Honduras-U.S. Relations
Peter J. Meyer
Analyst in Latin American Affairs
February 5, 2013
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL34027
CRS Report for Congress
Pr
epared for Members and Committees of Congress
Honduras-U.S. Relations
Summary
Honduras, a Central American nation of 7.9 million people, has had close ties with the United
States over many years. The country served as a base for U.S. operations in Central America
during the 1980s, and it continues to host a U.S. military presence and cooperate on anti-drug
efforts today. Trade and investment linkages are also long-standing, and have grown stronger in
recent years through the implementation of the Dominican Republic-Central America-United
States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR). Migration is another central concern in bilateral
relations; over 731,000 Hispanics of Honduran origin live in the United States, two-thirds of
whom are foreign born. Although the U.S.-Honduras relationship was somewhat strained as a
result of the 2009 political crisis in Honduras, close cooperation quickly resumed in 2010. Since
then, broad U.S. policy goals in Honduras have included a strengthened democracy with an
effective justice system that protects human rights and enforces the rule of law, and the promotion
of sustainable economic growth with a more open economy and improved living conditions.
Political Situation
Porfirio Lobo was inaugurated president of Honduras in January 2010, assuming power after
seven months of domestic political crisis and international isolation that had resulted from the
June 2009 ouster of President Manuel Zelaya. While the strength of Lobo’s conservative National
Party in the legislature has enabled his administration to pass much of its policy agenda, Lobo has
had limited success in resolving the many challenges facing Honduras. His efforts to lead the
country out of political crisis, for example, have helped Honduras secure international recognition
but have done little to rebuild confidence in the country’s political system. An ongoing
constitutional crisis triggered by the National Congress’ December 2012 removal of four Supreme
Court justices demonstrates the extent to which democratic institutions remain fragile. Lobo is
relatively unpopular as he enters the final year of his term, with 70% of Hondurans disapproving
of his performance in office.
Security and Human Rights
The poor security and human rights situation in Honduras has continued to deteriorate under
President Lobo. Honduras has one of the highest homicide rates in the world, and common crime
remains widespread. Moreover, human rights abuses—which increased significantly in the
aftermath of Zelaya’s ouster—have persisted. A number of inter-related factors have likely
contributed to this situation, including the increasing presence of organized crime, weak
government institutions, and widespread corruption. Although the Honduran government has
adopted a number of policy reforms designed to address these challenges, conditions have yet to
improve.
Economic Conditions
Lobo also inherited a weak economy with high levels of poverty and inequality. Honduras
suffered an economic contraction of 2.1% in 2009 as a result of the combined impact of the
global financial crisis and domestic political crisis. Although the economy has partially recovered,
with estimated growth of 3.8% in 2012, the Honduran government continues to face serious fiscal
challenges. The central government’s deficit has been growing since 2011, and it has struggled to
finance the budget. Public employees and contractors have gone unpaid, and basic government
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services have been interrupted. Honduras also continues to face significant social disparities, with
over two-thirds of the population living in poverty.
Congressional Action
Members of the 111th and 112th Congresses expressed considerable interest in Honduras, focusing
in particular on the state of the country’s democratic institutions in the aftermath of the 2009
political crisis as well as the significant security and human rights challenges that have plagued
the country in recent years. These issues are likely to remain on the agenda for the 113th
Congress.
This report examines current conditions in Honduras as well as issues in U.S-Honduras relations.
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Contents
Recent Developments ...................................................................................................................... 1
Political Situation ............................................................................................................................. 2
Background................................................................................................................................ 2
2009 Political Crisis ............................................................................................................ 3
2009 Election ...................................................................................................................... 5
Lobo Administration .................................................................................................................. 6
Political Reconciliation ....................................................................................................... 7
2012 Political Crisis ............................................................................................................ 8
2013 Election ........................................................................................................................... 10
Security and Human Rights Conditions ......................................................................................... 11
Criminal Threats, Weak Institutions, and Corruption .............................................................. 13
Public Security Policies ........................................................................................................... 15
Economic and Social Conditions ................................................................................................... 17
Crises and Recovery ................................................................................................................ 18
Poverty and Inequality ............................................................................................................. 19
U.S.-Honduras Relations ............................................................................................................... 19
Foreign Assistance ................................................................................................................... 20
Bilateral Assistance ........................................................................................................... 21
Additional Aid ................................................................................................................... 21
Human Rights Conditions on Assistance .......................................................................... 23
Security Cooperation ............................................................................................................... 24
Anti-Drug Efforts .............................................................................................................. 25
Controversy ....................................................................................................................... 25
Trade and Investment .............................................................................................................. 26
Migration Issues ...................................................................................................................... 28
Temporary Protected Status ............................................................................................... 29
Deportations ...................................................................................................................... 29
Trafficking in Persons .............................................................................................................. 30
Figures
Figure 1. Map of Honduras .............................................................................................................. 3
Figure 2. Party Affiliation in the Honduran National Congress ...................................................... 6
Figure 3. Honduras Homicide Rate, 2000-2011 ............................................................................ 12
Figure 4. U.S. Trade with Honduras: 2002-2011 ........................................................................... 27
Tables
Table 1. U.S. Bilateral Assistance to Honduras, FY2008-FY2013 ................................................ 21
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Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 31
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Recent Developments
• On December 19, 2012, the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) announced that
Honduras is eligible to continue developing a Threshold Program in FY2013. Threshold
Programs are designed to assist countries that are currently ineligible for larger compacts
in addressing policy barriers to improved governance and economic growth (see
“Millennium Challenge Corporation”).
• On December 12, 2012, the Honduran National Congress voted to dismiss four members
of the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court, a move that most analysts contend
was illegal. The resulting political crisis has yet to be resolved (see “2012 Political
Crisis”).
• On November 19, 2012, the United States resumed sharing radar intelligence with
Honduras in support of anti-drug efforts. The United States had suspended such
cooperation for several months after the Honduran Air Force used the intelligence to
shoot down at least two civilian planes in violation of bilateral agreements (see “Security
Cooperation”).
• On November 18, 2012, Honduras held party primaries to select candidates for the
general election scheduled for November 2013. The upcoming general election will be
the first to be held since the controversial 2009 vote in the aftermath of the ouster of
President Manuel Zelaya (see “2013 Election”).
• On November 7, 2012, the U.S. Department of Labor’s Office of Trade and Labor Affairs
announced that it was extending an investigation into allegations that the Honduran
government has failed to uphold its labor commitments under CAFTA-DR (see “Trade
and Investment”).
• In September 2012, the U.S. Peace Corps indefinitely suspended its operations in
Honduras as a result of poor security conditions in the country. The agency had
previously pulled all of its volunteers from Honduras (see “Peace Corps” and “Security
and Human Rights Conditions”).
• On August 8, 2012, the U.S. State Department issued a report certifying that the
Honduran government had met the human rights requirements set forth in the
Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-74). The report was required prior to
obligation of 20% of the foreign aid appropriated for Honduran police and military
forces. The funds continue to be withheld, however, as a result of ongoing concerns of
some Members of Congress (see “Human Rights Conditions on Assistance”).
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Political Situation
Background
Honduras, a Central American nation of 7.9 million people,1 has suffered from political instability
and authoritarian governance for much of its history. The military has traditionally played a large
role in domestic politics, and essentially controlled the national government from 1963 until
1971, and again from 1972 until 1982. Hondurans elected a national constituent assembly to draft
a new constitution in 1980, and the country returned to civilian rule in 1982 following
presidential and legislative elections. Nevertheless, the military continued to operate as an
autonomous institution. While Honduras did not experience a civil conflict like those in
neighboring El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, the Honduran military pursued hard-line
anticommunist security policies and was responsible for human rights abuses in the 1980s.
According to the Honduran government’s National Commissioner for Human Rights, the security
forces systematically engaged in arbitrary detentions, torture, and extrajudicial executions,
disappearing at least 179 people between 1980 and 1992.2 During the 1990s, successive
Honduran administrations took steps to reduce the power of the military. Mandatory military
service was abolished, the police and several state-owned enterprises were removed from military
control, and—after the ratification of constitutional reforms in 1999—the military was
subordinated to a civilian-appointed defense minister.
The Liberal (Partido Liberal, PL) and National (Partido Nacional, PN) Parties have dominated
Honduran politics since the military relinquished political control in 1982. Both political parties
are considered to be ideologically center-right; however, the PL includes a small center-left wing.
The parties are oriented around personalist factions and are largely viewed as vehicles for
patronage.3 According to a number of analysts, “the objective of political competition between
the two parties has not been a competition for policies or programs, but rather a competition for
personal gain in which the public sector is turned into private benefit.”4 The PL has traditionally
had the broadest political base in the country, winning five of the eight presidential elections held
since 1982. Three smaller parties—the Christian Democratic Party (Partido Demócrata
Cristiano, DC), the Innovation and Unity Party (Partido Inovación y Unidad, PINU), and the
Democratic Unification party (Unificación Democrática, UD)—also participate in elections and
hold a few seats in the National Congress.
1 United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Statistical Yearbook for Latin
America and the Caribbean, 2012, January 2013, p.23,
http://www.eclac.cl/publicaciones/xml/4/48864/AnuarioEstadistico2012_ing.pdf.
2 Comisionado Nacional de los Derechos Humanos (CONADEH), Los Hechos Hablan por Sí Mismos: Informe
Preliminar sobre los Desaparecidos en Honduras, 1980-1993, Second Edition, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, May 2002. An
English language translation is available at http://www.cja.org/downloads/Honduras_Report-
_%22The_Facts_Speak_for_Themselves%22.pdf.
3 J. Mark Ruhl, “Honduras Unravels,” Journal of Democracy, vol. 21, no. 2 (April 2010).
4 Honduras: A Country Study, ed. Tim L. Merrill, 3rd ed. (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, Federal Research
Division, 1995), p.174. Several more recent studies of the Honduran party system offer similar analysis. See, for
example, Ramón Romero, “Los Partidos Políticos y el Estado Hondureño: Evidencias de la Miopía Partidaria,” in
Golpe de Estado: Partidos, Instituciones, y Cultura Política (Tegucigalpa: Centro de Documentación de Honduras,
2010), pp. 23-54; and Leticia Salomón, “Honduras: Golpe de Estado, Sistema de Partidos y Recomposición
Democrática,” in Honduras: Retos y Desafíos de la Reconstrucción Democrática (Tegucigalpa: Centro de
Documentación de Honduras, 2011), pp. 1-22.
