Nominations to Cabinet Positions During
Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984

Maeve P. Carey
Analyst in Government Organization and Management
Henry B. Hogue
Analyst in American National Government
Michael W. Greene
Information Research Specialist
February 20, 2013
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R42963
CRS Report for Congress
Pr
epared for Members and Committees of Congress

Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984

Summary
Under the Constitution, the top leadership positions of the executive branch are filled through
appointment by the President “by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate.” These posts
include most of the approximately two dozen that form the President’s Cabinet. Because of the
importance of these offices to the implementation of the President’s policies and the leadership of
federal departments and agencies, they are usually among the first to be filled at the outset of a
new Administration. The President may nominate individuals to fill these posts at any point
during his time in office, however. From time-to-time, Presidents have made new Cabinet
appointments in the midst of a term in response to unexpected resignations or deaths.
In recent decades, it also has become customary for each two-term President to reshuffle his
Cabinet during the inter-term transition—the transition that takes place at the end of a President’s
first term in office and beginning of his second term. This process of filling Cabinet vacancies at
the beginning of a second term has not been as extensive as the staffing at the beginning of the
first term; typically about half the Cabinet members change. Nonetheless, the pace at which these
nominations and confirmations are carried out could affect the implementation of the President’s
policies during his second term, as well as the leadership of the departments and agencies
affected.
This report documents nominations to Cabinet positions during inter-term presidential transitions
since 1984. During this period, three two-term Presidents—Ronald W. Reagan, William J.
Clinton, and George W. Bush—made 30 nominations during inter-term transitions. For the
purposes of this report, CRS considered an inter-term nomination to be one made between
November 1 of a President’s reelection year and April 30 of the first year of his second term.
The duration of the Senate’s consideration of these Cabinet nominations during inter-term
transitions varied considerably. For example, while only 9 days elapsed from the Senate’s receipt
of one such nomination to its confirmation (William E. Brock III’s nomination to be Secretary of
Labor in 1985), another nomination to the same position (Alexis M. Herman to be Secretary of
Labor in 1997) was under consideration in the Senate for 113 days.
The mean (average) number of days elapsed from receipt of Cabinet nominations during inter-
term transitions in the Senate to final action was 29.3 days, or just under a month. The median
number of days from receipt to final action was 22.0, or just over three weeks. In other words,
nominations to Cabinet positions during inter-term transitions typically take approximately three
to four weeks to proceed through the Senate confirmation process, once the nomination has been
received in the Senate.
Another way to report the duration of Cabinet nominations during inter-term transitions is to
measure the number of days elapsed using the date of the President’s announcement of his
intention to nominate the individual, rather than submission of the nomination, as a starting point.
The mean (average) number of days elapsed using this methodology is 60.2, and the median is
50.5 days.


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Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984

Contents
The Cabinet ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Overview of the Appointments Process ........................................................................................... 4
Selection and Nomination ......................................................................................................... 4
Senate Consideration of Nominations ....................................................................................... 4
Appointment .............................................................................................................................. 6
Cabinet Nominations During Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984 ................................................... 6
Data in this Report ..................................................................................................................... 6
Analysis of Cabinet Nominations Made During Inter-Term Transitions................................... 7

Tables
Table 1. Examples of Withdrawn Cabinet Selections ...................................................................... 3
Table 2. Average Duration of Cabinet Nominations During Inter-Term Transitions Since
1984, By President ........................................................................................................................ 8
Table A-1. Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984 .............. 9
Table A-2. Duration of Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions
Since 1984 .................................................................................................................................. 12

Appendixes
Appendix. Data for Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions
Since 1984 .................................................................................................................................... 9

Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 14

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Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984

