The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Curt Tarnoff
Specialist in Foreign Affairs
May 10, 2013
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RS21168
CRS Report for Congress
Pr
epared for Members and Committees of Congress
The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Summary
Founded in 1961, the Peace Corps has sought to meet its legislative mandate of promoting world
peace and friendship by sending American volunteers to serve at the grassroots level in villages
and towns in all corners of the globe. As of end September 2012, about 8,073 volunteers were
serving in 76 nations.
In 2013, the 113th Congress will consider the President’s annual funding request for the Peace
Corps, efforts to reauthorize the Peace Corps, and related issues. On April 10, 2013, the
Administration issued its FY2014 budget request, proposing $378.8 million for the Peace Corps,
6% more than the agency’s currently estimated FY2013 post-sequester and across-the-board
rescission level of $356.0 million.
The last Peace Corps funding authorization (P.L. 106-30), approved in 1999, covered the years
FY2000 to FY2003. Authorization legislation offered in the 112th Congress from both the House
(H.R. 2583) and Senate (S. 1426) failed to receive floor action.
On November 21, 2011, the Kate Puzey Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011 was signed
into law (P.L. 112-57). It put into place a number of safeguards to address and reduce the
incidence of volunteer rape and sexual abuse.
A comprehensive assessment of Peace Corps operations was published in June 2010. It makes 64
recommendations supporting a six-point strategy that has been adopted by the agency for
implementation over the next several years.
Current issues include the extent to which there is available funding for Peace Corps expansion,
whether the Peace Corps has the institutional capacity to expand, and whether volunteers are able
to function in a safe and secure environment.
This report will be updated as events warrant.
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The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Contents
Recent Developments ...................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Background ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Congressional Actions ..................................................................................................................... 2
FY2014 Appropriations ............................................................................................................. 2
FY2013 Appropriations ............................................................................................................. 2
Authorization Legislation .......................................................................................................... 2
Peace Corps Comprehensive Assessment ........................................................................................ 3
Issues................................................................................................................................................ 6
Budget and Expansion ............................................................................................................... 6
Volunteers, Programming, and Support ..................................................................................... 7
The Volunteer Force ............................................................................................................ 7
Programming and Support .................................................................................................. 8
Safety and Security .................................................................................................................... 9
Peace Corps Inspector General Report ................................................................................ 9
The Peace Corps Response to the 20/20 Stories and Victims’ Charges............................. 10
Processes to Address Safety and Security ......................................................................... 11
Legislation on Safety and Security .................................................................................... 12
Instability, Terrorism, and Evacuations ............................................................................. 12
Volunteer Access to Abortion .................................................................................................. 13
The Five-Year Rule.................................................................................................................. 14
Tables
Table 1. Peace Corps Budget: FY2004-FY2014 Req. ..................................................................... 6
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 16
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The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Recent Developments
On April 25, 2013, legislation was introduced (S. 813, Lautenberg) reflecting an Administration
proposal that would apply the same abortion limitations to volunteer health care insurance as
currently apply to federal employee health plans.
On April 10, 2013, the Administration issued its FY2014 budget request, proposing $378.8
million for the Peace Corps, 6% more than the agency’s estimated FY2013 post-sequester and
across-the-board rescission level of $356.0 million.
Introduction
Generally viewed positively by the public and widely supported in Congress, the Peace Corps is
the U.S. agency that provides volunteer skills internationally. In 2013, the 113th Congress will
consider the President’s FY2014 funding request for the Peace Corps, possible efforts to
reauthorize the Peace Corps, and related issues. This report will be updated as events warrant.
Background
Founded in 1961, the Peace Corps sends American volunteers to serve at the grassroots level in
villages and towns across the globe to meet its three-point legislative mandate of promoting world
peace and friendship by improving the lives of those they serve, helping others understand
American culture, and sharing their experience with Americans back home. To date, more than
210,000 Peace Corps volunteers have served in 139 countries. As of end September 2012, 8,073
volunteers were serving in 76 nations.1 Peace Corps Director Aaron S. Williams, a former
volunteer, resigned effective September 17, 2012. Deputy Director Carrie Hessler-Radelet, also a
former volunteer, is serving as Acting Director until a nominee is proposed and confirmed.
In addition to its basic two-year tour of duty, the Peace Corps introduced in 1996 an initiative
called Peace Corps Response (formerly Crisis Corps), drawing on former volunteers, and,
beginning in 2012, expanded to include non-former volunteers, to provide short-term (usually
three to six months) emergency, humanitarian, and development assistance at the community
level with non-governmental relief and development organizations. More than 2,000 Peace Corps
Response volunteers have served in 50 countries, including post-tsunami Thailand and Sri Lanka
and post-earthquake Haiti. In September 2005, Peace Corps Response volunteers were deployed
to assist Hurricane Katrina relief, the first time in Peace Corps history that volunteers were used
domestically.
1 Supporting Peace Corps operations are about 853 U.S. direct hire staff, 190 of whom are overseas, and about 2,000
locally hired employees at overseas locations.
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Congressional Actions
FY2014 Appropriations
On April 10, 2013, the Administration issued its FY2014 budget request, proposing $378.8
million for the Peace Corps, 6% more than the FY2013 post-sequester and across-the-board
rescission level of $356.0 million.
FY2013 Appropriations
In February 2012, the Administration issued its FY2013 budget request, proposing $374.5 million
for the Peace Corps, $500,000 less than the FY2012 level of $375 million. On May 25, 2012, the
House Appropriations Committee reported H.R. 5857 (H.Rept. 112-494), the FY2013 State,
Foreign Operations appropriations. It provided $375 million for the Peace Corps, $500,000 more
than the request and the same as in FY2012. On May 24, 2012, the Senate Appropriations
Committee reported S. 3241 (S.Rept. 112-172), the FY2013 State, Foreign Operations
appropriations. It provided $400 million for the Peace Corps, $25.5 million more than requested
and a $25 million increase over the FY2012 level. Neither bill received further consideration.
