditors (about $11.2 billion, including interest). In 2001,
Argentina had defaulted on $81.8 billion of sovereign debt. Argentina has restructured this debt
twice, and although this resolved 92% of outstanding debt, it left the remainder held largely by
hedge funds subject to court-ordered judgments and attachment orders. The outstanding debt has
effectively blocked Argentina from the international credit markets. On January 20, 2014,
Argentina made an offer to repay its Paris Club debt. The Paris Club reportedly is studying the
offer and reportedly it could take several months to work out an accord.42
U.S. federal court rulings have ordered Argentina to pay some litigating private creditor holdouts
the full value of their claim, $1.3 billion, but Argentina reportedly will ask the U.S. Supreme
Court in early 2014 to review an Appeals Court ruling.43 Requirement for the payment of full
value to the holdouts could jeopardize Argentina’s ability to pay creditors who participated in the
2005 and 2010 debt restructurings. In an unrelated case, the Supreme Court agreed in early
January 2014 to hear an appeal by Argentina on a lower court ruling as to whether a holdout
creditor from Argentina should be allowed to seek bank records about the country’s international
assets.44
President Fernández was elected twice in 2007 and 2011 (her deceased husband, former President
Néstor Kirchner, had served 2003 to 2007), but she is ineligible to run for a third time in 2015.
The Fernández government has been lauded for its efforts to bring to justice former members of
the military and police for killings, disappearance, and torture committed during the era of
military rule. There has been some criticism of the government, however, regarding press
freedom because of its effort to compel a major media company to sell some of its assets; the
government maintains that its efforts are geared to create more competition in the media market.
The recent plunge of Argentina’s peso, which fell by 15% in January 2014, has also focused
attention on that country’s difficult economic situation characterized by high inflation and
declining international reserves.
Key Policy Issues: Congress maintains an interest in Argentina because of international
arbitration rulings in favor of U.S. companies that remain unpaid by Argentina, other pending
arbitration cases involving U.S. companies, and outstanding defaulted debt owed to the U.S.
government and private creditors. Some Members of Congress also have expressed concern about
42 “Paris Club Says Will Study Argentina’s Debt Offer,” Reuters, January 22, 2014.
43 “U.S. Appeals Court Denies Argentina’s Appeal in Holdout Creditor Case,” Wall Street Journal, November 18,
2013.
44 Brent Kendall, “Supreme Court to Hear Argentina Appeal in Records Case,” Wall Street Journal, January 10, 2014.
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the state of democracy and Argentina’s difficult economic situation and its current
macroeconomic policy framework.
For background information, see the following two archived reports: CRS Report R41029,
Argentina’s Defaulted Sovereign Debt: Dealing with the “Holdouts”, and CRS Report R43022,
Argentina’s Post-Crisis Economic Reform: Challenges for U.S. Policy.
Brazil
U.S. policy toward Brazil remains in flux as officials adjust to the country’s increasingly global
reach. Brazil enjoyed strong economic growth from 2004 to 2010 and is now the world’s seventh-
largest economy. The country has utilized its economic clout to exert more influence on global
matters. As a result, the United States and Brazil increasingly engage on international issues in
addition to bilateral concerns. The changing relationship has occasionally frustrated U.S.
policymakers as the two multicultural democracies’ shared values have not always translated into
common approaches to international affairs. Some analysts assert that the independent foreign
policies and occasionally divergent national interests of Brazil and the United States will
inevitably lead to disputes, but that the countries can maintain a constructive partnership through
transparent and respectful engagement. Such engagement has proven challenging in recent
months, however, as press reports have alleged that the National Security Agency (NSA) has
intercepted Brazilian communications, including those of President Dilma Rousseff and the state-
owned oil company, Petrobras. The reports led Brazil to indefinitely postpone a state visit that
Rousseff was scheduled to make in October 2013, and have contributed to a general cooling of
relations.
Key Policy Issues: The 113th Congress has expressed interest in several aspects of U.S.-Brazil
relations, though commercial ties have received particular attention. In June 2013, for example,
the House Committee on Ways and Means, Subcommittee on Trade held a hearing examining the
opportunities and challenges of the U.S.-Brazil trade and investment relationship (see Appendix
B). The hearing witnesses generally agreed with one another that there is considerable room for
growth in commercial relations, and called for Brazil and the United States to work together to
address barriers to trade and investment.
The 2014 farm bill (H.R. 2642, P.L. 113-79), signed into law February 7, 2014, could have
significant implications for bilateral trade. In 2009, the World Trade Organization (WTO)
authorized Brazil to impose trade retaliation measures, potentially including higher tariffs on a
range of U.S. products and the suspension of certain intellectual property rights obligations, as a
result of a dispute regarding the U.S cotton program. The United States has thus far avoided trade
retaliation as a result of a temporary agreement with Brazil, signed in 2010, which required the
United States to provide annual contributions of $147 million to a fund to assist Brazilian cotton
producers while Congress considered changes to the U.S. cotton program as part of the farm bill
reauthorization. The United States has failed to comply with the temporary agreement since the
previous farm bill extension (P.L. 112-240) expired at the end of FY2013. Although the new farm
bill includes several modifications to the cotton program, it is currently unclear whether Brazil
will deem the changes sufficient.