nder the Constitution, the top leadership positions of the executive branch are filled
through appointment by the President “by and with the Advice and Consent of the
USenate.”1 These posts include most of the approximately two dozen that form the
President’s Cabinet. Because of the importance of these offices to the implementation of the
President’s policies and the leadership of federal departments and agencies, they are usually
among the first to be filled at the outset of a new Administration.2 The President may nominate
individuals to fill these posts at any point during his time in office, however. From time-to-time,
Presidents have made new Cabinet appointments in the midst of a term in response to unexpected
resignations or deaths.
In recent decades, it also has become customary for each two-term President to reshuffle his
Cabinet during the inter-term transition—the transition that takes place at the end of a President’s
first term in office and beginning of his second term. This process of filling Cabinet vacancies at
the beginning of a second term has not been as extensive as the staffing at the beginning of the
first term; typically about half the Cabinet members change. Nonetheless, the pace at which these
nominations and confirmations are carried out could affect the implementation of the President’s
policies during his second term, as well as the leadership of the departments and agencies
affected.
This report discusses nominations to Cabinet positions during inter-term presidential transitions.
It begins with a discussion of the positions that make up the Cabinet and the process by which
nominations to such positions are considered in the Senate. Following this discussion, the report
provides data on, and analysis of, the pace of Senate consideration of inter-term transition
nominations to Cabinet positions since 1984.
The Cabinet
The President’s Cabinet is an institution established by custom, rather than by law.3 The
Constitution provides that the President “may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal
Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their
respective Offices,” but it does not establish any requirement that he meet with them or seek their
counsel.4 Nonetheless, beginning with George Washington, Presidents have met with department
heads and other top officials as a formal group.
The Cabinet comprises the heads of each of the departments, currently numbering 15, the Vice
President, and other positions that have been accorded Cabinet rank by the President. This last
group varies according to the preferences of each President. At present, it includes the following
positions:

1 U.S. Constitution, Article II, Sec. 2, cl. 2.
2 See CRS Report R40119, Filling Advice and Consent Positions at the Outset of a New Administration, by Henry B.
Hogue and Maureen Bearden.
3 Although not established by law, the Cabinet’s existence has been recognized in law. See, for example, 7 U.S.C.
§2204(a), which provides that the Secretary of Agriculture “shall advise the President, other members of his Cabinet,
and the Congress on policies and programs designed to improve the quality of life for people living in the rural and
nonmetropolitan regions of the Nation.”
4 U.S. Constitution, Article II, Sec. 2.
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Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984

• White House Chief of Staff;
• Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency;
• Director of the Office of Management and Budget;
• United States Trade Representative;
• United States Ambassador to the United Nations;
• Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisors; and
• Administrator of the Small Business Administration.5
Other positions that have been accorded Cabinet rank by past Presidents include, for example,
Director of National Drug Control Policy, Counselor to the President, Director of Central
Intelligence, and Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. At times a President
has changed the composition of his Cabinet during the course of his presidency. For example,
President William J. Clinton added four positions to his Cabinet over the course of his time in
office.
Presidents have used their Cabinets in various ways. In some Administrations, the Cabinet has
been a key advisory and decision-making body. In other Administrations, the Cabinet as a
collective body has been a mostly symbolic institution, even as each individual exercises
considerable influence over his or her department or agency. Regardless of a President’s use of
this group, the membership in the Cabinet conveys high status. Consequently, nominations to
Cabinet-level positions are among the highest priority for consideration by the Senate.
Unsuccessful Cabinet Selections
The Senate has usual y confirmed Presidents’ nominations to Cabinet positions; since 1789, hundreds of such
nominations have been approved without controversy. However, not al individuals tapped for Cabinet positions have
received Senate approval. On nine occasions, the Senate has withheld its consent by formal y rejecting a nomination.
Since 1980, this has occurred only once. President George H.W. Bush’s nomination of former Senator John Tower to
be Secretary of Defense was rejected by the Senate in 1989.
During recent decades, it has been more common for Cabinet selections to be withdrawn prior to formal Senate
consideration than to be rejected by the Senate. On occasion, unanticipated controversy has arisen fol owing the
announcement of the President’s selection. After determining that the nomination should not or will not move
forward, the White House has announced that the individual has been withdrawn from consideration. If this occurs
after a nomination has formally been submitted to the Senate, the President has also formally withdrawn the
nomination. Table 1 provides a list of instances identified in which the President has withdrawn Cabinet nominations
since 1980.
In rare cases, the President has submitted a Cabinet nomination that was not subsequently acted upon or withdrawn.
In such cases, the nomination has been automatically returned to the President in accordance with Senate rules. For
example, President Clinton nominated Michael Kantor to be Secretary of Commerce on May 3, 1996, fol owing the
death of Secretary Ronald H. Brown. The nomination was referred to committee but not reported, and it was
returned to the President when the Senate adjourned sine die on October 4, 1996. At the time of the nomination,
the President had also given Kantor a recess appointment to the post. The chairman of the Senate Committee on
Commerce, Science, and Transportation, to which the nomination was referred, reportedly explained that the
workload of the committee and the fact that the nominee was already in office influenced the decision not to take
formal action on the nomination.6