In September 2012, the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2013 (H.J.Res. 117, P.L. 112-175),
was approved by Congress, providing FY2013 funding for the Peace Corps at the level in the
FY2012 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 112-74) plus .612% (i.e. $377.3 million). The
resolution expired on March 27, 2013. On March 26, the President signed P.L. 113-6, the FY2013
Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, providing Peace Corps funding at the
FY2012 level. However, according to the Peace Corps, automatic spending reductions required
by the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25), amended by the American Taxpayer Relief Act
of 2012 (P.L. 112-240), reduced the appropriation to an estimated $356.0 million.
Authorization Legislation
Despite repeated efforts during the past decade, Congress has not enacted a new Peace Corps
funding authorization. The last such Peace Corps authorization (P.L. 106-30), approved in 1999,
covered the years FY2000 to FY2003. Appropriations bills, however, routinely waive the
requirement of authorization of appropriations for foreign aid programs, as the Further
Continuing Appropriations Act 2013 (P.L. 113-6, Division F, §1108) did in the case of FY2013
unauthorized foreign aid program appropriations, including those for Peace Corps.
Both House and Senate took action in 2011 to authorize funding levels for the Peace Corps.
Neither bill, S. 1426 or H.R. 2583, saw floor action. In 2011, Congress also took a number of
steps to address Peace Corps volunteer safety and security concerns in authorization measures.
The Kate Puzey Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-57, S. 1280) was signed
into law on November 21, 2011. This bill is discussed in the “Safety and Security” section below.
No significant Peace Corps legislation was reported or enacted in 2012.
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Peace Corps Comprehensive Assessment
In June 2010, the Peace Corps submitted to Congress a “comprehensive agency assessment” in
response to a directive included in the FY2010 State, Foreign Operations appropriations (P.L.
111-117, Division F).2 As requested by the conferees (H.Rept. 111-366), the 204-page document
specifically addressed a range of issues of concern to Congress regarding Peace Corps operations
and procedures. While the report was thorough in its treatment of these issues, it should be noted
that some points on which Congress had expressed an interest in recent years were not requested
to be substantively addressed in the report. The report did not address such issues as safety and
security, deferment of student loans, utilization of information technology, mechanisms for
soliciting volunteer views, the adequacy and impact of post-service benefits, and the
accomplishments and plans of the Peace Corps Response Program.
The assessment report was a blueprint for change in the agency. The assessment team’s 64
recommendations were approved in principle by the Peace Corps director. All recommendations
were placed in an implementation matrix with lead offices and proposed timing for
implementation identified. Only a few of the recommendations required legislative action and,
therefore, most could be launched immediately. As a result of the assessment team’s findings, the
Peace Corps adopted a strategy to guide its operations in the future, some key elements of which
are noted below.
Country selection. The Peace Corps moved to rationalize its selection of host countries by
establishing clear criteria for entry. In part, this effort sought to address congressional concerns
that the selection of Peace Corps host countries may not sufficiently reflect U.S. interests. From
2002 to 2010, the Peace Corps received letters of request or inquiry from 27 countries where
there was no current program. How the agency determined whether to establish a program had
not been a transparent and well-documented process, leading some to conclude that it was not a
rational process. The assessment team found that certain essential conditions had always been
applied to the question of country entry—the extent of host country commitment, the safety and
security of volunteers, and the level of resources available to the Peace Corps. Other key
considerations had included compatibility of country objectives with those of Peace Corps,
presence of potential projects, cost effectiveness, and congruence with U.S. national interests.
The assessment team recommended that the Peace Corps conduct a formal annual portfolio
review that would look not just at applicant countries but at all existing programs and apply
specific criteria to judge where the agency should operate. In addition to existing criteria, the
team recommended that two new criteria be introduced into deliberations on country entry and
termination—a measure of the level of development, such as the U.N. Development Program’s
Human Development Index, and a measure of potential volunteer impact. Since 2010, portfolio
reviews have become an annual practice, informing the agency’s strategic planning and budget
guidance to country posts for the next year. These reviews helped lead to decisions to increase
volunteer numbers in Africa and close programs in Bulgaria, Romania, Cape Verde,
Antigua/Barbuda, and St. Kitts/Nevis in FY2013.
2 The report can be found at http://files.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/pdf/opengov/
PC_Comprehensive_Agency_Assessment.pdf.
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Volunteer skill composition: generalists. In its new strategy, the Peace Corps chose to recognize
and make the best use of one of its most notable characteristics—a volunteer force composed
largely of generalists. In 2010, as for much of its history, about 85% of volunteers were recent
college graduates and 84% under the age of 30. While some have argued that the Peace Corps
should alter its composition to meet the increasing needs of developing countries for educated
specialists, the assessment team determined, with some exceptions noted below, to accept
demographic reality and the constraints of career paths in the United States that would likely limit
the number of older specialists available to it. Instead, the team recommended steps be taken to
strengthen the quality of the volunteer force available by improving its technical, language, and
cultural training. It called for hiring full-time training staff at country posts and providing more
training time to volunteers. In response, the Peace Corps increased pre-service training by about
one week in FY2011 compared to FY2009.
Volunteer project focus. The new strategy suggested that, in order to maximize the effectiveness
of the large pool of generalists recruited by the Peace Corps, it would be best to focus on a more
limited range of project areas. In the period leading up to the report, volunteers were assigned to
one of six broad technical sectors—education, health, agriculture, environment, youth
development, and business/IT. Within those sectors, volunteers worked in 50 different technical
programs, from which 211 different project plans had been developed, perhaps meeting specific
needs in a developing country, but for each of which volunteers in that project had to be trained.