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Figure 1. Map of Honduras
Source: CRS.
2009 Political Crisis5
Manuel Zelaya of the PL was elected president in November 2005, narrowly defeating the PN’s
Porfirio Lobo. As a wealthy landowner who founded a center-left faction within the PL, Zelaya
was regarded as a moderate when he was inaugurated to a four-year term in January 2006.6 As his
term progressed, however, Zelaya advanced a number of populist policies, including a 60%
increase in the minimum wage in December 2008.7 Zelaya also forged closer relations with
Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, joining initiatives such as PetroCaribe, which provides oil at
preferential discounted rates, and the Bolivarian Alliance (Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos
de Nuestra América, ALBA), a socially-oriented trade block.8 Although Zelaya’s populist policies
helped him maintain support among certain sectors of Honduran society, they alienated many
5 For a more detailed examination of the Honduran political crisis, see CRS Report R41064, Honduran Political Crisis,
June 2009-January 2010.
6 “Manuel Zelaya to Head Honduras and Redefine His Party,” Latin America Data Base, NotiCen, December 15, 2005;
“Country Profile: Honduras,” Economist Intelligence Unit, November 14, 2006.
7 “Elevan a L.5500 el Salario Mínimo en Honduras,” El Heraldo (Honduras), December 24, 2008.
8 It should be noted that the National Congress ratified Honduras’ entrance into both PetroCaribe and ALBA.
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within the traditional economic and political elite. Likewise, his administration’s inability to
achieve concrete results on a number of issues of importance—such as poverty and violent
crime—significantly weakened his public standing.
On June 28, 2009, the Honduran military detained President Zelaya and flew him to forced exile
in Costa Rica. The ouster followed several months of political polarization between Honduran
governmental institutions resulting from Zelaya’s intention to hold a non-binding referendum and
eventually amend the constitution. While Zelaya insisted that the referendum was nothing more
than an opinion poll to consult the Honduran populace on the possibility of voting to convene a
constituent assembly,9 others in Honduras maintained that it was an unconstitutional attempt to
remain in power. In the aftermath of Zelaya’s expulsion, the Honduran Supreme Court10 produced
documents asserting that an arrest warrant for President Zelaya had been issued in secrecy on
June 26, 2009 as a result of his noncompliance with judicial rulings suspending all activities
related to the referendum.11 Likewise, the Honduran National Congress ratified the ouster by
accepting an alleged letter of resignation, which Zelaya declared fraudulent, and passing a decree
that disapproved of Zelaya’s conduct, removed him from office, and named the head of Congress,
Roberto Micheletti, the president of Honduras for the remainder of Zelaya’s term.12
The legality of Zelaya’s removal has been heavily debated; however, most legal and political
analysts—including the Truth and Reconciliation Commission appointed to investigate the
ouster—have declared it a “coup d’état.”13 They assert that although Zelaya disobeyed judicial
rulings by attempting to carry out the non-binding referendum, the Honduran military denied the
president due process by expelling him from the country. Additionally, they maintain that the
Honduran National Congress did not have any legal authority to remove Zelaya from office, and
the interim government of Roberto Micheletti was therefore unconstitutional. Nevertheless,
supporters of the ouster insist that Zelaya’s removal amounted to a “constitutional succession.”14
After assuming office in late June 2009, Micheletti remained in power for nearly seven months.
He worked with the Honduran National Congress to pass a budget that severely reduced
government expenditures, and enacted measures that annulled more than a dozen decrees and
reforms approved under Zelaya.15 Micheletti also maintained tight control of Honduran society.
The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), an autonomous body of the
Organization of American States (OAS), asserts that serious violations of human rights occurred
during the Micheletti government, including “deaths; an arbitrary declaration of a state of
emergency; suppression of public demonstrations through disproportionate use of force;
9 The non-binding referendum would have asked Hondurans, “Do you agree that in the general elections of 2009, a
fourth ballot box should be installed in which the people decide on the convocation of a National Constituent
Assembly?” “Llegó el Día de Verdad,” El Tiempo (Honduras), June 28, 2009.
10 It should be noted that although the Honduran judicial system is nominally independent, in practice, it is “subject to
patronage, corruption, and political influence” according to the U.S. State Department’s Country Reports on Human
Rights Practices for 2011.
11 Poder Judicial de Honduras, Expediente Judicial Relación Documentada Caso Zelaya Rosales, July 2009.
12 “El Decreto de la Separación de Zelaya,” El Heraldo (Honduras), June 28, 2009.
13 See, for example, Edmundo Orellana, “El 28 de Junio y la Constitución,” La Tribuna (Honduras), August 1, 2009;
Tim Johnson, “All Parties Broke Law in Honduras Coup, Envoy Wrote,” McClatchy Newspapers, November 28, 2010;
and Comisión de la Verdad y la Reconciliación, Para que los Hechos No se Repitan: Informe de la Comisión de la
Verdad y la Reconciliación, San José, Costa Rica, July 2011.
14 Roberto Micheletti, “Moving Forward in Honduras,” Washington Post, September 22, 2009.
15 “Honduras: Micheletti Prepares to Leave on High Note,” Latin News Weekly Report, January 21, 2010.
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criminalization of public protest; arbitrary detentions of thousands of persons; cruel, inhuman and
degrading treatment and grossly inadequate conditions of detention; militarization of Honduran
territory; a surge in incidents of racial discrimination; violations of women’s rights; serious and
arbitrary restrictions on the right to freedom of expression; and grave violations of political
rights.”16 Although some sectors of Honduran society strongly supported Micheletti and the
ouster of Zelaya, polling suggests that the majority of Hondurans did not.17
2009 Election
On November 29, 2009, Honduras held a general election to fill nearly 3,000 posts nationwide,
including the presidency and all 128 seats in the unicameral National Congress. Former President
of Congress and 2005 PN presidential nominee Porfirio Lobo easily defeated his closest rival,
former Vice President Elvin Santos of the PL, 57% to 38%. Three minor party candidates won a
combined 5% of the presidential vote.18 Lobo’s PN also won an absolute majority in the
unicameral National Congress, with 71 of the 128 seats.
The election was a major defeat for the PL, which has traditionally had the broadest base of
support in Honduras. On top of its poor presidential showing, it won 45 seats in Congress, down
from 62 in 2005 (see Figure 2 below).19 Some analysts assert that Hondurans held the PL
responsible for the country’s political crisis as a result of Zelaya and Micheletti both belonging to
the party. Likewise, traditional PL supporters were divided over the political crisis, leading some
from the Zelaya-allied faction to stay home on election day.20
There has been considerable debate—both in Honduras and the international community—
concerning the legitimacy of the November 2009 election as a result of it being held under the
Micheletti government. Supporters of the election note that the electoral process was initiated,
and the members of the autonomous Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) were chosen, prior to
Zelaya’s ouster. They also note that the candidates were selected in internationally observed
primary elections in November 2008,21 and that election day was largely22 free of political
violence.23 Nonetheless, some Hondurans and international observers have argued that the
16 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), Honduras: Human Rights and the Coup D'état, December
30, 2009, http://cidh.org/countryrep/Honduras09eng/Toc.htm.
17 See, for example, Orlando J. Pérez, José René Argueta, and Mitchell A. Seligson, Cultura Política de la Democracia
en Honduras, 2010, Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP), October 2010; and Universidad
Centroamericana José Simeón Cañas, Instituto Universitario de Opinion Publica (IUDOP), Los Hondureños y
Hondureñas Opinan Sobre la Situación Política y Evalúan el Primer Año de Gestión de Porfirio Lobo, Boletín de
Prensa, Año XXV, No.1, San Salvador, January 19, 2011.
18 “TSE Confirma el Triunfo de ‘Pepe’ en las Elecciones,” El Heraldo (Honduras), December 21, 2009.
19 “Final Results in Honduras,” Latin News Daily Report, December 22, 2009.
20 Noé Leiva, “El Partido Liberal de Zelaya, el Gran Perdedor de los Comicios Hondureños,” Agence France Presse,
November 30, 2009; “Partido Liberal Sacrificó el Poder para Salvar Democracia,” La Tribuna (Honduras), December
3, 2009.
21 Former Vice President Elvin Santos was originally ruled constitutionally ineligible to run by the TSE, but became the
PL presidential nominee after his stand-in-candidate, Mauricio Villeda, won the PL primary and Congress passed a
special decree to allow his candidacy.
22 A demonstration in San Pedro Sula by those opposed to the government of Roberto Micheletti was forcefully
dispersed on election day.
23 José Saúl Escobar Andrade, Enrique Ortez Sequeira, and David Andrés Matamoros Batso, “Honduran Elections,”
Remarks at the Inter-American Dialogue, Washington, DC, October 22, 2009; International Republican Institute,
“Hondurans Turn Out to Polls in Credible Elections: IRI’s Preliminary Statement on Honduras’ 2009 National
(continued...)
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Micheletti government’s suppression of opposition media and demonstrators prevented a fair
electoral campaign from taking place. This led to boycotts and a number of left-leaning
candidates for a variety of offices withdrawing from the election.24 It also led organizations that
traditionally observe elections in the hemisphere, such as the OAS, the European Union, and the
Carter Center, to cancel their electoral observation missions. Critics of the election also assert that
the electoral turnout, which was just under 50% (five points lower than 2005), demonstrated a
rejection of the election by the Honduran people. Supporters of the election counter this assertion
by arguing that Lobo won more absolute votes in 2009 than Zelaya did in 2005, and that the
electoral rolls are artificially inflated—distorting the turnout rate—as a result of Honduras not
purging the rolls of those who have died or migrated abroad.25
Figure 2. Party Affiliation in the Honduran National Congress
(2005 and 2009 Election Results)
Source: CRS.
Notes: The Honduran National Congress is unicameral.
Lobo Administration
Porfirio Lobo was inaugurated president of Honduras in January 2010, assuming power after
seven months of domestic political crisis and international isolation that had resulted from the
June 2009 ouster of President Zelaya. As he enters the final year of his term, Lobo continues to
face daunting challenges. His efforts to lead Honduras out of the country’s political crisis have
(...continued)
Elections,” November 30, 2009.
24 “Seguidores de Zelaya No Particparán en Elecciones Aunque Haya Restitución,” EFE News Service, November 8,
2009; “Renuncian Importantes Dirigentes del Liberalismo,” El Tiempo (Honduras), November 22, 2009.