The 113th Congress has also considered several other issues related to Brazil. The explanatory
statement accompanying the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (P.L. 113-76), which was
signed into law on January 17, 2014, stipulates that $10.5 million of the funds appropriated
should support environmental programs in the Brazilian Amazon. The Border Security, Economic
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Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act (S. 744), which was passed by the Senate in
June 2013, includes a provision that would require U.S. consular missions to explore options for
expanding visa processing capacity in Brazil. Two other bills, introduced in February 2013, are
designed to pressure Brazil to amend its constitution and allow the extradition of Brazilian
nationals; H.R. 571 would suspend foreign assistance to Brazil and H.R. 572 would suspend the
issuance of visas to Brazilian nationals.
For additional information, see CRS Report RL33456, Brazil-U.S. Relations, by Peter J. Meyer,
and CRS Report R43336, Status of the WTO Brazil-U.S. Cotton Case, by Randy Schnepf.
Caribbean
Because of their geographic location, many Caribbean nations are transit countries for illicit drugs
from South America and the Caribbean destined for the U.S. and European markets. Currently, of
the 15 countries in the Caribbean region, President Obama identified 4—the Bahamas, the
Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Jamaica—as major drug-producing or drug-transit countries in
September 2013 pursuant to annual legislative drug certification requirements. Many other
Caribbean nations, particularly in the Eastern Caribbean, are also vulnerable to drug trafficking
and associated crimes. Homicide rates in several Caribbean countries have increased in recent
years because of gangs and organized crime, competition between drug trafficking organizations,
and the availability of firearms.
In 2009, the Obama Administration developed the Caribbean Basin Security Initiative (CBSI)
through a process of dialogue with Caribbean countries with the goal of reducing illicit trafficking
in the Caribbean, advancing public safety and security, and promoting social justice. U.S. funding
for the program from FY2010 through FY2013 amounted to $263.5 million with assistance in the
following five areas: maritime and aerial security cooperation; law enforcement capacity
building; border/port security and firearms interdiction; justice sector reform; and crime
prevention and at-risk youth.
Key Policy Issues: For FY2014, the Obama Administration requested an additional $63.5 million
for the CBSI. The explanatory statement to the FY2014 omnibus appropriations measure (P.L.
113-76) provided full CBSI funding for two foreign aid accounts, $29.3 million in Economic
Support Funds (ESF) and $25 million in International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement
(INCLE) assistance. Moreover, both the House and Senate Appropriations Committee versions of
the FY2014 foreign aid appropriations measure, H.R. 2855 and S. 1372, as reported out of
committee expressed support for CBSI funding. However, the report to the Senate bill (S.Rept.
113-81) expressed concern that funding should only be made available for governments that
demonstrated a commitment to punishing corruption and reforming their security forces. The
report to the House bill (H.Rept. 113-185) also requires a State Department report on CBSI
funding on a country-by-country basis for FY2010 through FY2014.
In terms of oversight, the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on the Western
Hemisphere, held a hearing on the CBSI in June 2013 examining the status of the program (see
Appendix B). Oversight questions for congressional consideration include what have been the
results to date of three years of assistance under the CBSI? To what extent has U.S. support to
Caribbean countries under the CBSI helped reduce drug trafficking and high homicide rates in the
region? To what extent are Caribbean countries themselves investing in CBSI-related activities?
Some observers have also called for a broader emphasis on economic development and trade in
Caribbean beyond a focus on security-related issues.
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Central America
In recent years, U.S. policymakers have expressed significant concerns about security and human
rights conditions in Central America. Countries in the region—particularly El Salvador,
Guatemala, and Honduras—have long struggled to deal with rising levels of crime and violence,
which analysts have linked to inter-related factors such as widespread social exclusion and weak
and corrupt security and justice sector institutions. These problems have been compounded by
transnational criminal organizations seeking to control Central American territory in order to
transport illicit narcotics from producers in South America to consumer markets in the United
States and Europe. The U.S. government has sought to assist countries in the region through the
Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI). The initiative provides partner nations
with equipment, training, and technical assistance to support immediate law enforcement
operations, build long-term institutional capacity, and address underlying socioeconomic
challenges. Congress appropriated $642.1 million for CARSI between FY2008 and FY2013.
Key Policy Issues: Security and human rights concerns in Central America have continued to
receive congressional attention during the 113th Congress. As noted above, the President signed
the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (P.L. 113-76) into law on January 17, 2014. According
to the explanatory statement accompanying the act, Congress is fully funding the
Administration’s request of $161.5 million for CARSI in FY2014. The measure also modifies
human rights conditions on aid to Guatemala and Honduras, and designates $5 million for
continued support of the International Commission Against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG).