The assessment team argued that by focusing more on what volunteers do best, what communities
most want, and what volunteers can best be trained to do, the agency could maximize the capacity
of volunteers and the impact they may have. The recommendation, therefore, was that Peace
Corps management assess and determine a more narrow framework of work assignments and
strengthen technical training in those areas—a so-called Focus in/Train up strategy. However, the
assessment did not suggest which technical sectors or program areas should be eliminated or
maintained. After the report was issued, an agency workshop proposed reducing the number of
activities from 211 to 60. The Peace Corps has identified 57 project activity areas within the six
technical sectors on which to concentrate resources and identify performance indicators by which
to judge results. It has developed 126 volunteer training packages based on best practices along
with guidance to field staff on implementing effective training.
Volunteer skill composition: specialists. The assessment addressed the exception to the rule of
use of generalists. Both to meet needs of countries that might require greater expertise and
experience and to best attract and utilize those volunteer applicants that possess a higher level of
skills than the norm, the assessment team recommended that some innovations be made in Peace
Corps programs. Meeting report recommendations, the Peace Corps Response Program more than
doubled in size and was opened to highly qualified individuals without previous Peace Corps
experience. The Response Program has maintained its current flexible time commitments (i.e.,
less than the usual 27 months for regular volunteers) and is being used in both regular Peace
Corps countries as well as in countries where there is no standard Peace Corps presence. Under
the Response Program, a Global Health Services Partnership was established to recruit physicians
and nurses as adjunct faculty in medical and schools in developing countries—the first such
volunteers expected in 2013 in Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda.
Volunteer recruitment. As part of the strategy’s support for efforts to better meet developing
country volunteer needs and attract the best volunteer candidates, the agency has sought to
improve its recruitment and placement process and strengthen diversity outreach. A new online
application platform was launched in 2012, and a new medical review management system was
established to facilitate medical clearance.
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“Third goal.” The strategy called for efforts to more fully and effectively address the so-called
“third goal,” the legislative mandate that Peace Corps volunteers “help promote a better
understanding of other peoples on the part of Americans” (Peace Corps Act, P.L. 87-293, §2).
This objective has always received less attention and funding (0.4% of the FY2012 budget) than
the other two goals of assisting development and promoting understanding of Americans to the
people served, both aspects which focus on the agency’s work abroad. In 2010, the “third goal”
was singled out by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in its report on the Peace Corps
Improvement and Expansion Act (S. 1382, and incorporated into S. 2971) as an area that had not
received enough priority. “Third goal” activities include efforts by volunteers and former
volunteers, sometimes forming country member groups, to convey their experiences through
blogs, public talks, community service in the United States, and charitable fundraising. Most
prominent among agency-sponsored activities is the Paul D. Coverdell World Wise Schools
program, which connects volunteers with school classrooms throughout the United States. The
assessment report recommendations included increasing funding for these purposes; establishing
an intern program that would place exceptional volunteers in international NGOs, business, and
U.S. agencies; and developing an agency-wide strategy to achieve “third goal” objectives.
Since the report was published, the agency established an Office of Third Goal and Returned
Volunteer Services. It has encouraged greater participation by volunteers and former volunteers;
in 2012, more than 585 returned volunteers spoke at schools in their communities and 71 graduate
schools participated in the Paul Coverdell Fellows Program, through which the schools offer
financial assistance to returned volunteers. However, while the number of schools participating in
third goal activities in FY2012 has risen since FY2009, it declined by 29% from FY2011. Third
goal funding has not increased since 2010; however, the FY2014 request at $1.8 million would
represent a 20% increase from the FY2012 $1.5 million level.
Management and operations. In addition to policy decisions encompassed by the report, the
assessment called for strengthening of Peace Corps management and operations. It recommended
updating the agency’s strategic plan to include the new strategies in the assessment report and a
wide range of improvements to the planning and budgeting process, staffing, evaluation and
oversight, recruitment procedures, training, and provision of health care to volunteers. Since the
report was issued, a new monitoring and evaluation policy for the whole agency has been
developed, including agency-wide standard indicators to allow reporting on common results
across projects and countries. Efforts are being made to build new partnerships with international
organizations, U.S. government agencies, and others. In September 2012, the Peace Corps
established its first global partnership with a corporation, Mondelez (formerly Kraft Foods), to
support agriculture and community development. In an effort to strengthen volunteer medical
care, new Regional Medical Officers were hired and a Quality Improvement Council was
established. To increase staff effectiveness, Peace Corps instituted a reorganization of country
desk positions, a results-oriented performance appraisal program, and a revision of tour lengths to
five years from the original 30 months. A number of changes have also been made to safety and
security operations (discussed under “Safety and Security” below).
Congressional reaction to the assessment report and strategy. In its report accompanying the
FY2011 State, Foreign Operations Appropriations (S.Rept. 111-237), the Senate Appropriations
Committee noted support for several of the assessment report’s recommendations, including
incorporating U.S. national interests and budget considerations into new criteria for volunteer
placement, focusing resources on key areas, and attracting a wider diversity of highly skilled
volunteers by establishing new technical programs through an expanded Peace Corps Response
Program. The Kate Puzy Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-57) amended
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the Peace Corps Act to add a section requiring annual portfolio reviews and monitoring and
evaluation processes such as those that came out of the assessment.
Issues
Budget and Expansion
It is difficult to define a trend over the past decade in Peace Corps funding and volunteer
numbers. Although there appears to be broad support for the agency, when considering proposed
funding increases, Congress has had to weigh whether sufficient funds were available vis-à-vis
other foreign aid priorities to warrant appropriating the amounts sought for the Peace Corps by
both the Bush and Obama Administrations. In addition, some Members questioned the managerial
capacity of the agency to implement an expansion while maintaining an effective volunteer force.