25 “Honduras: Tug of War Between Opposition and De Facto Regime Regarding Flow of Voters,” Latin America Data
Base, NotiCen, December 3, 2009; “Final Results in Honduras,” Latin News Daily Report, December 22, 2009.
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produced mixed results. While initiatives such as the creation of a truth commission and an
agreement to allow former President Zelaya to return to the country have won support from the
international community, they have done little to rebuild confidence in the political system. An
ongoing constitutional crisis triggered by the National Congress’s December 2012 removal of
four Supreme Court justices demonstrates the extent to which democratic institutions remain
fragile. Lobo’s popularity has also suffered as a result of the perception that the government has
made little progress in addressing the public’s most pressing concerns: deteriorating security
conditions and high levels of unemployment and poverty. Although the strength of Lobo’s
conservative National Party in the legislature has enabled his administration to secure passage of
a number of policies designed to address these issues, Hondurans have seen few improvements
thus far (see “Security and Human Rights Conditions” and “Economic and Social Conditions”
below). Consequently, 70% of Hondurans disapprove of Lobo’s performance in office.26
Political Reconciliation
In the first two years of his term, President Lobo took a number of steps designed to lead
Honduras out of political crisis. After being inaugurated in late January 2010, Lobo immediately
signed a bill providing political amnesty to Zelaya and those who removed him from office. The
amnesty covers political and common crimes committed prior to and after the removal of Zelaya,
but does not include acts of corruption or violations of human rights.27 President Lobo also
appointed a cabinet with representatives of each of the five political parties holding seats in the
National Congress, and pledged to engage in dialogue with all sectors of Honduran society.
In April 2010, President Lobo established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate
the ouster of Zelaya and to make recommendations to prevent similar events from occurring in
the future.28 The commission was criticized throughout its operations by various sectors of
Honduras’ polarized society. While some conservatives feared it could be used as a means to
promote the constitutional reforms that Zelaya favored,29 the leftist National Popular Resistance
Front (Frente Nacional de Resistencia Popular, FNRP)—an umbrella group of those who were
opposed to Zelaya’s removal—viewed the commission as an attempt to “whitewash” the ouster.30
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission issued its final report in July 2011. Among other
findings, the report asserts: (1) Zelaya refused to recognize or obey orders from the judicial
branch and other governmental institutions; (2) the Honduran military partially acted on a judicial
order in detaining Zelaya but the high command’s decision to force the president into exile
violated due process and thus amounted to a coup d’état; (3) the Honduran National Congress had
no power to remove President Zelaya or name a substitute and therefore the government of
Roberto Micheletti was illegal; (4) there is no reliable evidence that President Zelaya intended to
dissolve Congress, remain in office, or directly install a national constituent assembly after
26 “Presidente Lobo Obtiene Desaprobación del 70% en Honduras,” El Heraldo (Honduras), January 30, 2013.
27 “Congreso Aprueba Amnistía para Delitos Políticos Comunes Conexos,” El Tiempo (Honduras), January 27, 2010.
28 The creation of a truth commission had previously been agreed to by Zelaya and Micheletti as part of the
Tegucigalpa-San José Accord, which they signed in late October 2009 in a failed attempt to end the political crisis.
Although the accord fell apart almost immediately, Lobo implemented several of its provisions after taking office.
29 Germán Reyes, “Lobo Pide No Temer a Comisión de Verdad y Avala Consulta para Constituyente,” Agencia EFE,
May 4, 2010.
30 “Zelaya Calls on Former Officials Not to Collaborate with Truth Commission,” ACAN-EFE, June 8, 2010;
“Honduran Resistance Sets Up Alternative Commission,” Latin News Weekly Report, July 1, 2010.
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holding the non-binding referendum; (5) the November 2009 elections were legitimate; and (6)
members of the Honduran military and police killed at least 12 citizens as a result of the
disproportionate use of force to suppress political demonstrations during the Micheletti
government. The report also provides a number of recommendations to avoid similar crises in the
future. These include reforming the constitution to establish clear impeachment procedures, and
investigating, processing, and punishing those responsible for the human rights abuses that took
place in the aftermath of the ouster.31
President Lobo also successfully negotiated Zelaya’s return from exile. Following Lobo’s
inauguration, a number of countries joined with domestic groups like the FNRP in calling on
Lobo to create the conditions necessary to allow Zelaya to return to Honduras. Lobo encouraged
Zelaya to return but initially insisted that the former president would have to stand trial for the
charges that were brought against him following the ouster, including fraud, falsification of public
documents, and embezzlement of nearly $3 million from the presidency and the Honduran Fund
for Social Investment. Zelaya insisted that the charges were politically motivated and refused to
return until they were dropped. On May 2, 2011, a Honduran court of appeals voted 2-1 to annul
the criminal charges against Zelaya due to “procedural irregularities.”32 With criminal charges out
of the way, Zelaya entered into a dialogue with Lobo that was mediated by President Hugo
Chávez of Venezuela and President Juan Manuel Santos of Colombia. On May 22, 2011, Lobo
and Zelaya signed the “Accord for National Reconciliation and the Consolidation of the
Democratic System in Honduras,” which reaffirmed various political and human rights and paved
the way for Zelaya’s return.33 The agreement also led a number of South American countries to
reestablish diplomatic relations with Honduras and lift the country’s suspension from the OAS.34
2012 Political Crisis
In the early hours of December 12, 2012, the Honduran National Congress voted to dismiss four
of the five members of the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court. The dismissal, which
was backed by President Lobo, was ostensibly due to the justices’ unsatisfactory “administrative
conduct.”35 There are indications, however, that the move was principally an attempt by the
faction of the PN allied to President Lobo and President of Congress Juan Orlando Hernández to
exert control over the Supreme Court. Tension between the judicial branch and the executive and
legislative branches of the Honduran government had been building for some time as a result of a
series of Supreme Court rulings that found newly enacted laws to be unconstitutional. The
Congressional report prepared in advance of the justices’ dismissal specifically cited their
November 2012 ruling that overturned the country’s police purification law.36 The law was
designed to cleanse the police force of corruption, but the justices ruled that it lacked due process
since it allowed officers to be dismissed without appeal for failing polygraphs or other elements
31 Comisión de la Verdad y la Reconciliación, 2011, op.cit.
32 “Zelaya Free to Roam,” Latin News Daily Report, May 3, 2011; “Honduras: Zelaya Ruling Removes Final Hurdle –
Or Does It?” Latin News Weekly Report, May 5, 2011
33 “Acuerdo para la Reconciliación Nacional y la Consolidación del Sistema Democrático en la República de
Honduras,” La Tribuna (Honduras), May 23, 2011.
34 Organization of American States (OAS), Participation of Honduras in the Organization of American States,
OEA/Ser.P, AG/Res.1 (XLI-E/11), Washington, DC, June 1, 2011.
35 “Juramentación es Nula, Magistrados están De Facto,” El Heraldo (Honduras), December 14, 2012.
36 “Informe Presentado por la Comisión al Pleno del Congreso Nacional,” El Heraldo (Honduras), December 13, 2012.
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of a background check.37 Some observers have also suggested that Orlando Hernández wanted to
gain effective control over the Supreme Court before it ruled on a petition for a ballot-by-ballot
recount of the November 2012 primary election in which he was selected to be the PN’s
presidential candidate. The runner-up in the primary has alleged that Orlando Hernández secured
the nomination through electoral fraud.38 (For more on the primary election, see “2013 Election”).
Most legal analysts assert that the dismissal of the four justices was unconstitutional.39 Honduran
Minister of Justice and Human Rights Ana Pineda, for example, argues that justices cannot be
removed as a result of their rulings, and that doing so violates the independence of the judiciary.40
Legislators who supported the dismissal argue it was legal under a provision of the Honduran
constitution that allows the National Congress to approve or disapprove of the administrative
actions of the executive and judicial branches.41 This provision was also cited in support of the
2009 ouster of President Zelaya; however, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission that
investigated that political crisis asserted that the National Congress had no power to remove the
president.42
The four dismissed justices filed a petition with the Supreme Court in hope of overturning their
removal. On January 29, 2013, four of the five justices chosen to hear the case as part of a Special
Constitutional Chamber voted to rule the appeal inadmissible. Since the decision was not
unanimous, however, the petition now moves to the full Supreme Court for a final ruling.43
In the meantime, Orlando Hernández and his supporters in the National Congress have quickly
moved forward with their agenda. They adopted several pieces of legislation that were previously
ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, including a new police purification law. The
National Congress has also passed a constitutional reform to explicitly give itself the power to
impeach the president, Supreme Court justices, legislators, and a number of other high level
officials.44 The reform allows the National Congress to dismiss such officials if they face serious
accusations about their performance in office, if they carry out actions contrary to the constitution
or national interest, or if they demonstrate negligence or incompetence in their job.45
Furthermore, the National Congress passed legislation that restricts the power of the
Constitutional Chamber, and removes Honduran citizens’ right to challenge the constitutionality
of a law. Now, citizens may only challenge the regulations adopted to enforce a law.46
37 Russell Sheptak, “Honduran Police Cleanup Law May be Unconstitutional,” Christian Science Monitor, November
29, 2012.
38 “2013 Looking a Lot Like 2009,” Southern Pulse, January 22, 2013; “Rolling Changes in Honduras,” Latin News
Daily Report, January 25, 2013.
39 See, for example, “Destitución de Magistrados, Clara Afrenta a la Constitución,” El Heraldo (Honduras), December
21, 2012; “Destitución No es Consecuente con la Democracia,” El Heraldo (Honduras), December 13, 2012; and
“Dismissal of Honduran Supreme Court Judges an Attack on Democracy – UN Expert,” United Nations News Centre,
January 29, 2013.
40 “Se Conculcó Principio de Independencia,” El Heraldo (Honduras), December 18, 2012.
41 “Another Institutional Crisis Looms in Honduras,” Latin News Daily Report, December 12, 2012.
42 Comisión de la Verdad y la Reconciliación, 2011, op.cit., p.391.
43 “Sin Lugar Recursos de Amparo Interpuestos por Exmagistrados,” La Tribuna (Honduras), January 30, 2013.
44 “ Honduras Congress Passes Law to Purge Police Corruption,” Reuters, December 18, 2012; “Ratifican Juicio
Político y ‘Ciudades Modelo’,” El Heraldo (Honduras), January 30, 2013.
45 “Por Mayoría Aprobado el Juicio Político,” La Tribuna (Honduras), January 23, 2013.