5 Current Cabinet information may be found at http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/cabinet.
6 Jonathan Weisman, “Nominations: Senate to Skip Kantor Hearings, Muffling Department’s Foes,” CQ Weekly, June
(continued...)
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Table 1. Examples of Withdrawn Cabinet Selections
Selected
President
Individual Position
(year)
Controversy and Outcome
Robert M. Gates
Director of Central
Reagan
Was Deputy Director during the Iran-
Intelligence
(1987)
Contra Affair. Nomination withdrawn after
Senate hearings.
Zoe E. Baird
Attorney General
Clinton
Issues related to immigration status of nanny
(1993)
and driver and related taxes. Nomination
withdrawn prior to formal Senate
consideration.
Kimba M. Wood
Attorney General
Clinton
Issues related to immigration status of nanny.
(1993)
Announced, not nominated.
Bobby Ray Inman
Secretary of Defense
Clinton
Issues related to his operation of a defense
(1994)
contracting company and payment of taxes
for a household worker. Announced, not
nominated.
Anthony Lake
Director of National
Clinton
Issues related to his performance as National
Intelligence
(1997)
Security Advisor. Nomination withdrawn
after Senate hearings.
Hershel W. Gober
Secretary of Veterans
Clinton
Potential conflict of interest issues related to
Affairs
(1997)
resolution of a sexual harassment allegation
while he was Deputy Secretary. Nomination
withdrawn prior to formal Senate
consideration.
Linda Chavez
Secretary of Labor
Bush (2001) Issues related to the immigration status of an
individual who had lived at her home.
Announced, not nominated.
Bernard Kerik
Secretary of Homeland
Bush (2004) Issues related to immigration status of
Security
housekeeper and nanny and related taxes.
Announced, not nominated.
Thomas A. Daschle
Secretary of Health and
Obama
Issues related to back taxes on income and a
Human Services
(2009)
car service. Nomination withdrawn fol owing
Senate hearings.
Bil Richardson
Secretary of Commerce
Obama
Ongoing federal investigation of potential
(2009)
conflict of interest issues during his time as
governor of New Mexico. Announced, not
nominated.
Judd Gregg
Secretary of Commerce
Obama
Policy disagreements with the
(2009)
Administration. Announced, not nominated.
Source: Compiled from the nominations database of the Legislative Information System (LIS), contemporary
news accounts, and various volumes of CQ Almanac. Detailed source information is available from the authors.

(...continued)
22, 1996, p. 1758.
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Overview of the Appointments Process
The appointments process for advice and consent positions, and therefore for most members of
the President’s Cabinet, is generally considered to have three stages: selection and nomination by
the President, consideration in the Senate, and appointment by the President. This section of the
report provides an overview of these three stages.
Selection and Nomination
In the first stage, the White House selects and clears a prospective Cabinet appointee before
sending a formal nomination to the Senate. There are a number of steps in this stage of the
process. First, with the assistance of, and preliminary vetting by, the White House Office of
Presidential Personnel, the President selects a candidate for the position. During the clearance
process, the candidate prepares and submits several forms, including the “Public Financial
Disclosure Report” (also referred to as the Office of Government Ethics (OGE) 278), the
“Questionnaire for National Security Positions” (Standard Form (SF) 86), and the White House
“Personal Data Statement Questionnaire.”7 The Office of the Counsel to the President oversees
the clearance process, which often includes background investigations conducted by the Federal
Bureau of Investigation (FBI), OGE, and an ethics official for the agency to which the candidate
is to be appointed. If conflicts of interest are found during the background investigation, OGE and
the agency ethics officer may work with the candidate to mitigate the conflicts. Once the Office
of the Counsel to the President has cleared the candidate, the nomination is ready to be submitted
to the Senate.
A nominee has no legal authority to assume the duties and responsibilities of the position.
Authority to act comes once there is Senate confirmation and presidential appointment, unless the
individual is recess appointed or temporarily appointed under another authority.8
Senate Consideration of Nominations
In the second stage of the appointments process, the Senate alone determines whether or not to
confirm a nomination.9 Primarily, the Senate has shown particular interest in the nominee’s views
and how they are likely to affect public policy.10