In terms of oversight, the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on the Western
Hemisphere held a hearing that examined the effectiveness of CARSI in June 2013, and the Tom
Lantos Human Rights Commission held a hearing that examined the human rights situation in
Honduras in July 2013 (see Appendix B for links to the hearings). In September 2013, the
Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a report on CARSI, which had been
commissioned by the Senate Caucus on International Narcotics Control. The report (GAO-13-
771) examined the extent to which appropriated funds have been disbursed, how non-CARSI aid
has supported CARSI goals, and by what means CARSI programs are being evaluated. Questions
for ongoing congressional oversight might include: How much progress has been made toward
U.S. objectives with the funds invested in CARSI thus far? To what extent are Central American
nations undertaking the fiscal and policy reforms necessary to consolidate gains and sustain
efforts? Are additional conditions on U.S. assistance or a greater focus on sequencing aid efforts
necessary in order to ensure that the United States does not assist police and military forces that
are engaged in corruption and/or human rights abuses?
For additional information, see CRS Report R41731, Central America Regional Security
Initiative: Background and Policy Issues for Congress, by Peter J. Meyer and Clare Ribando
Seelke; CRS Report RL34112, Gangs in Central America, by Clare Ribando Seelke; CRS Report
RS21655, El Salvador: Political and Economic Conditions and U.S. Relations, by Clare Ribando
Seelke; CRS Report R42580, Guatemala: Political, Security, and Socio-Economic Conditions
and U.S. Relations, by Maureen Taft-Morales; and CRS Report RL34027, Honduras-U.S.
Relations, by Peter J. Meyer.
Colombia
A key U.S. ally in the region, Colombia has endured an internal armed conflict for half a century.
Drug trafficking has helped to perpetuate Colombia’s conflict by funding both left-wing and
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right-wing armed groups. Over the years, Colombia and the United States forged a close
partnership focused initially on counternarcotics and later counterterrorism. Building on that
cooperation, the U.S.-Colombia partnership has broadened to include development, human rights,
and trade.
The Colombian government, in close cooperation with the United States through a strategy
known as Plan Colombia, has reestablished government control over much of its territory,
reduced poverty and homicide rates, and made significant headway in combating drug trafficking
and terrorist activities. Colombia has substantially improved citizen security and economic
stability, but some observers continue to raise concerns about human rights conditions in the
country. Between FY2000 and FY2013, Congress provided Colombia more than $9 billion in
assistance to carry out Plan Colombia and its follow-on strategies. This support is gradually being
reduced as programs are turned over to Colombian control.
President Juan Manuel Santos, elected in 2010 from a center-right party, has governed with the
backing of almost 90% of the Colombian Congress in a “national unity” coalition. In his first two
years in office, President Santos launched a number of reforms and expanded trade relations with
the United States, Colombia’s largest trade partner, and others. In late August 2012, he announced
that exploratory peace talks were underway with the country’s main leftist insurgent group, the
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Formal peace negotiations with the FARC
began in Norway in October 2012, and moved to Cuba in November 2012, where substantive
talks continue. While the peace talks passed their one year mark in late 2013 (the President’s
original target date for completion), they are broadly popular in Colombia although their
prospects remain uncertain and they face vocal opposition led by former two-term president
Álvaro Uribe.
A framework agreement structuring the talks has provided a six-point negotiating agenda. There
are five substantive topics—land and rural development; political participation of the FARC;
ending the armed conflict including reinsertion of rebel forces into civilian life; illegal drug
trafficking; victims’ reparations—and a final procedural point, the implementation of the final
agreement, including its ratification and verification. As of early February 2014, two of the six
issues have been resolved: the key issue of land and rural development (May 2013), and the
controversial issue of FARC’s political participation after disarmament (November 2013). The
current topic under negotiation, illegal drugs, may have implications for the close U.S.-
Colombian partnership in the area of counternarcotics.
In early 2014, political campaigns were launched for congressional and presidential elections to
be held in March and May, respectively. Colombia’s upcoming elections are in one respect a
referendum on the FARC-government peace talks—the flagship initiative of the Santos
government. In President Santo’s bid for re-election (May 25, 2014 is the first round of the
presidential elections, with the possibility of a runoff in June), he faces opposition from Uribe’s
political party, the Democratic Center, which opposes the peace talks and many other Santos
policies.
Key Policy Issues. The 113th Congress has maintained a strong interest in Colombia’s progress in
security, counternarcotics, human rights, and trade. In October 2011, the U.S. Congress approved
implementing legislation for the U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement, which went into force on
May 15, 2012, and will eventually eliminate most tariffs and barriers to bilateral trade. Members
of Congress are monitoring Colombia’s peace negotiations and their effect on security conditions
within the country, and may consider how U.S. assistance will shift in the event a peace accord is
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signed. Members may also want to consider what role the United States should continue to play
in Colombia’s ongoing struggle with drug trafficking and illegal armed groups.