46 “Congreso Limita Aún Más Funciones de Sala Constitutucional y Poder Judicial,” Proceso Digital (Honduras),
January 30, 2013.
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2013 Election
President Lobo has a little less than a year left in his term, and the political scene in Honduras is
increasingly focusing on what could be an extremely volatile election in November 2013. Polls
conducted over the past two years have consistently found high levels of dissatisfaction with
democracy in Honduras. They have also found little or no confidence in almost every
governmental and political institution in the country, with political parties among the least
trusted.47 As Hondurans’ confidence in the parties has eroded, so too has their traditional
affiliation with the PL and PN.48 Moreover, public approval of President Lobo and the PN-
controlled National Congress is relatively low, and the PL remains divided over the 2009 ouster
of President Zelaya.
Given these dynamics, the 2013 election could present an opportunity for third party political
forces or anti-system candidates to make political gains. Several new parties have been created.
Former President Zelaya and some sectors of the FNRP have launched the Liberty and Re-
foundation (Libertad y Refundación, LIBRE) party, under which they hope to unite FNRP
members and disillusioned former supporters of the PL. Human rights advocate Andres Pavón
and sectors of the FNRP that distrust Zelaya have formed the Broad Political Electoral Resistance
Front (Frente Amplio Político Electoral en Resistencia, FAPER). Salvador Nasralla, a television
personality and sports commentator, has created the Anti-Corruption Party (Partido
Anticorrupción, PAC) as a platform for a presidential run. And retired General Romeo Vásquez
Velásquez, the commander of the Honduran armed forces when Zelaya was deposed, has founded
the Honduran Patriotic Alliance (Alianza Patriótica Hondureña, APH), a self-described civic-
military group.
These new parties will face a number of challenges. First and foremost, they lack the clientelist
networks and political party machinery of the established parties. Moreover, the cynicism of
Hondurans toward politics may be difficult to overcome. Voter abstention has increased in each
election since 1997, and those abstaining constituted a majority in 2009.49 To be successful, the
new parties will need to convince the dissatisfied majority that electoral democracy is capable of
producing real changes in Honduras.
Party primaries to select candidates for the 2013 general election were held on November 18,
2012. President Lobo is ineligible for reelection, but his favored candidate, President of Congress
Juan Orlando Hernández, won the PN presidential nomination. Mauricio Villeda, the son of a
former president who served as one of Micheletti’s negotiators during the 2009 political crisis,
won the PL nomination, and Zelaya’s wife, Xiomara Castro won the LIBRE nomination. The
47 See: Universidad Centroamericana José Simeón Cañas (UCA) and Equipo de Reflexión, Investigación y
Comunicación, Compañía de Jesús (ERIC-SJ), Percepciones Sobre la Situación Hondureña en el Año 2012, January
2013; Orlando J. Pérez et al., Cultura Política de la Democracia en Honduras y en las Américas, 2012, LAPOP,
November 2012; UCA & ERIC-SJ, Percepciones Sobre la Situación Hondureña en el Año 2011, January 2012; and
Neil Nevitte, Democracy in Honduras: Political Values and Civic Engagement in 2011, National Democratic Institute
for International Affairs (NDI) and Hagamos Democracia, July 2011, http://www.ndi.org/files/Democracy-in-
Honduras-2011.pdf.
48 Ruhl, April 2010, op.cit.
49 NDI, 2009 Honduran General Elections: International Election Assessment Mission Final Report, Washington, DC,
January 27, 2010, p. 13, http://www.ndi.org/files/
NDI_Honduras_Final_Report_International_Election_Assessment_Mission_%20English.pdf.
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smaller political parties (APH, DC, FAPER, PAC, PINU, and UD) did not hold primaries but are
expected to compete in the 2013 general elections.
The primary elections received generally positive reviews from international observers. The
United States, on behalf of the international donor group (G-16), congratulated Honduras on “an
overall peaceful and orderly electoral process” that “was carried out in a generally free, fair, and
transparent manner.” It also asserted that the primaries represented “the most professional and
technically advanced electoral process that has taken place in Honduras.”50 The OAS electoral
observation mission also congratulated the Honduran authorities for the peaceful and transparent
conduct of the primaries while noting some areas for improvement.51
Despite these assessments, some candidates and 73% of the Honduran population believe the
primary elections were marred by fraud.52 The slow vote tabulation, which was not completed
until three weeks after the election, likely contributed to this perception. Moreover, the PN’s top
two candidates, Juan Orlando Hernández and Ricardo Álvarez, both declared victory on election
night. After the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) announced Orlando Hernández was the
winner,53 Álvarez alleged that the results were fraudulent and called for a ballot-by-ballot recount.
On January 24, 2013, the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court dismissed Álvarez’s
recount request. Four of the five justices that ruled on the case were appointed by the National
Congress headed by Orlando Hernández as replacements for the four justices the legislators
controversially dismissed in December 2012 (see “2012 Political Crisis”).54
Early polling for the general election suggests that Honduras’ traditional two party system may be
fracturing. In the presidential race, LIBRE’s Xiomara Castro leads with the support of 25% of
Hondurans. She is followed by Juan Orlando Hernández of the PN (23%), Salvador Nasralla of
the PAC (18%), and Mauricio Villeda of the PL (16%).55
Security and Human Rights Conditions
Honduras has long struggled to address high levels of crime and violence, but the deterioration in
security conditions has accelerated in recent years. Homicide rates have risen rapidly, from an
already high 51 murders per 100,000 residents in 2000 to a world-topping 92 per 100,000 in 2011
(see Figure 3 below).56 Preliminary data suggest that the absolute number of homicides in
Honduras once again increased in 2012.57 Common crime is also widespread. In 2012, nearly
25% of Hondurans reported they had been the victim of a crime in the past year.58 In addition to
the extensive human cost, the deteriorating security situation has taken a toll on the Honduran
50 U.S. Embassy in Honduras, “G-16 Statement on the Honduran Primary Elections,” Press Release, November 19,
2012.
51 OAS, “Preliminary Report of the Electoral Observation Mission of the OAS in Honduras,” Press Release, December
12, 2012.
52 UCA & ERIC-SJ, January 2013, op.cit., p.15.
53 According to the TSE, Orlando Hernández won 45% of the valid PN vote and Álvarez won 39%.
54 “Sala Constitucional Declara Inadmisible Conteo Voto por Voto,” El Heraldo (Honduras), January 24, 2013.
55 “Xiomara Castro y Juan Hernández en Empate Técnico, Según Encuesta,” EFE News Service, January 29, 2013.
56 UNODC, “Homicide Statistics 2012,” available at http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/homicide.html..
57 Edward Fox, “2012 Record Year for Homicides in Honduras,” InSight Crime, January 22, 2013.
58 UCA & ERIC-SJ, January 2013, op.cit., p.13.
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economy. The World Bank estimates that crime and violence cost the country the equivalent of
10% of gross domestic product (GDP) annually.59
Figure 3. Honduras Homicide Rate, 2000-2011
Source: CRS presentation of data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “Homicide
Statistics 2012,” and UNODC, Global Study on Homicide, 2011.
Many observers have been particularly concerned by a surge in violence against journalists and
political and social activists. The frequency of such attacks increased in the aftermath of the June
2009 ouster of President Zelaya, and the attacks have continued under President Lobo. At least 32
members of the press have been killed in Honduras since 2003, with 25 of the murders occurring
during President Lobo’s term.60 Many others have been threatened, harassed, or attacked, with
those who report on or criticize the 2009 ouster, drug trafficking, government corruption, and
human rights abuses being the most frequent targets. Human rights organizations have also
documented attacks against environmentalists, indigenous activists, human rights defenders, land
rights activists, political organizers, unionists, and members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and
transgender (LGBT) community.61 In the Bajo Aguan region of Honduras, for example, nearly 90
people have been killed since 2010 as violence has escalated in a long-running land dispute
between peasant farmers and large landowners.62 There are indications that members of the
59 “World Bank: Crime, Violence Cost Honduras 10 Percent of GDP Annually,” Associated Press, March 28, 2012.
60 CONADEH, “Lista de Periodistas Ejecutados,” Press Release, May 2012; Rev. Ismael Moreno Coto, S.J., testimony
before the U.S. Congress, Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission, Worldwide Threats to Media Freedom, 112th
Cong., 2nd sess., July 25, 2012,
http://tlhrc.house.gov/docs/transcripts/2012_7_25_Media%20Freedom/Media_Freedom_06_25_12.pdf.
61 At least 75 such activists were reportedly murdered between June 2009 and March 2011. IACHR, Annual Report of
the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2011, April 9, 2012, http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/docs/annual/2011/
TOC.asp.
62 “Mueran Otros Dos Campesinos en Conflictivo Valle del Aguán en Honduras,” Agence France Presse, February 2,
2013.
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Honduran security forces may have been involved in some of these attacks against journalists and
activists; however, it is difficult to determine the extent of such involvement since most of the
cases have never been investigated.
Criminal Threats, Weak Institutions, and Corruption
A number of inter-related factors have likely contributed to the worsening security and human
rights situation. One aspect is the increasing presence of organized crime. An estimated 12,000
Honduran youth have ties to the Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and 18th Street (M-18) gangs.63
These organizations engage in a wide variety of criminal activities, including kidnapping and
extortion.64 Honduras also serves as an important drug-trafficking corridor as a result of its
location between cocaine-producing countries in South America and the major consumer market
in the United States. U.S.-backed security efforts over the past two decades have restricted
trafficking through the Caribbean, weakened Colombian cartels, and disrupted direct shipping to
Mexico. Consequently, Mexican criminal organizations (such as the Sinaloa cartel and Los Zetas)
and local affiliates are now battling for control of Central American territory.65 Given that two-
thirds of Hondurans live below the poverty line,66 a large portion of the population may be
susceptible to recruitment by these and other criminal groups.
Institutional weaknesses and corruption in the Honduran government have also contributed to
deteriorating security and human rights conditions. In 2011, the Honduran National Police had
14,500 officers and a budget of $151 million (0.9% of GDP)67—a force strength and resources
that analysts maintain are “grossly insufficient for the efficient policing of a country the size of
Honduras.”68 The police force also suffers from widespread corruption, with analysts asserting
that some officers have moved beyond taking bribes or tipping off criminals to actually
participating in crimes and acting as enforcers for criminal interests.69 Moreover, recent press
investigations suggest that corruption and criminality may run to the very top of the
organization.70 Over 78% of Hondurans report having little or no confidence in the police force.71
63 UNODC, Transnational Organized Crime in Central America and the Caribbean: A Threat Assessment, September
2012, http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-
analysis/Studies/TOC_Central_America_and_the_Caribbean_english.pdf.