7 Additional information about the selection and clearance process for nominees to executive branch positions can be
found in a November 2012 study conducted pursuant to the enactment of P.L. 112-166, the Presidential Appointment
Efficiency and Streamlining Act. See Working Group on Streamlining Paperwork for Executive Nominations,
Streamlining Paperwork for Executive Nominations: Report to the President and the Chairs and Ranking Members of
the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Government Affairs and the Senate Committee on Rules and
Administration
, November 2012, at http://www.hsgac.senate.gov/download/report-of-working-group-on-streamlining-
paperwork-for-executive-nominations-final. According to the working group’s report, the Obama Administration does
not currently use a personal data statement questionnaire (see p. 11).
8 For additional information on recess appointments and temporary appointments to Cabinet and other positions, see
CRS Report RS21412, Temporarily Filling Presidentially Appointed, Senate-Confirmed Positions, by Henry B. Hogue;
and CRS Report RS21308, Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions, by Henry B. Hogue.
9 For further information on this stage of the appointment process, see CRS Report RL31980, Senate Consideration of
Presidential Nominations: Committee and Floor Procedure
, by Elizabeth Rybicki.
10 G. Calvin Mackenzie, The Politics of Presidential Appointments (New York: The Free Press, 1981), pp. 97-189.
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Much of the Senate confirmation process occurs at the committee level. Administratively,
nominations are received by the Senate executive clerk, who arranges for the referral of the
nominations to committee, according to the Senate rules and precedents.11 Committee nomination
activity on Cabinet nominations generally includes investigation, hearing, and reporting. As part
of investigatory work, committees have drawn on information provided by the White House, as
well as information they themselves have collected. Hearings provide a public forum to discuss
the nomination and any issues related to the agency for which the nominee would be responsible.
Even where confirmation has been thought by most to be a virtual certainty, hearings have
provided Senators and the nominee with opportunities to go on the record with particular views or
commitments. Senators have used hearings to explore nominees’ qualifications, articulate policy
perspectives, or raise related oversight issues.
After a nomination is referred to committee, the committee may decline to act on the nomination
at any point—upon referral, after investigation, or after a hearing. For Cabinet nominations,
however, inaction is unusual. If the committee votes to report the nomination to the full Senate, it
has three options: it may report the nomination favorably, unfavorably, or without
recommendation. A failure to obtain a majority on the motion to report means the nomination will
not be reported to the Senate.
After a committee reports a nomination, the nomination is assigned a number by the executive
clerk, placed on the Executive Calendar, and, if taken up by the full Senate, would be considered
in executive session. Because the Senate imposes no limitation on floor debate on nominations, a
supermajority of three-fifths of the Senate, or 60 votes if there is no more than 1 vacancy, may be
required to reach a vote to approve the nomination.
The Senate historically has confirmed most, but not all, Cabinet nominations. Rarely, however,
has a vote to confirm a Cabinet nomination failed on the Senate floor.12
Senate rules provide that “nominations neither confirmed nor rejected during the session at which
they are made shall not be acted upon at any succeeding session without being again made to the
Senate by the President…”13 Were the Senate not to take action on a Cabinet nomination, the
pending nomination would likely be returned to the President at the end of the session or
Congress.14

11 Formally, the presiding officer of the Senate makes the referrals. For more information, see Floyd M. Riddick and
Alan S. Frumin, Riddick’s Senate Procedure: Precedents and Practices, 101st Cong., 2nd sess., S.Doc. 101-28
(Washington: GPO, 1992), pp. 1154-8; and CRS Report RL31980, Senate Consideration of Presidential Nominations:
Committee and Floor Procedure
, by Elizabeth Rybicki, pp. 2-3.
12 In one example, President George H. W. Bush nominated John G. Tower to be Secretary of Defense. Tower’s
nomination was reported unfavorably by the Committee on Armed Services and was disapproved by the Senate by a
vote of 47-53. See also “Unsuccessful Cabinet Selections.”
13 The rule may be found in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Rules and Administration, Senate Manual, 110th
Cong., 2nd sess., S. Doc. 110-1 (Washington: GPO, 2008), p. 58, Rule XXXI, paragraph 6 of the Standing Rules of the
Senate.
14 In practice, pending nominations are usually returned to the President at the end of the session or Congress, but under
Senate rules, nominations may also be returned automatically to the President at the beginning of a recess of more than
30 days. However, the Senate rule providing for this return is often waived. For an example of a waiver of the rule, see
Senator Harry Reid, “Nominations Status Quo,” Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 153, December 19, 2007, p.
S16061.
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Appointment
Following Senate confirmation, the confirmed nominee is given a commission bearing the Great
Seal of the United States and signed by the President. The nominee is then sworn into office. The
President may sign the commission at any time after confirmation, at which point the
appointment becomes official. Once the appointee is given the commission and sworn in, he or
she has full authority to carry out the responsibilities of the office.
Cabinet Nominations During Inter-Term Transitions
Since 1984