Regarding oversight of continued U.S. foreign aid to Colombia, key issues include funding levels
for Plan Colombia’s follow-on strategies, continuing allegations of human rights abuses including
in the area of labor rights, assistance to Colombia for security training in third countries, and the
future of cooperation on counternarcotics policies such as aerial eradication and alternative
development. In the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (P.L. 113-76, signed into law January
17, 2014), Congress appears to have fully funded the Obama Administration’s FY2014 request of
approximately $323 million for assistance to Colombia provided from State Department accounts.
For additional information, see CRS Report RL32250, Colombia: Background, U.S. Relations,
and Congressional Interest, by June S. Beittel; CRS Report R42982, Peace Talks in Colombia, by
June S. Beittel; and CRS Report RL34470, The U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement:
Background and Issues, by M. Angeles Villarreal.
Cuba
Since the early 1960s, U.S. policy has consisted largely of isolating Cuba through economic
sanctions. A second policy component has consisted of support measures for the Cuban people,
including U.S. government-sponsored broadcasting (Radio and TV Martí) and support for human
rights and democracy activists. In light of Fidel Castro’s official departure as head of government
in 2008, and the economic policy changes that have been made by the government of Raúl
Castro, many observers called for a reexamination of policy. Two broad approaches have been at
the center of debate. The first is to maintain the dual-track policy of isolating the Cuban
government while providing support to the Cuban people. The second approach advocates lifting
economic sanctions and focusing largely on increasing engagement with Cuba with the goal of
changing attitudes in the Cuban government and society.
Since taking office, the Obama Administration has essentially followed the first approach. While
the Administration has lifted all restrictions on family travel and remittances, eased restrictions on
other types of purposeful travel, and engaged Cuba on several bilateral issues in the U.S. national
interest, it has also maintained U.S. economic sanctions. The Administration welcomed the
release of many political prisoners in 2010 and 2011, but it has also criticized Cuba’s continued
repression of political dissidents through thousands of short-term detentions and targeted
violence. The Administration has continued to call for the release of U.S. government
subcontractor Alan Gross, detained in 2009 and sentenced to 15 years in prison in March 2011.
Key Policy Issues: Strong interest in Cuba is continuing in the 113th Congress with attention
focused on the human rights situation and U.S. sanctions. The continued imprisonment of Alan
Gross remains a key concern for many Members. In March 2013, Congress completed action on
full-year FY2013 appropriations with the approval of H.R. 933 (P.L. 113-6), which continues to
provide funding for Cuba democracy and human rights projects and Cuba broadcasting (Radio
and TV Martí).
In the FY2014 omnibus appropriations measure, H.R. 3547 (P.L. 113-76), Congress provided up
to $17.5 million in Economic Support Funds (ESF) for programs and activities in Cuba ($2.5
million more than requested) and stipulated that no ESF appropriated under the Act may be
obligated by the U.S. Agency for International Development for any new programs or activities in
Cuba. The joint explanatory statement to the bill stated that of the $17.5 million, not less than
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$7.5 million shall be provided directly to the National Endowment for Democracy, and not more
than $10 million shall be administered by the State Department. With regard to funding for Cuba
broadcasting, the FY2014 omnibus measure provided $27.043 million, about $3.2 million more
than requested by the Administration.
With regard to Cuba sanctions, both the House and Senate Appropriation Committees’ versions of
the FY2014 Financial Services and General Government appropriations measure, H.R. 2786 and
S. 1371, had different provisions that would have tightened and eased travel restrictions
respectively, but none of these provisions were included in the FY2014 omnibus appropriations
measure.
Several other initiatives on Cuba have been introduced in the 113th Congress. Several would lift
or ease U.S. economic sanctions on Cuba: H.R. 214 and H.R. 872 (overall embargo); H.R. 871
(travel); and H.R. 873 (travel and agricultural exports). H.R. 215 would allow Cubans to play
organized professional baseball in the United States. H.R. 1917 would lift the embargo and
extend nondiscriminatory trade treatment to the products of Cuba after Cuba releases Alan Gross
from prison. Identical initiatives, H.R. 778/S. 647 would modify a 1998 trademark sanction; in
contrast, H.R. 214, H.R. 872, H.R. 873, and H.R. 1917 each have a provision that would repeal
the sanction. H.Res. 121 would honor the work of Cuban blogger Yoani Sánchez. H.Res. 262
would call for the immediate extradition or rendering of all U.S. fugitives from justices in Cuba.
For additional information, see CRS Report R43024, Cuba: U.S. Policy and Issues for the 113th
Congress, by Mark P. Sullivan; and CRS Report RL31139, Cuba: U.S. Restrictions on Travel and
Remittances, by Mark P. Sullivan.
Haiti
Just over halfway into President Michel Martelly’s five-year term, Congress and the donor
community have expressed concern about his commitment to the democratic process. At a House
Foreign Affairs Committee (HFAC) hearing on Haiti on October 9, 2013, Members on both sides
of the aisle suggested that the failure to hold legislative elections already two years overdue could
affect U.S. assistance to Haiti. Since then, the Haitian government published a new electoral law,
allowing the process to move forward, and Martelly has promised elections in 2014.