64 For more information, see CRS Report RL34112, Gangs in Central America, by Clare Ribando Seelke.
65 Patrick Corcoran, “Mexican Cartels Expand into Honduras,” InSight Crime, April 14, 2011; UNODC, September
2012, op.cit.
66 ECLAC, Social Panorama of Latin America, 2012, November 2012, p.14,
http://www.eclac.cl/publicaciones/xml/4/48454/SocialPanorama2012DocI.pdf.
67 Red de Seguridad y Defensa de América Latina (RESDAL), Índice de Seguridad Pública y Ciudadana en América
Latina : El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras, 2011.
68 “Country Risk Assessment: Honduras,” IHS Jane’s Defense and Security Intelligence and Analysis, February 8,
2012.
69 Edward Fox, “Dynamics of Honduran Police Corruption Narrow Chance for Reform,” InSight Crime, January 31,
2012; Diego Jiménez, “‘El Incendio en Comayagua Evidencia el Colapso del Sistema,’” La Nación (Costa Rica),
February 26, 2012.
70 Frances Robles, “Graft, Greed, Mayhem Turn Honduras into Murder Capital of World,” Miami Herald, January 22,
2012; Daniel Valencia Caravantes, “Así es la Policía del País Más Violento del Mundo,” El Faro (El Salvador), March
19, 2012; and Katherine Corcoran and Martha Mendoza, “New Honduras Top Cop Once Investigated in Killings,”
Associated Press, June 1, 2012.
71 UCA & ERIC-SJ, January 2013, op.cit., p.18.
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Partially as a result of the serious flaws in the police force, Honduran presidents have repeatedly
turned to the armed forces to provide internal security. The Honduran military, however, has its
own limitations. In 2012, Honduras had roughly 10,600 military personnel, and a defense budget
of $189 million (1% of GDP). The Honduran military is almost entirely dependent on
international donors for functioning equipment and technology since less than 2% of the defense
budget is invested in maintenance and procurement.72 Corruption is also a problem. The military
has been linked to drug trafficking in Honduras since the 1980s,73 and recent reports suggest
some sectors continue to engage in illicit activities.74 Although the military is more respected than
the police force, 68% of Hondurans report little or no confidence in the armed forces.75
Other justice sector institutions are prone to similar problems. According to the Honduran
government’s National Commissioner for Human Rights, 80% of crimes that are reported are
never investigated.76 This reportedly stems from the failure of public prosecutors, who are
charged with coordinating investigations, to work effectively with the police to carry them out.77
Although most criminals are never brought to justice, the Honduran prison system is
overcrowded. While Honduras’ hard-line anti-gang laws make it relatively easy to detain
suspected gang members, the judiciary is incapable of dealing with the volume of cases.78
Consequently, Honduran prisons, which have capacity for 8,000 inmates, currently hold 13,000
prisoners—60% of whom have not been convicted.79
This lack of capacity and susceptibility to corruption goes well beyond the security forces and
justice sector. The patronage system, which allows the political parties to place their supporters in
government positions after each election, has prevented the development of a professional civil
service. As a result, Honduran officials often lack technical expertise and rarely engage in long-
term strategic planning.80 Likewise, Honduras ranks near the bottom of the Western Hemisphere
in Transparency International’s annual Corruption Perceptions Index, suggesting public-sector
corruption is relatively widespread.81 This apparently includes infiltration by organized crime.
According to Alfredo Landaverde—a well-respected anti-corruption advocate and former head of
72 RESDAL, Atlas Comparativo de la Defensa en América Latina y Caribe, 2012.
73 Mark B. Rosenberg, “Narcos and Politicos: Politics of Drug Trafficking in Honduras,” Journal of Interamerican
Studies and World Affairs, Vol. 30, No. 2/3, (Summer-Autumn 1988).
74 Geoffrey Ramsey, “Cable: Honduran Military Supplied Weaponry to Cartels,” InSight Crime, April 25, 2011; “In
Brief – Honduras: Soldiers Done for Munitions Theft,” Latin News Daily Report, June 26, 2012.
75 UCA & ERIC-SJ, January 2013, op.cit., p.18.
76 CONADEH, “Impunidad,” Press Release, April 2012.
77 “Policías y Fiscales son un ‘Desastre’ en la Investigación Criminal,” El Heraldo (Honduras), April 11, 2012; “La
Investigación es Problema de País, Admite Directora de Fiscalías en Honduras,” El Heraldo, (Honduras), April 15,
2012.
78 Hannah Stone, “Honduras Prison Fire Tells of Repressive Anti-Gang Policies,” InSight Crime, February 16, 2012.
79 “Honduras Crea Instituto para Atender Severa Crisis de las Cárceles,” Agence France Presse, April 11, 2012.
80 Romero, 2010, op.cit.
81 On a scale of 0 (the country is perceived as highly corrupt) to 100 (the country is perceived as very clean), Honduras
receives a score of 28. Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index 2012, December 2012,
http://www.transparency.org/cpi2012/results.
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Honduras’ Anti-Narcotics Commission who was assassinated in December 201182—10% of the
members of the Honduran National Congress are involved in drug-trafficking.83
Public Security Policies
Recent Honduran presidents have implemented varying anti-crime strategies, but none of them
have achieved much success. During his term, President Ricardo Maduro (2002-2006) increased
the size of the police force, sent the military into the streets, and implemented hard-line anti-gang
policies that made membership illegal and punishable with 12 years in prison. Although the
crackdown won popular support and initially reduced crime, its success was short-lived. President
Zelaya (2006-2009) replaced the previous administration’s zero-tolerance policy with dialogue
and other efforts to reintegrate gang members into society. Failure to achieve concrete results,
however, led the Zelaya Administration to shift its emphasis toward more traditional law
enforcement operations. The deterioration in security conditions accelerated in the aftermath of
Zelaya’s ouster, as Roberto Micheletti (2009-2010) reoriented the security forces away from
combating organized crime to controlling the population.84 Some analysts assert that the ouster
also exacerbated the situation by reinforcing the general sense of impunity in Honduras.85
Since taking office, President Lobo has undertaken a number of initiatives in an attempt to
improve security conditions in Honduras. Working with the National Congress, he has enacted
significant changes in the country’s legal framework. These include a law against terrorism
finance; a reform to allow 48-hour detentions; regulations to allow asset forfeiture and
wiretapping; and a constitutional amendment to allow the extradition of Honduran citizens in
cases of drug trafficking, organized crime, and terrorism. Lobo and the National Congress also
increased taxes on certain industries to increase funding for security efforts. The tax package was
partially rolled back, however, as a result of fierce private sector opposition.86 Many of these legal
changes are still in the process of implementation.
In reaction to a series of scandals in which the police were implicated in murders and other
criminal activities, Honduran officials established two commissions to reform the police force
and other justice sector institutions. In December 2011, the National Congress created the
Directorate for the Investigation and Evaluation of the Police Career. It replaces the former
Internal Affairs Unit of the police, which was reported to be rather ineffective.87 In January 2012,
the National Congress established a Public Security Reform Commission. It is empowered to
investigate the police, the public prosecutor’s office, and the judiciary, and suggest reforms to
strengthen the institutions and reduce corruption.88
82 Just days before he was assassinated, Landaverde appeared on a television program and stated that he had a list of
Honduran officials tied to organized crime and drug-trafficking.
83 Tim Johnson, “Drug Gangs Muscle into New Territory: Central America,” McClatchy Newspapers, April 21, 2011.
84 James Bosworth, Honduras: Organized Crime Gaining Amid Political Crisis, Woodrow Wilson International Center
for Scholars, Working Paper Series on Organized Crime in Central America, December 2010,
http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Bosworth.FIN.pdf.
85 See, for example, Annie Murphy, “‘Who Rules in Honduras?’ Coup’s Legacy of Violence,” National Public Radio,
February 12, 2012.
86 “Honduras Cuts Security Tax After Angering Businesses,” Reuters, September 14, 2011.
87 “Cisma en la Policía Nacional: 60 Días de Escándalos,” El Tiempo (Honduras), December 22, 2011.
88 “Honduras: Lobo Makes Move to Purge Police,” Latin American Weekly Report, February 2, 2012.
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The commissions have produced mixed results thus far. While over 500 officers—including
middle- and upper-level officials—have been dismissed from the police force,89 there have been
allegations that some high-ranking officers are simply removing rivals,90 and the Honduran
judicial system has demonstrated little interest in pursuing criminal charges against the allegedly
corrupt officers. Likewise, the Public Security Reform Commission has proposed a series of
initiatives, but the Honduran government has yet to act on any of them.91
Following in the footsteps of his predecessors, Lobo has also ordered the armed forces into the
streets to support internal security efforts. He has deployed the military to carry out joint
operations with the police on several occasions, and in late November 2011, the Honduran
National Congress approved a decree to temporarily allow military personnel to carry out raids,
make arrests, disarm people, and act against police officers that are involved in criminal
activities. The emergency decree providing the military with broad policing powers has been
extended three times, and is now scheduled to remain in force into March 2013.92 Some
Honduran officials have suggested making the military’s role in policing permanent, either by
amending the constitution or creating a new gendarmerie-style force.93
While sending the armed forces into the streets is quite popular among Hondurans,94 a number of
analysts have raised concerns about this increasing reliance on the military for domestic security.
Some assert that the military has begun to carve out a larger role for itself in internal political
affairs, and argue that this is a worrying trend since the military repeatedly took control of the
country prior to 1982 and was only subordinated to civilian leadership in the late 1990s.95 In
addition to playing a leading role in the 2009 ouster of President Zelaya, the military surrounded
the National Congress as it voted to dismiss members of the Supreme Court in December 2012
and the commanders of the armed forces appeared with President Lobo the following day.96 U.S.
military officials argue that utilizing the Honduran military for domestic security matters “is a
necessary initial step to help curb the rising tide of violence,” but maintain that such an approach
“is unsustainable in the long term.”97
Although some of these security policies—such as police reform—could improve human rights
conditions in Honduras, the Honduran government has implemented few initiatives specifically
89 Pablo Ferri, “(Sobre) Vivir en el País Más Violento del Mundo,” El Universal (Mexico), December 2, 2012.
90 James Bargent, “Honduran Police Responsible for 149 Deaths in 2 Years: Report,” InSight Crime, December 4,
2012.