The remainder of this report examines nominations made during inter-term transition periods of
recent Presidents. Information for President Barack Obama’s Cabinet nominations made during
his inter-term transition will be added to this report after the first few months of his second term
have elapsed.
Data in this Report
The Appendix of this report lists nominations to Cabinet positions during inter-term transitions
for the three most recent Presidents, prior to Barack Obama, who served two terms in office
(Ronald W. Reagan, William J. Clinton, and George W. Bush). The data included in the
Appendix are nominations to Cabinet positions submitted during the inter-term transition period,
which is defined as the period between November 1 of the President’s re-election year and April
30 of the first year of the second term. In total, there are 30 such nominations.
As discussed above, the positions that the President chooses to include in his Cabinet vary across
Administrations. The data provided in the Appendix include nominations to traditional Cabinet
positions as well as nominations to those positions given Cabinet rank by the nominating
President. (See section above titled “The Cabinet” for a list of the positions that recent Presidents
have accorded Cabinet rank in addition to the 15 executive departments.)
Table A-1 provides a list of Cabinet nominations made during inter-term transitions, listing the
dates of relevant actions from the President’s official announcement of the nomination to the date
of final Senate action upon each nomination. Specifically, the table provides the date the Senate
received the nomination, the date(s) on which each committee held hearings, the date each
nomination was ordered reported, and the final date on which the Senate took action. The table
also lists the total number of days of Senate consideration of each nomination, measured by
counting the number of days from the Senate’s receipt of the nomination to the final action.
Unless otherwise specified, the “final action” listed is confirmation. Finally, the last row of the
table lists the mean and median duration of Senate consideration of all 30 nominations.
Table A-2 provides the number of elapsed days between the steps listed in Table A-1. The final
row in Table A-2 presents the mean and median duration for each of these periods.
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Analysis of Cabinet Nominations Made During Inter-Term
Transitions

As the data in Table A-1 demonstrate, the duration of consideration of these Cabinet nominations
can vary considerably. The mean (average) number of days elapsed from receipt of the
nomination in the Senate to final action was 29.3 days, or just under a month. The median number
of days from receipt to final action was 22.0, or just over three weeks.15 In other words,
nominations to Cabinet positions during inter-term transitions typically take approximately three
to four weeks to proceed through the Senate confirmation process, once the nomination has been
received in the Senate.
The Cabinet nomination made during an inter-term transition that proceeded through the Senate
most quickly was Presidential Reagan’s nomination of William E. Brock III to be Secretary of
Labor in 1985. Only nine days elapsed between the Senate’s receipt of the nomination and the
vote on the nomination. However, almost a month elapsed after the President’s announcement
before he submitted the nomination, suggesting that perhaps the Senate committee may have
begun preparing for its consideration of the nomination before the President actually submitted it.
The Cabinet nomination made during an inter-term transition that took the longest to be
confirmed was President Clinton’s nomination of Alexis M. Herman to be Secretary of Labor in
1997. In total, Herman’s nomination was under consideration in the Senate for 113 days. Some of
the discussion surrounding her nomination was related to her alleged involvement in campaign
fundraising activities while employed at the White House.16 She was confirmed by a vote of 85 to
13.
Table A-2 reports the number of days elapsed between the various Senate actions on each
nomination, using the date of the President’s announcement as a starting point. The final column
of Table A-2 provides the total duration of consideration of the nomination measured from the
date of the President’s announcement, rather than submission of the nomination. The final row
provides the mean and median number of days from the President’s announcement of his
intention to nominate the individual to the Senate’s final action. The mean number of days is
60.2, or about two months. The median is just under 50.5 days.
Using this measurement of duration of the consideration of nominations, the quickest-moving
nomination was President Reagan’s nomination of James A. Baker III to be Secretary of the
Treasury. Presidential Reagan announced his intention to nominate Baker on January 8, 1985, and
21 days later, Baker was confirmed by the Senate.
As measured from date of announcement to confirmation, President Reagan’s nomination of
Edwin Meese III to be Attorney General had the longest duration: 156 days. This was in large part
due to the fact that between the President’s announcement and his submission of the nomination
to the Senate, 105 days elapsed. However, Senate consideration of Meese for Attorney General