Marking the fourth anniversary of the January 2010 earthquake that devastated its capital, Haiti
continues to make progress in its overall recovery effort, but enormous challenges remain.
Criticism abounds that reconstruction aid and efforts are moving too slowly, contributing to
mounting public frustration with international donors and the government. A cholera epidemic
broke out in late 2010. Scientific studies link its introduction to inadequate sanitation at a U.N.
peacekeepers’ camp. Victims filed a class action suit against the U.N. in a U.S. federal court in
October 2013, seeking establishment of a U.N standing claims commission to address claims for
harm, and compensation for victims, including “$2.2 billion that the Haitian government requires
to eradicate cholera.” The U.N. has refused to accept the complaint. Citing diplomatic immunity,
the U.N. said earlier in 2013 that it would not compensate cholera victims.
To enhance citizen security, donors have encouraged Haiti to focus on further strengthening the
Haitian National Police. Some 2,000 new officers were graduated from the police academy in
2012-2013. Despite opposition at home and abroad, Martelly has taken steps to re-create an army.
Ecuador trained 41 Haitian military recruits last year to work on engineering projects. The
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opposition-controlled Parliament would have to vote to reconstitute the army, which was
abolished in 1995 after decades of gross violations of human rights and repeated coups.
The main priorities for U.S. policy regarding Haiti are to strengthen fragile democratic processes,
continue to improve security, and promote economic development. Other issues include the cost
and effectiveness of U.S. aid; protecting human rights; combating narcotics-, arms-, and human-
trafficking; and alleviating poverty. Congress shares these concerns. The Obama Administration
granted Temporary Protected Status to Haitians living in the United States at the time of the
earthquake, and has extended it through July 22, 2014.
Key policy issues. The pressing issue for the remainder of the 113th Congress regarding Haiti
will be to see that overdue elections are held soon in a free, fair, and transparent manner. A new
concern is the impact for Haiti of a September 2013 court ruling in the Dominican Republic that
could render some 200,000 Dominicans, mostly of Haitian descent, stateless. If the Dominican
Republic were to render those people stateless and send them to Haiti, the impact on Haiti could
be enormous. Haiti and the Dominican Republic are in talks to resolve these issues.
About 65 members of Congress called on the U.N. to “acknowledge its legal responsibility” for
the cholera outbreak and “fully fund the Cholera Elimination Plan.” Recent reports criticizing
labor practices in Haitian factories, including at the U.S.-funded Caracol Industrial Park, may
renew Congressional concern over the alleged widespread underpayment of workers and unsafe
working conditions.
The House passed H.R. 3509, the Assessing Progress in Haiti Act of 2013 on December 12, 2013;
it was referred the next day to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. It would direct the
Secretary of State to report to Congress within 120 days, and every six months thereafter through
September 30, 2016, on the status of specific aspects of post-earthquake recovery and
development efforts in Haiti. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014, P.L. 113-76, prohibits
assistance to the central government of Haiti until the Secretary of State certifies that Haiti has
held free and fair parliamentary elections, is respecting judicial independence, and is taking
effective steps to combat corruption and improve governance. The bill also prohibits the
obligation or expenditure of funds for Haiti except as provided through the regular notification
procedures of the Committees on Appropriations; but allows Haiti to purchase defense articles
and services under the Arms Export Control Act for its Coast Guard.
For background information, see CRS Report R42559, Haiti under President Martelly: Current
Conditions and Congressional Concerns, by Maureen Taft-Morales.
Mexico
Congress has maintained significant interest in Mexico and played an important role in shaping
U.S.-Mexico relations. President Enrique Peña Nieto of the centrist Institutional Revolutionary
Party (PRI) assumed the Mexican presidency on December 1, 2012 after 12 years of rule by the
conservative National Action Party (PAN). Upon his inauguration, President Peña Nieto pledged
to enact bold structural reforms and broaden relations with the United States beyond security
issues.
President Peña Nieto’s first year in office has brought with it mixed results. On the one hand, the
economy has faltered (economic growth fell from 3.7% in 2012 to 1.2% in 2013) and significant
security challenges remain. On the other hand, Peña Nieto’s “Pact for Mexico” agreement with
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the PAN and leftist Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) facilitated the passage of historic
financial, education, telecommunications, and fiscal reforms. These reform efforts culminated in
the December 20, 2013 promulgation of a series of energy reforms that will open up Mexico’s
hydrocarbons and electricity sectors to private investment.
As Mexico has experienced a domestic shift in power, U.S.-Mexican relations have also evolved.
President Obama and Vice President Biden embraced President Peña Nieto’s desire to bolster
economic ties and focus on issues beyond security, including education, during their respective
May and September 2013 visits to Mexico. U.S.-Mexican security cooperation has continued
under the Mérida framework, albeit at a relatively slow pace. Friction has occurred in the
relationship due to limits Mexico put on U.S. involvement in some law enforcement and
intelligence operations and revelations of U.S. spying on former President Felipe Calderón and
President-elect Peña Nieto. The recent U.S. approval of the Trans-Boundary Hydrocarbons
Agreement signed in February 2012 on managing oil resources in the Gulf of Mexico and
Mexican approval of energy reforms are likely to create opportunities for energy cooperation.