91 “Varadas las Reformas a la Seguridad Pública,” La Tribuna (Honduras), January 7, 2013.
92 Alberto Arce, “Honduran Army Moves to Protect Bus Lines,” Associated Press, September 28, 2012.
93 “Honduras: Lobo Leans Towards a Permanent Military-Security Role,” Latin American Regional Report: Caribbean
& Central America, April 2012; “Honduras Politics: Quick View – New Measures are Put in Place to Combat Crime,”
Economist Intelligence Unit, June 29, 2012.
94 According to one recent poll, 80% of Hondurans strongly agree that the military should be placed on the streets with
the police. UCA & ERIC-SJ, January 2013, op.cit., p. 16.
95 See, for example, Thelma Mejía, “Honduras: Putting Defense in the Hands of Civilians,” Inter Press Service,
October 4, 2011; and Geoffrey Ramsey, “New Powers for Honduran Military Will Not Clean Up Law Enforcement,”
InSight Crime, November 30, 2011.
96 Alberto Arce, “Flailing Honduras in Yet Another Political Crisis,” Associated Press, December 14, 2012; “Backed
by the Military, Lobo Takes the High Ground,” Latin News Daily Report, December 13, 2012.
97 General Douglas M. Fraser, United States Air Force Commander, Posture Statement Before the 112th Congress,
House Armed Services Committee, United States Southern Command, March 6, 2012, p. 24, http://armed-
services.senate.gov/statemnt/2012/03%20March/Fraser%2003-13-12.pdf.
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designed to do so. President Lobo created a new Ministry of Justice and Human Rights shortly
after taking office, and recently issued a new human rights policy and plan of action designed to
establish a culture supportive of human rights throughout the government.98 Lobo has also
acknowledged that the Honduran government lacks investigatory capacity, and has requested
international assistance to resolve human rights cases.99 Human rights organizations maintain that
these efforts have been insufficient. They criticize the Lobo Administration for repeatedly
dismissing the possibility that attacks against journalists and activists might be related to the
victims’ professions or activism, and for failing to hold accountable those responsible for such
attacks.100
Economic and Social Conditions
Honduras is a lower-middle-income
developing country. In 2011, it had a gross
Honduras in Brief
domestic product (GDP) of $17.4 billion
Approximate Geographic Size: Slightly larger than Virginia
and an estimated per capita GDP of
$2,162.101 The Honduran economy has
Population (2012): 7.9 million
historically been dependent on agricultural
Ethnic Groups: 90% Mestizo (mixed Amerindian and
exports such as coffee and bananas. While
European), 7% Amerindian, 2% black, 1% white
these commodities remain important, the
Religions: 65% Roman Catholic, 35% Protestant
Honduran economy has grown more
Official Language: Spanish
diversified as a result of significant growth
in nontraditional sectors such as the
GDP (2011): $17.4 billion
maquiladora, or export-processing industry.
GDP per Capita (2011): $2,162
In 1998, Honduras was devastated by
Poverty Rate (2010): 67.4%
Hurricane Mitch, which killed more than
5,000 people and caused billions of dollars
Indigence Rate (2010): 42.8%
in damage. The economy contracted by
Adult Literacy Rate (2010): 85%
1.9% in 1999, but rebounded with average
Life Expectancy (2010): 73 years
annual growth of 5.1% between 2000 and
2008.102 During the same time period,
Infant Mortality Rate (2010): 19 per 1,000 live births
international financial institutions provided
Sources: U.S. State Department, IMF, World Bank, and
Honduras with $2.4 billion in debt relief to
ECLAC.
free government resources for poverty
alleviation efforts. 103
98 “Aprueban Política Pública en Derechos Humanos,” El Heraldo (Honduras), January 22, 2013.
99 “Honduras Pide Ayuda a Colombia, España, y EEUU en Investigación Sobre DDHH,” Agence France Presse,
January 27, 2011.
100 Human Rights Watch, World Report, 2012, http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2012/world-report-chapter-honduras;
Committee to Protect Journalists, Attacks on the Press in 2011, 2012, http://www.cpj.org/
attacks_on_the_press_2011.pdf.
101 International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Economic Outlook Database, October 2012.
102 World Bank, World dataBank, http://data.worldbank.org/country/honduras.
103 IMF, “IMF and World Bank Support US$1 Billion in Debt Service Relief for Honduras,” Press Release No. 05/76,
April 5, 2005; Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), “IDB Governors Approve $4.4 Billion in Debt Relief for
Bolivia, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras and Nicaragua,” Press Release, March 16, 2007.
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Crises and Recovery
The global financial crisis and domestic political crisis took a significant toll on Honduras. As an
open economy that is closely tied to the United States, Honduras is sensitive to international
downturns. By early 2009, Honduras was experiencing significant declines in remittances,
tourism, and export earnings as a result of the global financial crisis and U.S. recession.104 The
ouster of President Zelaya exacerbated these economic problems, as the international community,
which had been expected to finance 20% of the government’s budget,105 imposed a series of
economic sanctions on Honduras. International financial institutions withheld access to loans and
other transfers, the European Union and United States terminated some foreign aid, and
Venezuela stopped supplying the country with subsidized oil. Domestic opponents of the ouster
placed additional pressure on the economy, engaging in strikes, transportation blockades, and
other measures designed to paralyze economic activity. Curfews implemented by the Micheletti
government to suppress demonstrations by the political opposition further inhibited economic
activity as workers were unable to reach their places of employment. These external and internal
shocks contributed to an economic contraction of 2.1% in 2009.106
While the Honduran economy has partially recovered from the financial and political crises, the
government continues to face serious fiscal challenges. Improving conditions in the United States
(Honduras’ main source of trade, investment, and remittances) have boosted the economy, though
growth rates remain somewhat subdued. Real GDP increased by 2.8% in 2010, 3.6% in 2011, and
an estimated 3.8% in 2012.107 Even as the economy has begun to recover, however, the Honduran
government’s budget deficit has grown to an estimated 5.5% of GDP.108 Losses at state-owned
enterprises, misused government funds, and weak tax collection have all contributed to the
problem.109 Honduras’ stand-by agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) expired
in March 2012, and the government has been unable to secure a new deal as a result of its failure
to meet the IMF’s fiscal targets. The lack of an agreement with the IMF also prevents Honduras
from accessing certain credits from the World Bank and Inter-American Development Bank.110
The Honduran government is now struggling to obtain financing for its obligations; public
employees and contractors have gone unpaid, and basic government services have been
interrupted.111 This precarious financial situation also leaves the government with little room to
pursue counter-cyclical spending should the international economy enter another downturn.
104 “Honduras: Country Report” Economist Intelligence Unit, April 2009.
105 Robin Emmott, “Aid Freeze in Post-Coup Honduras Hurting Poor,” Reuters, November 12, 2009.
106 IMF, World Economic Outlook: Coping with High Debt and Sluggish Growth, October 2012.
107 Ibid.
108 Reynaldo Yanes, “Déficit Fiscal es el Principal Escollo Frente al FMI,” La Prensa (Honduras), November 27, 2012.
109 Eduardo López García, “Sin Respaldo Presupuestario,” La Nación (Costa Rica), January 7, 2013; “Honduras
Economy: Quick View – 2013 Budget to Rise Despite Financial Difficulties,” Economist Intelligence Unit, January 22,
2013.
110 “Honduras: There’s No Pleasing the IMF,” Latin American Economy & Business, August-September 2012
111 “Honduran Government in Chaos, Can’t Pay Its Bills, Neglects Basic Services,” Associated Press, January 24,
2013.
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Poverty and Inequality
Honduras remains one of the poorest and most unequal countries in Latin America. Nevertheless,
international debt relief and higher levels of economic growth over the past decade have allowed
the Honduran government to dedicate more resources to poverty alleviation efforts. Between
2002 and 2010, public social spending increased from 8.8% of GDP to 12.1% of GDP. During the
same time period, the poverty rate fell from about 77% to 67% and the indigence rate fell from
about 54% to 43%.112 The reduction in poverty has not been accompanied by a reduction in
income disparities. The top 10% of Hondurans received 43% of all income in 2010, which is
more than the bottom 80% combined and a level virtually unchanged from 1999.113 Likewise,
there continue to be significant barriers to social mobility. According to a 2010 World Bank
report, only 51% of the basic housing and education services necessary to succeed in life are
available and distributed equitably among Honduran children.114
Honduras spends less on its social protection system (0.6% of GDP in 2010) than any other
country in Latin America.115 Nevertheless, the Lobo Administration has implemented a new
conditional cash transfer program designed to strengthen the system. When Lobo took office,
Honduras had a number of social assistance programs that were poorly coordinated and offered
varying levels of coverage. Lobo has consolidated several of these programs under his Bono
10,000 initiative, which provides an annual stipend of 10,000 Lempiras (about $500) to families
in extreme poverty. In exchange, the families agree to keep their children in school and attend
regular preventative health check-ups. The program currently reaches at least 229,000
households, and is expected to incorporate 600,000 families by the end of 2014. The World Bank
expects Bono 10,000 to have a significant impact on household income, but is concerned that
Honduras may not be able to sustain the program once it reaches its full projected coverage.116 As
the Lobo Administration continues to face pressure to tighten its fiscal policies, social protection
programs like Bono 10,000 could face cuts.
U.S.-Honduras Relations
The United States has had close relations with Honduras over many years. The bilateral
relationship became especially close in the 1980s when Honduras returned to civilian rule and
became the lynchpin for U.S. policy in Central America. At that time, the country was a staging
area for U.S.-supported excursions into Nicaragua by the Contra forces attempting to overthrow
the leftist Sandinista government. Economic linkages also intensified in the 1980s after Honduras
became a beneficiary of the Caribbean Basin Initiative, which provided duty-free importation of
Honduran goods into the United States. Bilateral economic ties have further expanded since the
112 ECLAC, November 2012, op.cit.
113 ECLAC, January 2013, op.cit. p. 68.
114 José R. Molinas et al., Do Our Children Have a Chance? The 2010 Human Opportunity Report for Latin America
and the Caribbean, World Bank, Conference Edition, Washington, DC, 2010, p. 52, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/
INTLACREGTOPPOVANA/Resources/840442-1260809819258/6645553-1273515611898/Livro2010_final1.pdf.