Despite a 2002 expansion initiative by President Bush to double its size to about 14,000
volunteers within five years, the Peace Corps saw only a 16% increase in end of fiscal year
volunteer numbers between 2002 and 2009. In early 2010, the Obama Administration proposed a
more modest objective of a 9,400-volunteer force by 2012 and 11,000 by 2016. Annual
incremental funding increases and a significant congressional bump-up in FY2010 funding
helped lead to an end of FY2010 volunteer level of 8,655, a 13% increase from the previous year
and the highest level since 1970. At end of September 2011, volunteer numbers reached 9,095.
Since then, Peace Corps appropriations budgets have retreated and the volunteer level dropped to
8,073 at end September 2012, an 11% decline from the previous year. Peace Corps projections
suggest a possible further decline to below 7,000 in FY2013. The agency’s estimated FY2013
post-sequester funding level 6% decline from FY2012 means that Peace Corps volunteer numbers
are not likely to rise significantly in the near future.
Table 1. Peace Corps Budget: FY2004-FY2014 Req.
2014
Fiscal
Year
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 req.
Request
($
mil)
359.0 401.0 345.0 336.7 333.5 343.5 373.4 446.2 439.6 374.5 378.8
Appropriation
($
mil) 308.2 317.4 319.9 319.7 330.8 340.0 400.0 374.3 375.0 356.0a
Total
Volunteers
7,733 7,810 7,749 8,079 7,876 7,671 8,655 9,095 8,073 —
Sources: Peace Corps and CRS.
Notes: Figures reflect across-the-board rescissions and supplemental appropriations; they do not count
transfers. Total volunteers are number at end of the fiscal year. Volunteer numbers include those funded by both
Peace Corps appropriations as well as transfers from other agencies, such as the State Department President’s
Emergency Program for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). In FY2012, 753 volunteers were funded by PEPFAR with a
transfer of $24.8 million.
a. Peace Corps estimate of post-sequester funding subject to change.
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Volunteers, Programming, and Support
A continual concern for Congress over the years has been how the Peace Corps addresses the
make-up of the volunteer force, programming of volunteer project assignments, and support of
volunteers in implementing those projects. This concern is particularly acute in the context of
expansion efforts, as it was used as an argument for not meeting the George W. Bush
Administration’s funding requests that would enable doubling the size of the agency. With this
concern in mind, the 2009 House Appropriations Committee report on the FY2010 State, Foreign
Operations appropriations (H.Rept. 111-187) asked the Peace Corps to review its management
practices in order to accommodate larger numbers of volunteers, and the Senate’s Peace Corps
Improvement and Expansion Act of 2009 (S. 1382) similarly aimed to ensure that the Peace
Corps is prepared to deal with the whole range of management issues. As noted above, the
FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117, Division F) required the Peace Corps to
submit a report assessing its operational model and proposing a strategy for reform.
The Volunteer Force
The volunteer force is the Peace Corps. Aspects of its composition have been a focus of interest in
Congress over the years.3 In FY2012, 62% of volunteers were women, 22% were minorities, 93%
were single, and the average age was 28.4
In the past several years, Peace Corps made an objective of increasing the number of volunteers
aged 50 and older, which, some would argue, might lead to a more specialized work-experienced
volunteer force. However, the proportion of volunteers aged 50 or over appears to have changed
in a positive direction only slightly. In FY2012 and the previous two years, 7% of volunteers were
50 or older, compared with 5% in FY2008 (the number of older applicants represented 6.67% of
applicants in FY2012).
Volunteers work in a range of sectors—in FY2012, 43% in education, 21% in health and
HIV/AIDS, 12% in community economic development, 12% in the environment, 6% in youth,
4% in agriculture, and 2% in other activities. According to the June 2010 assessment report, 85%
of volunteers were recent college graduates with little professional experience. The Peace Corps,
while adept at recruiting generalists and providing them with sufficient training to carry out
useful assignments in these fields, has not emphasized the provision of highly skilled
professionals, such as doctors, agronomists, or engineers, which, many argue, more accurately
reflects the current needs of developing countries and which the agency might be under greater
pressure to supply if it intends to expand volunteer numbers.5 Weighed against this view is the
belief that the Peace Corps is an agency of public diplomacy as much as it is a development
organization, and personal interaction and demonstration of U.S. values is as important as
providing specialized technical expertise.
As noted earlier, the assessment team recommended that the Peace Corps accept the demographic
features that have long characterized the volunteer force and, while embracing the use of
3 Data in this section is drawn from the Peace Corps Fact Sheet, CRS communications with Peace Corps, and the
FY2012 Peace Corps Performance and Accountability Report.
4 In FY2012, Peace Corps volunteers were 5% African American, 5% Asian American, and 8% Hispanic/Latino origin.
5 One exception was its Mexico program, launched in 2004, where the Peace Corps was able to provide specialized
technical volunteers offering skills in water and environmental engineering.
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generalists, seek to strengthen their capabilities through better training and more focused sector
activities. At the same time, the team recommended continued efforts to utilize experienced and
skilled volunteers through innovative approaches. In particular, it suggested that the Peace Corps
Response Program be used as a platform for new, more flexible, programs that may accommodate
different types of volunteers. The new Global Health Services Partnership providing doctors and
nurses is one result.
Whatever the skill sets and demographic characteristics sought by the agency, it is the recruitment
of volunteers with appropriate skills and willingness to live in unfamiliar and sometimes
uncomfortable conditions that is essential to the overall mission of the Peace Corps. A substantial
spike in applicants and those expressing interest in applying since September 11, 2001, made it
easier for the Peace Corps to meet its recruitment goals, but applications have dropped in recent
years. In FY2011, about 12,206 applied to be volunteers, compared to 8,897 in FY2001, but this
level represented a 10% decrease from FY2010. In FY2012, the number of applications dropped
still further to 10,091, a 17% drop from the previous year.