Water disputes have arisen in the Rio Grande River Basin even as bilateral cooperation has
increased in the Colorado River Basin. The Peña Nieto government has supported efforts to enact
comprehensive immigration reform in the United States, but has urged U.S. policymakers not to
militarize the U.S.-Mexico border.
Key Policy Issues: This year, a broad range of issues in U.S.-Mexican relations have received
congressional attention. The Senate passed S. 744 in June 2013, a comprehensive immigration
reform bill that includes additional funding for border security; in contrast, House committees
have approved a series of discrete immigration measures, including H.R. 1417, which would
require new border security metrics. In December 2013, Congress approved the U.S.-Mexico
Transboundary Hydrocarbons Agreement that is intended to facilitate joint development of oil
and natural gas in part of the Gulf of Mexico (P.L. 113-67). Congress has continued oversight of
the Mérida Initiative and included at least $200 million in assistance to Mexico in the FY2014
Consolidated Appropriations Act, P.L. 113-76, subject to human rights conditions, along with
funding for additional customs inspectors and infrastructure at the U.S.-Mexico border. P.L. 113-
76 also requires a State Department report on how it is addressing a U.S.-Mexico water dispute in
the Rio Grande Basin. The 2014 farm bill, H.R. 2642 (P.L. 113-79), signed into law February 7,
2014, also has a provision requiring a State Department report on the issue.
U.S.-Mexican energy cooperation and the recent reforms that Mexico has enacted have generated
congressional interest, as has how Mexico’s participation in the Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP)
negotiations may impact U.S.-Mexico economic relations, especially in the context of the 20th
anniversary of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
Potential oversight questions that Congress might consider include: How is security cooperation
under the Mérida Initiative evolving to reflect Mexico’s prioritization of violence reduction? On
the border, how are security concerns being balanced against bilateral efforts to promote
economic dynamism? What are the prospects for economic growth in Mexico and how might the
recent enactment of fiscal and energy reforms in Mexico affect U.S. businesses?
For additional information, see: CRS Report R42917, Mexico: Background and U.S. Relations,
by Clare Ribando Seelke; CRS Report R41349, U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: The Mérida
Initiative and Beyond, by Clare Ribando Seelke and Kristin Finklea; CRS Report RL32934, U.S.-
Mexico Economic Relations: Trends, Issues, and Implications, by M. Angeles Villarreal; CRS
Report R43313, Mexico’s Oil and Gas Sector: Background, Reform Efforts, and Implications for
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the United States, coordinated by Clare Ribando Seelke; and CRS Report R43312, U.S.-Mexico
Water Sharing: Background and Recent Developments, by Nicole T. Carter, Clare Ribando
Seelke, and Daniel T. Shedd.
Venezuela
While historically the United States has had close relations with Venezuela, a major supplier of
foreign oil, friction in bilateral relations rose over the past decade under the populist government
of President Hugo Chávez, who died in March 2013 after battling cancer for almost two years.
First elected in 1998, Chávez had won reelection to another six-year term in October 2012,
capturing about 55% of the vote compared to 44% for opposition candidate Henrique Capriles.
After Chávez’s death, Venezuela held presidential elections in April 2013 in which acting
President Nicolás Maduro, who had been serving as Chávez’s vice president, won by less than
2% of the vote. In both of those presidential elections, the incumbent candidate benefited from
the use of state resources for his campaign.
Among the concerns of U.S. policymakers in recent years has been the deterioration of human
rights and democratic conditions, Venezuela’s significant military arms purchases, lack of
cooperation on anti-terrorism efforts, limited bilateral anti-drug cooperation, and Venezuela’s
relations with Cuba and Iran. In late 2010, Venezuela revoked an agreement for U.S.
Ambassador-designate Larry Palmer to serve in Caracas; the United States responded by revoking
the diplomatic visa of the Venezuelan Ambassador to the United States. In September 2013,
President Obama issued the ninth annual determination (as part of the annual narcotics
certification process) that Venezuela had “failed demonstrably” to meet its obligations under
international counternarcotics measures. The State Department maintains that individual members
of the Venezuelan government and security forces were credibly reported to have engaged in or
facilitated drug trafficking activities. The United States has imposed financial sanctions on
several current or former Venezuelan government and military officials for allegedly helping the
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) with drug and weapons trafficking. The
United States has also imposed sanctions on three Venezuelan companies for alleged support to
Iran and on several Venezuelan individuals for providing financial support to Hezbollah. Despite
these and other tensions, the Obama Administration has maintained that the United States remains
committed to seeking constructive engagement with Venezuela.
In 2014, there has been increasing concern about economic conditions in Venezuela, which is
facing shortages of basic food and consumer items, electricity shortages, high inflation (56% at
the end of 2013), and falling international reserves. High rates of crime and violence also
continue. During the second week of February 2014, student-led protests were attacked by pro-
government armed civilian groups leading to clashes in which three people were killed – two
student demonstrators and a pro-government activist. Some 100 student protestors were arrested.