15 The median is the middle value in a numerical distribution. Although the mean (average) is generally the more
commonly used measure, means can be influenced more heavily by outliers in the data. Medians do not tend to be
influenced by outliers. The fact that the mean is higher than the median suggests that there is at least one outlier in the
data.
16 “Herman Wins Labor Post Despite Controversy.” 1997 Congressional Quarterly Almanac (Washington,
Congressional Quarterly, 1997).
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took even longer than the data in the table indicates: Meese had been originally nominated to the
post during the previous congressional session on February 3, 1984. The Senate Judiciary
Committee held hearings on the nomination, but did not report it to the full Senate. In accordance
with Senate rules, the nomination was returned to the President when the Senate adjourned sine
die on October 18, 1984. Meese’s confirmation was delayed by an investigation related to his
financial relationships with some individuals who had obtained federal jobs with his assistance.
An independent counsel, appointed by then-Attorney General William French Smith at Meese’s
request, cleared him of any violations of criminal law. President Reagan first mentioned his
intention of renominating Meese on September 7, 1984, under the assumption that the report of
the results of the investigation would not reveal any incriminating new information. The President
formally announced his intentions on September 20, 1984, after the report’s release, and Meese
was confirmed to the post by a vote of 63-31.17 Meese’s 1984 nomination falls outside the
transition period discussed in this report, and it is therefore not included in the appendix tables.
Table 2 provides a summary of the information in the appendix tables, by President.
Table 2. Average Duration of Cabinet Nominations During Inter-Term Transitions
Since 1984, By President
Administration (number
Mean and median number of
Mean and median number of
of nominations in
days from announcement to
days from receipt in Senate to
dataset)
final action
final action
Ronald Reagan (7)
56.0
27.0
25.1
19.0
Wil iam J. Clinton (12)
67.8
55.0
38.8
35.0
George W. Bush (11)
54.6
52.0
22.5
22.0
Source: Data were compiled using the Legislative Information System (LIS) and the Public Papers of the Presidents
of the United States
.
Note: The data included in this table are nominations to Cabinet positions submitted between November 1 of
the President’s re-election year and April 30 of the first year of the second term. In total, there are 30 such
nominations.
While there was some variation among the three Presidents listed here, the duration of the
nominations included in Table 2 does not, on average, tend to vary widely across
Administrations. For each President, it took an average of approximately two months from time
of announcement of the nomination to final action on the nomination in the Senate, which was
usually a vote to confirm. Generally, the medians were lower than the means, suggesting that the
means were influenced by at least one outlier (extreme value).18


17 “Meese Confirmed After Delay of 13 Months,” 1985 Congressional Quarterly Almanac (Washington, Congressional
Quarterly, 1986).
18 The mean (average) is the more familiar measure, and it was calculated by adding together the elapsed times for all
of the cases and dividing the resulting sum by the total number of cases. The median is the middle number in a set of
observations (or, in this case, because of an even number of observations, the average of the two middle numbers). In
data sets, such as this one, where the data are skewed because of a limited number of extreme values (outliers), the
median is often considered to be the more accurate of the two measures of central tendency.
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Appendix. Data for Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term
Transitions Since 1984

Table A-1. Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984
Days from
Date of
Date
Date
Final Senate
receipt in
Nominating
President’s
received in
Date of
ordered
action and
Senate to
President Position
Nominee
announcement
Senate
hearings
reported
date
final action
Reagan
Secretary of Education
Wil iam J. Bennett
01/10/85
01/18/85
01/28/85
02/05/85
02/06/85
19
(93-0)
Reagan
Secretary of Energy
John S. Herrington
01/10/85
01/18/85
01/31/85
02/05/85
02/06/85
19
(93-1)
Reagan
Secretary of the Interior
Donald P. Hodel
01/10/85
01/22/85
02/01/85
02/05/85
02/06/85
15
(93-1)
Reagan
Attorney General
Edwin Meese III
09/20/84a 01/03/85
01/29/85
02/05/85
02/23/85
51
01/30/85
(63-31)
01/31/85
Reagan
Secretary of Labor
Wil iam E. Brock III 03/20/85 04/17/85
04/23/85 04/24/85 04/26/85
9
(voice vote)
Reagan
Secretary of the Treasury James A. Baker III
01/08/85
01/18/85
01/23/85
01/23/85
01/29/85
11
(95-0)
Reagan
U.S. Representative to
Vernon A. Walters
02/08/85
03/25/85
05/01/85
05/07/85
05/16/85
52
the United Nations
(voice vote)
Clinton
Secretary of Commerce
William M. Daley
12/13/96
01/07/97
01/22/97
01/29/97
01/30/97
23
(95-2)
Clinton
Secretary of Defense
William S. Cohen
12/05/96
01/07/97
01/22/97
01/22/97
01/22/97
15
(99-0)
Clinton
Secretary of Energy
Federico Peña
12/20/96
01/28/97
01/30/97
03/06/97
03/12/97
43
(99-1)
CRS-9