115 ECLAC, Social Panorama of Latin America, 2011, November 2011, p.225,
http://www.eclac.cl/publicaciones/xml/5/45175/PSE2011-Social-panorama-of-Latin-America.pdf.
116 World Bank, Project Information Document, Appraisal Stage: HN-Social Protection, Report No.AB5677, May 17,
2010; World Bank, Information Status & Results: Honduras Social Protection, Report No.ISR5625, July 12, 2011.
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entrance into force of the Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade
Agreement (CAFTA-DR) in 2006.
Relations between the United States and Honduras were strained in 2009 because of the country’s
political crisis. The Obama Administration quickly condemned the June 28 ouster, and, over the
course of the following months, leveled a series of diplomatic and economic sanctions designed
to pressure Honduran officials to restore Zelaya to power. The Administration limited contact
with the Honduran government, suspended some foreign assistance, minimized cooperation with
the Honduran military, and revoked the visas of members and supporters of the Micheletti
government. Micheletti reacted angrily to U.S. policy toward Honduras, reportedly declaring, “It
isn’t possible for anyone, no matter how powerful they are, to come over here and tell us what we
have to do.”117 In November 2009, the Administration shifted the emphasis of U.S. policy from
reversing Zelaya’s removal to ensuring the legitimacy of previously scheduled elections.
Although some analysts argued that the policy shift allowed those behind the ouster to
consolidate their hold on power, Administration officials maintained that elections had become
the only realistic way to bring an end to the political crisis.118
Relations have improved considerably since the inauguration of President Lobo, whose efforts to
resolve the political crisis led the United States to restore foreign assistance and resume
cooperation on other issues. Current U.S. policy objectives in Honduras include (1) improving the
human-rights climate, especially regarding allegations that journalists and other individuals have
been targeted for their political views; (2) combating high levels of corruption, crime, and drug-
trafficking; and (3) promoting and implementing social and economic reforms to boost growth
and reduce poverty and inequality levels that are among the highest in the hemisphere.119 To
advance these policy objectives, the United States provides Honduras with foreign assistance,
maintains significant security and commercial ties, and engages on transnational issues such as
migration and human trafficking.
Foreign Assistance
The United States has provided considerable amounts of foreign assistance to Honduras. In the
1980s, the United States provided about $2.5 billion (constant 2010 dollars) in economic and
military aid to Honduras as the country supported U.S. policy objectives in the region. In the
1990s, U.S. assistance to Honduras began to wane as regional conflicts subsided and competing
foreign assistance needs grew in other parts of the world. Hurricane Mitch changed that trend as
the United States provided significant amounts of aid to help the country recover from the 1998
storm. As a result of the influx of aid, total U.S. assistance to Honduras for the 1990s amounted to
around $1.2 billion (constant 2010 dollars). With Hurricane Mitch funds expended by the end of
2001, U.S. foreign aid levels to Honduras again began to decline. From 2000 to 2009, total U.S.
assistance to Honduras amounted to just over $900 million (constant 2010 dollars).120
117 Carlos Salinas, “Honduran De Facto Leader Vows to Cling to Power Over US Objections,” El País (Spain), August
5, 2009.
118 Ginger Thompson, “U.S. Tries to Salvage Honduras Accord,” New York Times, November 10, 2009.
119 Testimony of Craig Kelly, Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs, U.S.
Department of State, before the House Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, March 18, 2010.
120 These figures represent actual obligations, not appropriations, from all U.S. agencies. U.S. Agency for International
Development (USAID), U.S. Overseas Loans and Grants: Obligations and Loan Authorizations, July 1, 1945-
September 30, 2010, 2012.
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Bilateral Assistance
U.S. bilateral assistance to Honduras supports a variety of projects designed to strengthen
democracy and the rule of law, enhance citizen security, improve health systems, increase food
security, and conserve the environment. Recent bilateral U.S. assistance to Honduras amounted to
$50.3 million in FY2010, $56 million in FY2011, and an estimated $57 million in FY2012.
Honduras would receive $58.2 million under the Obama Administration’s request for FY2013.
This includes $49 million in Development Assistance, $5.5 million for Global Health Programs,
$3 million in Foreign Military Financing, and $650,000 for International Military Education and
Training (see Table 1 below). Most assistance to the country is managed by the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID) and the U.S. Department of State.
Since Congress has yet to pass a full year foreign aid appropriations bill, assistance for FY2013 is
currently being funded through the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2013 (P.L. 112-175),
which President Obama signed into law on September 28, 2012. The resolution funds regular
foreign aid accounts through March 27, 2013, at the same level as in FY2012 plus 0.612%. The
aid allocations for particular countries, such as Honduras, are left to the discretion of the
responsible agencies. Until a full year appropriation is approved, however, the State Department
and USAID plan only to fund programs that are running out of resources or meet some urgent
foreign policy priority.
Table 1. U.S. Bilateral Assistance to Honduras, FY2008-FY2013
(U.S. $ in thousands)
FY2012
FY2013
Account FY2008 FY2009 FY2010 FY2011
(Estimate)
(Request)
DA
15,149 21,382 37,491 42,266 46,266 49,000
GHP (USAID)
12,035
11,750
11,000
10,988
8,000
4,500
GHP
(State)
1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
P.L.
480
10,150
5,771 0 0 0 0
INCLE 744 0 0 0 0 0
IMET
936 329 777 765 700 650
FMF 496
0
0
998
1,000
3,000
Total
40,510 40,232 50,268 56,017 56,966 58,150
Sources: U.S. Department of State, Congressional Budget Justification for Foreign Operations, Fiscal Years 2010,
2011, 2012, and 2013, http://www.state.gov/f/releases/iab/index.htm.
Notes: DA=Development Assistance; GHP=Global Health Programs; P.L. 480=Food For Peace;
INCLE=International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement; IMET=International Military Education and
Training; and FMF=Foreign Military Financing.
Additional Aid
Honduras receives significant amounts of U.S. aid beyond the bilateral assistance noted above.
Additional sources of U.S. assistance in recent years include the Central America Regional
Security Initiative, the Department of Defense, the Millennium Challenge Corporation, and the
Peace Corps.
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Central America Regional Security Initiative121
Honduras receives some assistance provided through the Central America Regional Security
Initiative (CARSI, formerly known as Mérida-Central America), which is funded through the
State Department’s Western Hemisphere Regional account. In addition to providing the seven
nations of Central America with equipment, training, and technical assistance to support
immediate law enforcement and interdiction operations, CARSI is designed to strengthen the
capacities of governmental institutions to address security challenges and the underlying
conditions that contribute to them. Honduras was allocated nearly $45 million in CARSI funding
from FY2008-FY2011.122 In FY2012, the State Department and USAID informed Congress of
their intent to allocate up to $72 million to Honduras.123 Taken together, about a quarter of all
CARSI funds appropriated between FY2008 and FY2012 have been allocated to Honduras. The
country may also have benefitted from CARSI funding allocated to region-wide programs over
the same time period. The Obama Administration has requested $107.5 million to be provided to
the countries of Central America through CARSI in FY2013.
CARSI funding supports a wide variety of activities in Honduras. Some U.S. agencies are using
CARSI funds to establish and support specially-vetted units and task forces. Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA) and Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) vetted units and a U.S.-
Honduran joint Financial Crimes Task Force receive equipment and training in support of
complex investigations into drug trafficking, money laundering, and arms and bulk cash
smuggling. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) leads a Transnational Anti-Gang unit
designed to interrupt criminal gang activity. A Special Victims Task Force—consisting of vetted
members of the Honduran National Police, the Public Ministry, and U.S. advisors—is looking
into high profile violent crime cases, such as the persecution of journalists and members of the
LGBT community. Other CARSI-funded efforts to strengthen Honduran institutions include
support for a joint Criminal Investigative School, and border and prison management reforms.
CARSI funds are also being utilized to support civil society and municipal government
prevention programs. At least 25 community outreach centers have been established to provide
vocational training, employment resources, and other opportunities for at-risk youth.124
Department of Defense
The U.S. Department of Defense provides Honduras with additional security assistance. Congress
has authorized the Department of Defense to provide certain types of support for foreign
counterdrug efforts, including training, equipment, infrastructure, transportation, reconnaissance,
and intelligence analysis.125 In recent years, this has included the construction of Honduran naval
bases in Caratasca and on the island of Guanaja, both of which are designed to enhance
121 For more information, see CRS Report R41731, Central America Regional Security Initiative: Background and
Policy Issues for Congress, by Peter J. Meyer and Clare Ribando Seelke.
122 This includes $23.2 million in INCLE, $20.1 million in ESF, and $1.5 million in FMF. U.S. Government
Accountability Office, Status of Funding for the Central America Regional Security Initiative, GAO-13-295R, January
30, 2013, http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/651675.pdf.
123 This would include $46.75 million in INCLE funds and $25.25 million in ESF funds. U.S. Department of State,
Congressional Notification for the Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI) – Honduras, July 13, 2012.
124 U.S. Embassy in Honduras, “Current CARSI Projects in Honduras,” March 6, 2012.
125 For more information on Department of Defense counterdrug authorities, see CRS Report RL34543, International
Drug Control Policy: Background and U.S. Responses, by Liana Sun Wyler.
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Honduras’ capabilities to detect and interdict illicit drug shipments in high volume maritime
trafficking corridors.126 Estimated direct and indirect Department of Defense counternarcotics
support totaled $8.5 million in FY2011, $4.9 million in FY2012, and is expected to total $4.4
million in FY2013.127
Millennium Challenge Corporation
The Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) provided Honduras with a five-year, $205
million128 economic growth compact, which was completed in September 2010. The compact had
two components: a rural development project to provide farmers with skills to grow and market
new crops, and a transportation project to improve roads and highways to link farmers and other
businesses to ports and major production centers in Honduras.129 In January 2011, MCC
announced that it would not be renewing the compact. Although Honduras passed 16 of 20
indicators on the MCC scorecard, it performed below the median on corruption, which is a “pass-
fail” indicator for compact eligibility. MCC declared Honduras eligible for a smaller Threshold
Program, however, to diagnose constraints to economic growth and address policy barriers to a
second compact.130 In December 2012, MCC announced that Honduras is eligible to continue
developing its Threshold Program in FY2013.131
Peace Corps
The Peace Corps, which had been active in Honduras since 1963, indefinitely suspended its
operations in the country in September 2012. The agency had previously pulled all 158 of its
volunteers out of Honduras in January 2012, and decided to close the program after conducting an
in-depth safety and security assessment. More than 5,700 Americans served in Honduras over the
program’s nearly four decades in the country, working on projects related to HIV/AIDS
prevention and child survival; protected area management; water and sanitation; and business,
municipal, and youth development.132
Human Rights Conditions on Assistance
Since the 2009 ouster of President Zelaya, Members of Congress have expressed serious concerns
about the human rights situation in Honduras. A provision in the Consolidated Appropriations Act
of 2012 (P.L. 112-74) requires the State Department to withhold some assistance for the
Honduran security forces until certain human rights conditions are met. According to the
126 “Central America: Behind the Growing Presence of the US,” Latin American Security & Strategic Review, July
2010; U.S. Department of Defense, Fiscal Year 2010 DoD Foreign Counterdrug Activity Report, April 4, 2011.