The Venezuelan government blamed the opposition for the violence, and orchestrated its own
march in support of the government. Secretary of State John Kerry expressed deep concern about
rising tensions and violence, and called on the “Venezuelan government to provide the political
space necessary for meaningful dialogue with the Venezuelan people and to release detained
protestors.”45
45 U.S. Department of State, Secretary of State John Kerry, “Recent Violence in Venezuela,” Press Statement, February
15, 2014.
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Key Policy Issues: The 113th Congress is continuing oversight on the status of human rights and
democracy in Venezuela as well as on drug trafficking and terrorism concerns, including the
extent of Venezuela’s relations with Iran. Of particular interest is the future of U.S.-Venezuelan
relations in the aftermath of President Chávez’s death in March 2013. To date, two legislative
initiatives have been introduced: S.Res. 213 would express support for the free and peaceful
exercise of representative democracy in Venezuela and condemn violence and intimidation
against the country’s political opposition; H.R. 1687 would, among other provisions, provide for
the imposition of visa and financial sanctions against certain listed officials of four governments
belonging to the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA)—Bolivia, Ecuador, Nicaragua,
and Venezuela. Congress also faces consideration of the FY2014 foreign aid appropriations
measure (H.R. 2855, S. 1372); the Administration’s request included $5 million to support civil
society efforts to build and protect democratic freedoms and protect human rights.
For further information, see CRS Report R43239, Venezuela: Background and U.S. Relations, by
Mark P. Sullivan, and CRS Report RS21049, Latin America: Terrorism Issues, which has a
section on Venezuela’s relations with Iran. For additional background, see the following archived
reports: CRS Report R42989, Hugo Chávez’s Death: Implications for Venezuela and U.S.
Relations; and CRS Report R40938, Venezuela: Issues for Congress, 2009-2012.
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Appendix A. U.S. Trade with Latin America and the
Caribbean, 2007-2013
Table A-1. U. S. Imports from Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) 2007-2013
(U.S. $ Millions)
Partner
2013/2012
Country
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
% Change
Mexico
210,714
215,942
176,654
229,986
262,874 277,570 280,456
1.04
Venezuela
39,910
51,424
28,059
32,707
43,257 38,724 31,997 -17.37
Brazil
25,644
30,453
20,070
23,958
31,737 32,123 27,533 -14.23
Colombia
9,434
13,093
11,323
15,659
23,114 24,620 21,617 -12.20
Costa
3,942
3,938
5,612
8,697
10,119 12,042
11,906
-1.13
Rica
Ecuador
6,135
9,048
5,273
7,451
9,622 9,485
11,489 21.13
Chile
8,999
8,196
5,949
7,017
9,076 9,371
10,363 10.59
Peru
5,272
5,812
4,223
5,243
6,605 6,418 8,122 26.55
Trinidad &
Tobago
8,790
9,030
5,180
6,613
8,113 8,158
6,504
-20.28
Argentina
4,487
5,822
3,890
3,803
4,503 4,350 4,641
6.69
Total
LAC 345,458 375,763 284,726 361,363 436,510 448,337 438,347
-2.23
World
1,956,962 2,103,641 1,559,625 1,913,857 2,208,055 2,275,320 2,266,855
-0.37
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce statistics as presented by Global Trade Atlas, February 2014.
Notes: Provides statistics on top 10 countries fol owed by total U.S. imports from Latin America and the
Caribbean.
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Table A-2. U.S. Exports to Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), 2007-2013
(U..S. $ Millions)
Partner
2013/2012
Country
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
% Change
Mexico
135,918
151,220
128,892
163,665
198,069 215,931 226,153
4.73
Brazil
24,172
32,299
26,095
35,418
42,938 43,806 44,116
0.71
Colombia
8,558
11,437
9,451
12,068
14,321 16,355 18,606 13.77
Chile
8,148
11,857
9,346
10,907
15,979 18,766 17,585 -6.29
Venezuela
10,201
12,610
9,315
10,645
12,358 17,516 13,220 -24.53
Panama
3,669
4,887
4,293
6,066
8,247 9,835 10,782 9.63
Argentina
5,856
7,536
5,569
7,392
9,881 10,268 10,201 -0.65
Peru
4,120
6,183
4,919
6,750
8,335 9,345 10,056 7.61
Ecuador
2,936
3,450
3,938
5,409
6,066 6,692 7,330 9.53
Costa Rica
4,580
5,680
4,700
5,178
6,058 7,231 7,230 -0.01
Total
LAC 241,830 287,015 237,381 301,421 365,110 396,714 407,444
2.70
World
1,148,199 1,287,442 1,056,043 1,278,495 1,480,290 1,545,709 1,578,851
2.14
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce statistics, as presented by Global Trade Atlas, February 2014.
Notes: Provides statistics on top 10 countries fol owed by total U.S. exports to Latin America and the
Caribbean.