Days from
Date of
Date
Date
Final Senate
receipt in
Nominating
President’s
received in
Date of
ordered
action and
Senate to
President Position
Nominee
announcement
Senate
hearings
reported
date
final action
Clinton
Secretary of Housing and
Andrew M. Cuomo
12/20/96
01/07/97
01/22/97
01/28/97
01/29/97
22
Urban Development
(99-0)
Clinton
Secretary of Labor
Alexis M. Herman
12/20/96
01/07/97
03/18/97
04/10/97
04/30/97
113
(85-13)
Clinton
Secretary of State
Madeleine K.
12/05/96 01/07/97
01/08/97
01/20/97
01/22/97 15
Albright
(99-0)
Clinton Secretary
of
Rodney E. Slater
12/20/96
01/07/97
01/29/97
02/05/97
02/06/97
30
Transportation
(98-0)
Clinton
U.S. Representative to
Bill Richardson
12/13/96
01/07/97
01/29/97
02/11/97
02/11/97
35
the United Nations
(100-0)
Clinton U.S.
Trade
Charlene Barshefsky
12/13/96
01/07/97
01/29/97
01/30/97
03/05/97
57
Representative
(99-1)
Clinton
Administrator of the
Aida Alvarez
12/20/96
01/07/97
02/12/97
02/12/97
02/13/97
37
Small Business
(voice vote)
Administration
Clinton
Chair of the Council of
Janet L. Yellen
12/20/96
01/07/97
02/05/97
02/12/97
02/13/97
37
Economic Advisers
(voice vote)
Clinton
Director of Central
Anthony Lake
12/05/96
01/09/97
03/11/97
Withdrawn 04/18/97
Intelligence
03/12/97
03/13/97
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Agriculture
Mike Johanns
12/02/04
01/04/05
01/06/05
01/06/05
01/20/05
16
(voice vote)
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Commerce
Carlos M. Gutierrez
11/29/04
01/04/05
01/05/05
01/06/05
01/24/05
20
(voice vote)
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Education
Margaret Spellings
11/17/04
01/04/05
01/06/05
01/06/05
01/20/05
16
(voice vote)
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Energy
Samuel W. Bodman
12/10/04
01/04/05
01/19/05
01/26/05
01/31/05
27
(voice vote)
CRS-10


Days from
Date of
Date
Date
Final Senate
receipt in
Nominating
President’s
received in
Date of
ordered
action and
Senate to
President Position
Nominee
announcement
Senate
hearings
reported
date
final action
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Health and
Michael O. Leavitt
12/13/04
01/04/05
01/18/05
01/25/05
01/26/05
22
Human Services
01/19/05
(voice vote)
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Homeland
Michael Chertoff
01/11/05
01/31/05
02/02/05
02/07/05
02/15/05
15
Security
(98-0)
Bush, G.W.
Attorney General
Alberto Gonzales
11/10/04
01/04/05
01/06/05
01/26/05
02/03/05
30
(60-36)
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of State
Condoleezza Rice
11/16/04
01/04/05
01/18/05
01/19/05
01/26/05
22
01/19/05
(85-13)
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Veterans
Jim Nicholson
12/09/04
01/04/05
01/24/05
01/24/05
01/26/05
22
Affairs
(voice vote)
Bush, G.W.
Administrator of the
Stephen L. Johnson
03/04/05
03/17/05
04/06/05
04/13/05
04/28/05
42
Environmental Protection
(voice vote)
Agency
Bush, G.W.
U.S. Trade
Robert J. Portman
03/17/05
04/13/05
04/21/05
04/26/05
04/28/05
15
Representative
(voice vote)
Mean number of days from receipt in Senate to final action
29.3
Median number of days from receipt in Senate to final action
22.0
Source: Data was produced using the Legislative Information System (LIS) and the Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States.
Note: The data included in this table are nominations to Cabinet positions submitted between November 1 of the President’s re-election year and April 30 of the first
year of the second term.
a. Meese was first nominated on February 3, 1984. The Senate Judiciary Committee held hearings on the nomination, but did not report it to the full Senate. In
accordance with Senate rules, the nomination was returned to the President when the Senate adjourned sine die on October 18, 1984. Meese’s confirmation was
delayed by an investigation related to his financial relationships with some individuals who had obtained federal jobs with his assistance. An independent counsel,
appointed by then-Attorney General William French Smith at Meese’s request, cleared him of any violations of criminal law. President Reagan first mentioned his
intention of renominating Meese on September 7, 1984, under the assumption that the report of the results of the investigation would not reveal any incriminating
new information. The President formally announced his intentions on September 20, 1984, after the report’s release. Meese was then renominated and confirmed as
shown above. See “Meese Confirmed After Delay of 13 Months,” Congressional Quarterly Almanac: 99th Congress 1st Session ... 1985 (Washington, Congressional
Quarterly, 1986), p. 236.
CRS-11