Programming and Support
The Peace Corps has been criticized in the past for providing inadequate programming and
support of volunteers. This view was reflected in a 1990 Government Accountability Office
(GAO) investigation.6 It noted that some volunteers had little or nothing to do or had spent six or
more months developing their own assignments, without benefit of site visits by Peace Corps
staff. The GAO attributed the programming problem to a failure of planning, evaluation, and
monitoring systems. Since then, the Peace Corps has addressed these weaknesses with systematic
approaches to project development, annual project reviews, and increased opportunities for site
visits and volunteer feedback. While most volunteers do rate their overall experience highly,
volunteer anecdotal accounts suggesting poor programming and staff support still occur; the 2012
volunteer survey found that 28% and 19% of volunteers were dissatisfied or only minimally
satisfied with regard to support received from Peace Corps staff in site selection and job
assignment respectively, and recurrent problems identified in Inspector General country program
evaluations are site development, volunteer training, and coordination with country ministries and
project partners.7 One sign of volunteer dissatisfaction—the resignation rate—has improved in
recent years, with 5.3% resigning in FY2012 versus 6.0% in FY2011 and 9.8% in FY2001.8
The 2010 assessment report discussed but did not thoroughly explore causes of volunteer
dissatisfaction and resignation, noting that 97 recommendations to reduce it had been made in
previous studies since 1969, many of which had been adopted. It also did not address questions
regarding the quality of volunteer assignments. However, the report did offer possible avenues
that might help correct these concerns, such as improving volunteer and staff training, developing
initiatives to better utilize skilled and experienced volunteers, encouraging third-year extensions,
6 Peace Corps: Meeting the Challenges of the 1990s, May 1990, NSIAD-90-122
7 Peace Corps 2010 Annual Volunteer Survey, October 2010, p. 20; Peace Corps Office of Inspector General,
Recurring Issues: OIG Post Audits and Evaluations Fiscal Years 2009-2011, April 2012, p. 6.
8 “A resignation is a decision made by the volunteer and trainee who no longer wish to continue in the Peace Corps.”
Assessment Report, pp. 171-172. Data provided by Peace Corps to CRS.
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and strengthening program evaluation and oversight. The agency has adopted reforms in all these
areas.9
Safety and Security
The safety and security of volunteers has long been a prime concern of the Peace Corps. Because
of where they live and work, Peace Corps volunteers appear to many Americans to be especially
vulnerable to crime. The threat of anti-American terrorism in the years following the terrorist
attacks on September 11, 2001, has increased that perception. Fears were further raised in 2003
when the Dayton (Ohio) Daily News ran a series of reports suggesting that the Peace Corps was
failing in its obligation to provide adequate security; a congressional hearing was held and
legislation was approved by the House (H.R. 4060, June 2004) that sought to address this
concern.10
In January 2010, the issue of safety and security received renewed public attention due to two
reports on the ABC television newsmagazine 20/20, one concerning the 2009 murder of volunteer
Kate Puzey in Benin and the other addressing the rape of volunteers. The stories catalogued
incidents illustrating failure of some Peace Corps staff to maintain whistleblower confidentiality,
inaction in response to volunteer reports of threatening behavior, a lack of compassion for victims
of crime, a tendency to blame the victim, and insensitivity to the parents of a crime victim.
Following the 20/20 reports and a House hearing on the subject held on May 11, 2011, more rape
victims came forward with stories further suggesting disregard for the victims and a possible
institutional failure to offer adequate support. While expressing support for the Peace Corps
mission, First Response Action, an organization representing volunteer victims, sought stronger
actions to reduce assault incidents and better address the needs of victims where assaults occur. In
2011, several pieces of legislation were introduced in the House and Senate that sought to answer
this call. On November 21, 2011, the Kate Puzey Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011
was signed into law (P.L. 112-57).
Peace Corps Inspector General Report
The concerns generated by the 20/20 reports and victims’ accusations followed on the heels of a
Peace Corps IG report on volunteer safety and security released in April 2010.11 While noting that
the Peace Corps had made significant changes in its safety and security program since 2002 and
“maintained a much larger safety and security workforce than comparable international non-
governmental organizations,” the IG “identified multiple areas where Peace Corps needed to
improve” (page i), mostly including a lack of effective processes, standardized training, and
skilled personnel to manage and implement discrete aspects of its safety and security programs.
Perhaps most troubling, the IG found numerous instances between FY2004 and FY2009 of re-
occurring evaluation findings, such as posts not thoroughly completing housing/site inspections,
volunteers engaged in unsafe behaviors, various cities where volunteers were in locations
9 See the Peace Corps Performance and Accountability Report for Fiscal Year FY2012 for the multiple actions taken by
the agency. Available at http://www.peacecorps.gov/about/policies/docs/.
10 ACasualties of Peace,@ Dayton Daily News, October 26-November 1, 2003.
11 Peace Corps, Office of the Inspector General, Final Audit Report: Peace Corps Volunteer Safety and Security
Program, IG-10-08-A, April 2010.