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Appendix B. Hearings in the 113th Congress
Table B-1.Congressional Hearings in the 113th Congress on
Latin America and the Caribbean
Committee and Subcommittee
Date
Title
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
February 28, Overview of U.S. Interests in the Western
Subcommittee on the Western
2013
Hemisphere: Opportunities and Challenges
Hemisphere
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
March 14,
U.S. Energy Security: Enhancing Partnerships
Subcommittee on the Western
2013
with Mexico and Canada
Hemisphere
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
March 20,
Hezbol ah’s Strategic Shift: A Global Terrorist
Subcommittee on Terrorism,
2013
Threat
Nonproliferation, and Trade
House Armed Services Committee
March 20,
The Posture of the U.S. Northern Command
2013
and U.S. Southern Command
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
April 11,
Energy Opportunities in Latin America and
Subcommittee on the Western
2013
the Caribbean
Hemisphere
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
May 23,
U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation: An
Subcommittee on the Western
2013
Overview of the Mérida Initiative 2008-
Hemisphere
Present
House Committee on Ways and Means,
June 12,
U.S.-Brazil Trade and Investment
Subcommittee on Trade
2013
Relationship: Opportunities and Challenges
Senate Foreign Relations Committee,
June 18,
Security Cooperation in Mexico: Examining
Subcommittee on the Western
2013
the Next Steps in the U.S. Mexico Security
Hemisphere and Global Narcotics Affairs
Relationship
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
June 19,
Regional Security Cooperation: An
Subcommittee on the Western
2013
Examination of the Central American
Hemisphere
Regional Security Initiative (CARSI) and the
Caribbean Basin Security Initiative (CBSI)
House Committee on Homeland Security
July 9, 2013
Threat to the Homeland: Iran’s Extending
Subcommittee on Oversight and
Influence in the Western Hemisphere
Management Efficiency
Senate, Tom Lantos Human Rights
July 25,
Human Rights in Honduras
Commission
2012
Joint Hearing, House Foreign Affairs
August 1,
Examining the State Department’s Report on
Committee, Subcommittee on Middle East
2013
Iranian Presence in the Western Hemisphere
and North Africa and Subcommittee on
19 Years after AMIA Attack
the Western Hemisphere
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
September
Challenges to Democracy in the Western
Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere
10, 2013
Hemisphere
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
September
A Closer Look at Cuba and its Recent
Subcommittee on the Western
26, 2013
History of Proliferation
Hemisphere
House Foreign Affairs Committee
October 9,
Haiti: Is U.S. Aid Effective?
2013
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Committee and Subcommittee
Date
Title
Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission
October 24, Creating Peace and Finding Justice in
2013
Colombia
House Committee on Homeland Security,
November
What Does a Secure Maritime Border Look
Subcommittee on Border and Maritime
19, 2013
Like?
Security
Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission
November
The Global Gender-Based Violence Threat
20, 2013
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
December
Improving Security and Facilitating Commerce
Subcommittee on the Western
9, 2013
with Mexico at America’s Southern Border
Hemisphere
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
January 15,
NAFTA at Twenty: Accomplishments,
Subcommittee on the Western
2014
Challenges, and the Way Forward
Hemisphere
House Foreign Affairs Committee,
February 4,
Terrorist Groups in Latin America: The
Subcommittee on Terrorism,
2014
Changing Landscape
Nonproliferation and Trade
Source: Prepared by Anne Leland, Information Research Specialist, CRS.
Notes: The listed hearings are linked to PDF documents of the committee prints or committee webpages on
the hearings, where available. See also hearing information at: House Foreign Affairs Committee Subcommittee
on the Western Hemisphere at http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/subcommittees/western-hemisphere; House
Committee on Homeland Security at http://homeland.house.gov/legislation; Senate Foreign Relations Committee,
at http://www.foreign.senate.gov/hearings/
Author Contact Information
Mark P. Sullivan, Coordinator
Liana Rosen
Specialist in Latin American Affairs
Analyst in International Crime and Narcotics
msullivan@crs.loc.gov, 7-7689
lrosen@crs.loc.gov, 7-6177
June S. Beittel
Clare Ribando Seelke
Analyst in Latin American Affairs
Specialist in Latin American Affairs
jbeittel@crs.loc.gov, 7-7613
cseelke@crs.loc.gov, 7-5229
Anne Leland
Maureen Taft-Morales
Information Research Specialist
Specialist in Latin American Affairs
aleland@crs.loc.gov, 7-4704
mtmorales@crs.loc.gov, 7-7659
Peter J. Meyer
M. Angeles Villarreal
Analyst in Latin American Affairs
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
pmeyer@crs.loc.gov, 7-5474
avillarreal@crs.loc.gov, 7-0321
Acknowledgments
Former CRS Information Research Specialist Dini R. Robinson prepared the original trade tables in
Appendix A. Former CRS Specialist in International Trade and Finance J. F. Hornbeck prepared the
original section on Argentina.
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