Table A-2. Duration of Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984
Days from
Days from
Days from first
Days from
Days from
announcement
received in
hearing to
ordered
announcement
Nominating
to date received
Senate to first
ordered
reported to
to final Senate
President Position

Nominee in Senate
hearing date
reported
final action
action
Reagan
Secretary of Education
Wil iam J. Bennett
8
10
8
1
27
Reagan
Secretary of Energy
John S. Herrington
8
13
5
1
27
Reagan
Secretary of the Interior
Donald P. Hodel
12
10
4
1
27
Reagan
Attorney General
Edwin Meese III
105
26
7
18
156
Reagan
Secretary of Labor
Wil iam E. Brock III
28
6
1
2
37
Reagan
Secretary of the Treasury
James A. Baker III
10
5
1
5
21
Reagan
U.S. Representative to the Vernon A. Walters
45
37
6
9
97
United Nations
Clinton
Secretary of Commerce
William M. Daley
25
15
7
1
48
Clinton
Secretary of Defense
Wil iam S. Cohen
33
15
0
0
48
Clinton
Secretary of Energy
Federico Peña
39
2
35
6
82
Clinton
Secretary of Housing and
Andrew M. Cuomo
18
15
6
1
40
Urban Development
Clinton
Secretary of Labor
Alexis M. Herman
18
70
23
20
131
Clinton
Secretary of State
Madeleine K. Albright
33
1
12
2
48
Clinton Secretary
of
Rodney E. Slater
18
22
7
1
48
Transportation
Clinton
U.S. Representative to the Bill Richardson
25
22
13
0
60
United Nations
Clinton
United States Trade
Charlene Barshefsky
7
22
1
34
64
Representative
Clinton
Administrator of the
Aida Alvarez
18
36
0
1
55
Small Business
Administration
CRS-12


Days from
Days from
Days from first
Days from
Days from
announcement
received in
hearing to
ordered
announcement
Nominating
to date received
Senate to first
ordered
reported to
to final Senate
President Position

Nominee in Senate
hearing date
reported
final action
action
Clinton
Chair of the Council of
Janet L. Yel en
18
29
7
1
55
Economic Advisers
Clinton
Director of Central
Anthony Lake
35
61
n/a
n/a
134
Intelligence
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Agriculture
Mike Johanns
33
2
0
14
49
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Commerce
Carlos M. Gutierrez
36
1
1
18
56
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Education
Margaret Spellings
48
2
0
14
64
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Energy
Samuel W. Bodman
25
15
7
5
52
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Health and
Michael O. Leavitt
22
14
7
1
44
Human Services
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Homeland
Michael Chertoff
20
2
5
8
35
Security
Bush, G.W.
Attorney General
Alberto Gonzales
55
2
20
8
85
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of State
Condoleezza Rice
49
14
1
7
71
Bush, G.W.
Secretary of Veterans
Jim Nicholson
26
0
20
2
48
Affairs
Bush, G.W.
Administrator of the
Stephen L. Johnson
13
20
7
15
55
Environmental Protection
Agency
Bush, G.W.
U.S. Trade Representative Robert J. Portman
27
8
5
2
42
Mean number of days from announcement to final action
60.2
Median number of days from announcement to final action
50.5
Source: Data were produced using the Legislative Information System (LIS) and the Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States.
Note: The data included in this table are nominations to Cabinet positions submitted between November 1 of the President’s re-election year and April 30 of the first
year of the second term
CRS-13

Nominations to Cabinet Positions During Inter-Term Transitions Since 1984

Author Contact Information

Maeve P. Carey
Michael W. Greene
Analyst in Government Organization and
Information Research Specialist
Management
mgreene@crs.loc.gov, 7-9188
mcarey@crs.loc.gov, 7-7775
Henry B. Hogue

Analyst in American National Government
hhogue@crs.loc.gov, 7-0642


Congressional Research Service
14