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considered unsafe, and inadequate emergency action plans, suggesting problems in safety and
security program compliance over the long term.12
The IG report made 28 recommendations. Among these were that the Peace Corps Director
should establish clear lines of authority to ensure that the Office of Safety and Security can
manage the safety and security program; that the Director adequately track Safety and Security
Officer recommendations to make sure they are being met; that the chief compliance officer
establish a process to identify re-occurring problems and take steps to address them; that the role,
number, and salaries for Safety and Security Coordinators be reviewed to ensure agency needs are
met; that the Office of Safety and Security develop and implement a training program for Officers
and Coordinators based on needed skills; that the Office of Safety and Security develop a
comprehensive plan that includes the agency’s safety and security strategy, risks, and policies to
mitigate those risks; that volunteers be provided with a consolidated handbook on the basic
principles of volunteer safety during the recruitment and staging process and be required to sign a
code of conduct on basic security principles before departure; and that a formal agreement be
reached with the Department of State’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security clarifying roles of each
agency.13 As of July 2012, the Peace Corps had implemented all 28 of the IGs recommendations.
The Peace Corps Response to the 20/20 Stories and Victims’ Charges
Following the television programs, the Peace Corps Director issued statements noting that the
programs did not accurately reflect Peace Corps policy and practice regarding the safety and
security of volunteers. The Peace Corps immediately issued a formal Commitment to Sexual
Assault Victims, which included, among other things, promises to treat victims of sexual assault
with dignity and respect, to take appropriate steps to provide for their safety, to support volunteers
in their recovery, and to work closely with them in decisions regarding continuation of service.
The Director of the Peace Corps also offered apologies to the family and friends of the murder
victim if the agency could have been more compassionate.14
In addition to noting its ongoing efforts to improve on its safety record and better serve
volunteers, the Peace Corps pointed out that volunteers themselves in their annual survey have
reported feeling “usually safe” and “very safe” where they live and where they work, in 2010
respectively 87% and 91%.15
The Peace Corps asserted that its operating procedures in response to sexual assault and training
offered to volunteers had resulted in “a significant decline in the incidence of rape and major
sexual assault among Volunteers over the past 14 years.”16 According to the Peace Corps, between
1997 and 2009 there was a 27% decline in the incidence of rape and attempted rape and a 34%
decline in the incidence of major sexual assault.17
12 Peace Corps, Office of the Inspector General, Final Audit Report: Peace Corps Volunteer Safety and Security
Program, IG-10-08-A, April 2010, p. 17.
13 Ibid., pp. 49-51.
14 Peace Corps Director Aaron S. Williams’ Response to ABC News’ 20/20, January 14, 2011 and January 27, 2011.
15 Peace Corps 2010 Annual Volunteer Survey, p. 25.
16 Peace Corps Fact Sheet: Sexual Assault Prevention and Response, January 2011.
17 Peace Corps Director Aaron S. Williams’ Response to ABC World News, January 27, 2011. It should be noted,
however, that the 2010 Annual Report on Volunteer Safety published in May 2012 shows a 64% increase in the rate of
female rape per female volunteer years from the previous year, although the category of female major sexual assault
(continued...)
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A statement issued by the Peace Corps claimed that there were procedures in place “to respond
quickly and compassionately to Volunteers.”18 Further, the Peace Corps had taken a number of
steps to improve its procedures in the months following the 20/20 reports. These are discussed
below.
Processes to Address Safety and Security
The Peace Corps has always had in place various procedures and processes to address the issues
of volunteer safety and security, but such efforts have been particularly pronounced in the past
decade. Following a 2002 Government Accountability Office (GAO) finding that APeace Corps
efforts to ensure effective implementation of its safety and security policies have produced
varying results,@ the Peace Corps launched numerous initiatives—including establishment of a
stand-alone Safety and Security Office to direct and oversee all security programs, deployment of
U.S. direct hire field-based safety and security officers and local hire safety and security
personnel, and appointment at headquarters of regional desk officers and a chief compliance
officer to monitor compliance with new security rules and procedures.19 Nonetheless, GAO
reported on March 24, 2004, that some “unevenness” in compliance with procedures mandated by
headquarters likely remained.20
Peace Corps has taken additional steps to improve safety and security, most notably, in 2008,
establishing a Sexual Assault Working Group to examine risk factors, analyze training, and adopt
best practices to reduce risk and address victims’ needs. In late 2010, the agency approved
establishment of a victim’s advocate position in response to suggestions from returned volunteers.
The advocate supports volunteer victims of crime, from the crime through post-Peace Corps
service, including helping them sort through the red tape to receive post-service health benefits.
In February 2011, the Office of Safety and Security issued a document on Guidelines for
Responding to Rape and Major Sexual Assault that captures the policies and procedures in place
to assist and respond to volunteer rape or major sexual assault. Peace Corps staff are expected to
serve as advocates for the volunteer and ensure “that what happens next is in the Volunteer’s best
interest.”21 This includes ensuring a safe environment and emotional stability, providing medical
care and counseling, and helping preserve a volunteer’s right to prosecute. Since April 2012, over
350 staff abroad were trained on these protocols. Many of these efforts were strengthened or
added to as a result of the 2011 Kate Puzey Volunteer Protection Act discussed below.22
(...continued)
fell by 7%.
18 Peace Corps Fact Sheet: Sexual Assault Prevention and Response, January 2011.
19 Government Accountability Office, Peace Corps: Initiatives for Addressing Safety and Security Challenges Hold
Promise, but Progress Should be Assessed, GAO-02-818, July 2002, p. 2.
20 Testimony of Jess T. Ford, Director, International Affairs and Trade, General Accounting Office, before the
Committee on International Relations, Peace Corps: Status of Initiatives to Improve Volunteer Safety and Security,
GAO-04-600T, March 24, 2004.
21 Peace Corps, Office of Safety and Security, Guidelines for Responding to Rape and Major Sexual Assault, February
2011, p.12.
22 For an update on Peace Corps implementation of the Act, see Progress in Implementation of the Kate Puzey Peace
Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011, November 2012, on the Peace Corps website at http://files.peacecorps.gov/
multimedia/pdf/media/Progress_on_Implementation_of_Kate_Puzey_Act_Nov_2012.pdf.
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In 2012, the volunteer survey showed 80% and 84% felt “more than adequately safe,” or “very
safe” where they live and work, a decline in those categories since 2010.23 However, in both
years, those feeling “adequately safe” or better amounted to 98%.
Legislation on Safety and Security
Congress responded to the safety and security issue by holding a House Foreign Affairs
Committee hearing on May 11, 2011; a Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearing on October
6, 2011; and by introducing several pieces of legislation amending the Peace Corps Act, most
notably S. 1280, the Kate Puzey Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011, reported on
September 21, 2011, by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (S.Rept. 112-82), approved by
the Senate on September 26, 2011, and by the House on November 1, 2011, and signed into law
on November 21, 2011, as P.L. 112-57.
In addition, Congress considered a companion bill to S. 1280, H.R. 2337, ordered reported by the
House Foreign Affairs Committee on September 21, 2011; Title X of H.R. 2583, the Foreign
Relations Authorization for FY2012, reported on July 21, 2011, by the House Foreign Affairs
Committee; and H.R. 2699, the Peace Corps Volunteer Service Improvement Act of 2011,
reported by the House Foreign Affairs Committee on September 21, 2011.
S. 1280, as approved by Congress and signed into law, pulls together most of the language on
safety and security issues as is contained in these other bills. It specifies that volunteers receive
sexual assault risk reduction and response training, including training tailored to the country of
service covering safety plans in the event of an assault, medical treatments available, medevac
procedures, and information on the legal process for pressing charges. Peace Corps applicants are
to be provided with a historical analysis of crimes and risks in the proposed country of service.
Trainees will be provided with contact information of the Inspector General for purposes of
reporting violations of the sexual assault protocol and of the victims advocate. The bill requires
that sexual assault protocols and guidelines be developed by the Peace Corps director and training
be provided to staff regarding implementation of the protocol. Volunteers can request removal
from a site, which would then be evaluated for its safety. Sexual response teams are established to
respond to reports of sexual assault by volunteers. Alternative reporting systems are established
that allow volunteer anonymity. A victims advocate position is established to assist sexually
assaulted volunteers and facilitate access to available services. A Sexual Assault Advisory
Council is established composed of returned volunteers and experts on sexual assault to review
training and policy to ensure they conform to best practices. An annual survey is to be conducted
regarding the effectiveness of Peace Corps programs and safety. A process is established to allow
reports of incidents while protecting the confidentiality of volunteers. It is required that the Peace
Corps and State Department Bureau of Diplomatic Security agree to a memorandum of
understanding on the duties and obligations of each with respect to protection of Peace Corps
volunteers and staff. And, a report on safety and security is to be submitted annually to Congress.
Instability, Terrorism, and Evacuations
The Peace Corps has been particularly concerned in recent years with threats of terrorism and
civil strife and has responded by upgrading communications, testing emergency action plans, and
23 Peace Corps 2010 Annual Volunteer Survey, p. 25 and 2012 Annual Volunteer Survey, p. 146.
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other security measures. The Peace Corps addresses these larger security concerns, including
natural disasters or civil unrest, through country-specific Emergency Action Plans (EAP) that are
to be in place in each Peace Corps country. The plan, to be tested and revised annually, defines
roles and responsibilities for staff and volunteers, explains standard policies and procedures, and
lists emergency contact information for every volunteer in country.
Evacuations and closure of missions to ensure the well-being of volunteers have constrained the
growth of the Peace Corps. Since 2000, volunteers have been evacuated from at least 17
countries. Most often, evacuations were due to cases of political instability and civil unrest. Three
were attributed to the events of September 11—Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and the Kyrgyz
Republic.24 In April 2012, volunteers were withdrawn from Mali and the program suspended in
response to the political and security crisis in that country. Start-up of the new Peace Corps
program in Tunisia has been delayed due to the attack on the U.S. Embassy in that country in
September 2012.
Crime is another factor in agency evacuation decisions. The Peace Corps suspended its 117
volunteer program in Kazakhstan in mid-November 2011 “based on a number of operational
considerations,” according to an agency press release. Volunteer reports suggest that rapes and
terrorist attacks may be the specific cause.25 Due to concerns regarding the prevalence of drug
and organized crime-related violence in Central America, the Peace Corps announced in
December 2011 that it would send no new volunteers to Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador
while it conducted a review of its operations and the security environment in those locations. In
the case of Honduras, currently serving volunteers were withdrawn on administrative leave and
completed service while the review was ongoing. The review was completed in February 2012,
and the program in Honduras was formally suspended in September 2012. Volunteers in
Guatemala and El Salvador are continuing to serve, and the Peace Corps resumed sending new
volunteers to those countries in 2013 at reduced levels. To address safety concerns in Guatemala
and El Salvador, volunteer operations were consolidated in safer geographical areas, alternative
volunteer transportation was devised, and training and support was enhanced.
Despite the appeal of using Peace Corps volunteers to convey U.S. culture and values directly to
the grassroots of Islamic countries, many of these countries of U.S. foreign policy interest might
be considered unsafe for Americans over the foreseeable future. Nonetheless, it should be noted
that, according to the Peace Corps, about 17% of all volunteers are serving in 11 countries with
Muslim populations of over 40%. In FY2010, the Peace Corps launched a program in Indonesia,
the most populous Muslim country in the world. In general, the Peace Corps has argued that the
close interpersonal relationship between volunteers and members of their host country
community helps to make them safe.
Volunteer Access to Abortion
Since 1979, the annual Peace Corps appropriations language has prohibited funds from being
used to pay for abortions. The issue of volunteer access to abortion has recently received
attention, because the Administration’s FY2014 budget request includes proposed language that
24 They later returned to Turkmenistan and Kyrgyz Republic. The Turkmenistan program closed in September 2012.
25 See Peace Corps Online, November 18, 2011, at http://peacecorpsonline.org/.
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would allow health insurance coverage for volunteers in cases of rape, incest, and when the
mother’s life is endangered.
The argument for paying for abortions under the above restricted circumstances is that private
insurance offered to federal employees, including those administering the Peace Corps program,
covers abortions in the case of rape, incest, and when the mother’s life is endangered. Volunteers,
however, are considered federal employees only for certain very narrowly defined purposes such
as legal liability, baggage transport, and check cashing eligibility. Abortions therefore can be
excluded from volunteer health care although all other care—primary care, hospitalization,
medical evacuation, all prescriptions including birth control and dental care needs—is provided
directly by the Peace Corps either through its Medical Officer or insurance.26 S. 813, introduced
on April 25, 2013 (Lautenberg), and reflecting the Administration proposal, would apply the same
abortion restrictions to volunteer health care insurance as currently apply to federal employee
health plans.
Opponents of the proposal argue that it is an expansion of abortion services by the federal
government.27
The Five-Year Rule
The five-year rule is an issue long discussed in the Peace Corps community and periodically
addressed by Congress. Most recently, it is the subject of a 2012 report by the agency’s Office of
the Inspector General (OIG) that suggests Congress may again have a role to play.28
The five-year rule, which became law in August 1965 in an amendment to section 7(a) of the
Peace Corps Act (P.L. 87-293, as amended), limits most Peace Corps staff to five years
employment. The same amendment allows a one-year extension if personally approved by the
Director. A subsequent amendment in 1985 permits 15% of U.S. direct hires a further extension of
two and a half years, meaning that these individuals could be employed for a total of eight and a
half years. In addition, staff can only leave the Peace Corps and be rehired after an amount of
time equal to their preceding term of service has passed, in effect limiting a route around the rule.
The five-year rule does not apply to personal service contractors or foreign nationals. Direct hire
staff involved in the safety of volunteers, including the new victims advocate position, and the
Inspector General and OIG staff are also exempt as a result of congressional action in the FY2004
appropriations (P.L. 108-199) and the 2011 Kate Puzey Volunteer Protection Act, respectively.
Implementation of the five-year rule is seen to have had both positive and negative effects on the
performance of the Peace Corps. Positive aspects are to a large extent those associated with the
original arguments in favor of the rule’s adoption; they continue to have force. Negative aspects
following adoption of the rule have driven the addition of limited extensions and exemptions to
its application. But they continue to cause concern.
26 The Peace Corps’ authorization language (P.L. 87-293, as amended, sec. 5(e)) requires that Peace Corps provide
health care to volunteers during service.
27 Lisa Rein, “Peace Corps Volunteers Could Get Health Insurance Coverage for Abortions,” Washington Post, April
26, 2013.
28 Peace Corps Office of the Inspector General, Final Evaluation Report: Impacts of the Five-Year Rule on Operations
of the Peace Corps, IG-12-05-E, June 2012.
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Positive features of the five-year rule possibly include that it
• creates a workforce generally perceived as vibrant, youthful, and energetic;
• because of high turnover, permits the hiring of more returned Peace Corps
volunteers (53% of all direct hires between 2000 and 2010 were RPCVs and 78%
of overseas leadership posts), whose recent experience in the field provides high-
quality policy input;
• generates a flow of staff departing for other international agencies that increases
the influence of Peace Corps on foreign policy, a benefit originally suggested by
Sargent Shriver;
• facilitates removal of poorly performing staff;
• provides an performance incentive for currently serving volunteers who might in
the future want to obtain employment in the agency; and
• creates possible cost savings from not accruing long term salary and benefit
obligations.
Negative features of the five-year rule largely derive from the higher turnover and short tenure of
staff. Instead of a turnover of 20% each year, implied by the five-year rule, the actual rate is much
higher—25% to 33% each year since 2004 according to the OIG, quadruple that of the rest of the
federal government. The average length of service is three years. These figures suggest that
individuals are looking outside of the Peace Corps for more stable employment long before their
term expires. The possible resulting negative impact includes
• poor institutional memory;
• frequent staffing vacancies;
• no long-term career incentives to encourage high performance;
• insufficient time for constantly departing staff to identify, develop, test, and
implement innovative ideas;
• disincentive for management to invest in training and professional development;
• diminished management capacity, the rule being noted as a factor in multiple
previous OIG and GAO reports focusing on volunteer support, contract, and
financial management; and
• high staff recruitment costs—costs strictly attributable to five-year rule turnover
estimated by the OIG to be between $12.6 million and $15.5 million in the period
2005 through 2009.
The OIG evaluation made five broad recommendations to the Peace Corps, including that the
Director should carry out unspecified reforms, including legislative remedies, to reduce the rate
of turnover and increase length of employment, and identify which core functions suffer from
turnover and develop processes to retain those personnel.
Since OIG report publication, Peace Corps has taken steps to mitigate the negative impacts of the
five-year rule. It is offering five-year employment to new employees instead of the former two
and half year term. It is trying to fully utilize existing legislative authority to provide an
additional two and a half years on top of the five-year term for up to 15% of its staff—in 2010,
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only 10% of staff benefitted; now more than 14%. It is also planning on utilizing authority that
allows an unlimited number of staff to continue for a year after their five-year term under “special
circumstances.” At the same time, the agency is also working to identify the causes of employee
early resignation and the specific functions and positions where staff turnover is most harmful in
order to best address the problem. According to Peace Corps, legislative remedies may be sought
if these and other efforts are insufficient.
Author Contact Information
Curt Tarnoff
Specialist in Foreign Affairs
ctarnoff@crs.loc.gov, 7-7656
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