127 These are estimates as the Department of Defense budgets its counternarcotics assistance by program rather than by
country. U.S. Department of Defense, Counternarcotics (CN) Support for Foreign Countries, February 17, 2012.
128 The compact was originally for $215 million, but the final $10 million was terminated as a result of the 2009 ouster
of President Zelaya.
129 Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC), “Honduras Compact: Raising Incomes, Realizing Dreams” November
3, 2010.
130 MCC, “Report on Selection of Eligible Countries for Fiscal Year 2012,” December 15, 2011.
131 MCC, “MCC Board Selects Countries Eligible for Compacts and Threshold Programs,” press release, December 19,
2012.
132 Peace Corps, “Frequently Asked Questions: Peace Corps Operations in Honduras,” September 2012.
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legislation, 20% of the funds appropriated for the Honduran military and police forces must be
withheld until the Secretary of State reports that: “the Government of Honduras is implementing
policies to protect freedom of expression and association, and due process of law; and is
investigating and prosecuting in the civilian justice system, in accordance with Honduran and
international law, military and police personnel who are credibly alleged to have violated human
rights, and the Honduran military and police are cooperating with civilian judicial authorities in
such cases.” The restriction does not apply to “assistance to promote transparency, anti-
corruption, and the rule of law within the military and police forces.” Nor does it apply to any of
the security support being provided by the U.S. Department of Defense. It does apply, however,
to funds appropriated as part of CARSI.
On August 8, 2012, the State Department issued a report certifying that the Honduran government
had met the required human rights conditions. According to the report, the State Department
“believes Honduras has exhibited significant political will in making the difficult legislative and
constitutional changes required to reinforce the rule of law.” The report also notes that the State
Department is investigating allegations that Honduran Chief of Police Juan Carlos Bonilla
committed human rights violations earlier in his career,133 and that it will withhold assistance
from law enforcement units “under Bonilla’s direct supervision” until the review is complete.134
Despite these assurances, some U.S. Members of Congress remain concerned about human rights
conditions in Honduras and continue to withhold assistance.135 Should their concerns persist,
Congress may once again place human rights conditions on aid for Honduran security forces in
FY2013.
Security Cooperation
The United States and Honduras have closely
Joint Task Force (JTF) Bravo
cooperated on security issues for many years.
The country served as a base for U.S.
The United States maintains a troop presence of about
500 military personnel known as Joint Task Force (JTF)
operations designed to counter Soviet influence
Bravo at Soto Cano Air Base in Honduras. JTF Bravo
in Central America during the 1980s, and has
was first established in 1983 with about 1,200 troops
hosted a U.S. troop presence—Joint Task Force
who were involved in military training exercises and in
Bravo—ever since (see text box). Current
supporting U.S. counterinsurgency and intelligence
bilateral security efforts primarily focus on
operations in the region. In the aftermath of Hurricane
Mitch in 1998, U.S. troops provided extensive assistance
citizen safety and drug trafficking. A high level
in the relief and reconstruction effort. Today, U.S.
task force, co-chaired by President Lobo and
troops in Honduras support such activities as disaster
the U.S. Ambassador, convenes quarterly to
relief, medical and humanitarian assistance,
oversee and direct these efforts—many of
counternarcotics operations, and search and rescue
which are funded through CARSI (see “Central
operations that benefit Honduras and other Central
American countries.
America Regional Security Initiative” above).
133 The former head of the police internal affairs unit has accused Bonilla of running a death squad that murdered
suspected gang members and criminals between 1998 and 2002. See: Katherine Corcoran and Martha Mendoza, “New
Honduras Top Cop Once Investigated in Killings,” Associated Press, June 1, 2012.
134 U.S. Department of State, Report on the Government of Honduras’ Protection of Human Rights and the
Investigation and Prosecution of Security Services Personnel Credibly Alleged to Have Violated Human Rights, August
8, 2012.
135 Damien Cave and Ginger Thompson, “U.S. Rethinks a Drug War After Deaths in Honduras,” New York Times,
October 12, 2012; Damien Cave, “As U.S. Shares Intelligence with Honduras, Other Antidrug Aid Stays Frozen,” New
York Times, November 27, 2012.
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Anti-Drug Efforts
In recent years, Honduras has become a major transshipment point for illicit narcotics. According
to the State Department, up to 40% of all cocaine destined for the United States makes its initial
landfall in Honduras.136 Much is trafficked through the air to remote areas that lack state
presence, such as the Mosquitia region along Honduras’ northeastern coast, though maritime
trafficking also plays a large role.137 After making initial landfall in Honduras, cocaine continues
on toward the United States on subsequent flights or via sea or overland routes.
In order to reduce this flow of illicit narcotics, the U.S. government has significantly increased its
antidrug support to Honduras. For example, a DEA Foreign-deployed Advisory Support Team
(FAST) has reportedly been operating in the country. The elite detachment of military-trained
agents works with specially-vetted members of the local security forces to counter drug
trafficking in the country.138 In 2011, the Honduran government (with U.S. support) interdicted 22
metric tons of cocaine—four times the amount interdicted in 2010.139 Building on this success,
the United States supported a drug interdiction program known as Operation Anvil between mid-
April and mid-July 2012. During the 90-day operation, six helicopters that the State Department
had provided to Guatemala through CARSI were transferred to Honduras to intercept suspected
drug smuggling flights. The helicopters were piloted by Guatemalans and contractors, and carried
vetted members of the Honduran police as well as DEA advisors. During the operation, Honduran
and U.S. authorities reportedly interdicted at least 4.7 metric tons of cocaine and the number of
drug flights entering Honduras fell significantly.140
Controversy
A series of controversial incidents over the past year have led some to raise questions about the
current U.S. antidrug strategy in Honduras as well as the effectiveness of U.S. support for
Honduran security forces more broadly. In May 2012, a teenager was allegedly killed by
Honduran soldiers for driving through a military checkpoint. The soldiers believed to be
responsible were part of a unit that had been vetted, trained, and equipped by the United States.
Moreover, an officer reportedly involved in trying to cover up the killing had received U.S.
training on multiple occasions.141
The same month, a raid conducted under Operation Anvil that included a U.S. helicopter and
DEA advisors left four people dead and several others injured after Honduran security forces
opened fire on a river boat. While the boat passengers maintain they were innocent civilians
traveling the river by night,142 U.S. officials assert that the Honduran security forces fired in self-
136 U.S. Department of State, August 2012, op.cit.
137 U.S. Department of State, Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, International Narcotics
Control Strategy Report (INCSR), March 7, 2012, http://www.state.gov/j/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2012/vol1/
184100.htm#Honduras.
138 Charlie Savage, Randal C. Archibold, and Ginger Thompson, “D.E.A. Squads Extend Reach of Drug War,” New
York Times, November 7, 2011.
139 INCSR, 2012, op.cit.
140 Damien Cave and Ginger Thompson, “U.S. Rethinks Drug War After Deaths in Honduras,” New York Times,
October 12, 2012.
141 Alberto Arce, “Dad Seeks Justice for Slain Son in Broken Honduras,” Associated Press, November 12, 2012.
142 See: Annie Bird and Alexander Main, Collateral Damage of a Drug War: The May 11 Killings and the Impact of
(continued...)
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defense.143 In separate raids in June and July 2012, DEA agents killed two suspected drug
traffickers. The agents maintain they fired in self-defense during both incidents; one suspect
allegedly reached for a weapon and the other reportedly was shot “after making a threatening
gesture.”144 In total, three of the five joint interdiction operations conducted under Operation
Anvil ended with suspects being killed.145
Shortly after Operation Anvil came to an end, the United States stopped sharing radar intelligence
with Honduras. The decision was the result of at least two incidents in which the Honduran air
force violated bilateral agreements by using the intelligence to shoot down civilian aircraft
suspected of carrying drugs.146 The United States did not resume sharing radar intelligence until
November 2012 after the Honduran government had replaced the head of the air force, revised
their procedures, retrained their pilots, and reportedly signed an agreement not to use U.S.
intelligence to “damage, destroy, disable, or threaten civilian aircraft.”147
Trade and Investment
U.S. trade and investment linkages with Honduras have increased significantly since the early
1980s. In 1984, Honduras became one of the first beneficiaries of the Caribbean Basin Initiative
(CBI), a unilateral U.S. preferential trade arrangement providing duty-free importation for many
goods from the region. In the late 1980s, Honduras benefitted from production-sharing
arrangements with U.S. apparel companies for duty-free entry into the United States of certain
apparel products assembled in Honduras. As a result, maquiladoras or export-assembly
companies flourished, most concentrated in the north coast region. The passage of the Caribbean
Basin Trade Partnership Act in 2000, which provided Caribbean Basin nations with North
America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)-like preferential tariff treatment, further boosted the
maquila sector. Trade relations have expanded most recently as a result of the Dominican
Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR), which
significantly liberalized trade in goods and services after entering into force in April 2006.148
Despite a significant decline in bilateral trade in the aftermath of the global financial crisis, total
merchandise trade between the United States and Honduras has increased 44% since the
implementation of CAFTA-DR; U.S. exports to Honduras have grown by 66% and U.S. imports
(...continued)
the U.S. War on Drugs in La Moskitia, Honduras, Center for Economic and Policy Research & Rights Action, August
2012, http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/honduras-2012-08.pdf.
143 Katherine Corcoran and Alberto Arce, “Operation Anvil: U.S. Drug Strategy Led to Deadly Honduras Raid,”
Associated Press, June 25, 2012; U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, “Drug Enforcement
Administration Investigation Honduras,” June 6, 2012.
144 Charlie Savage, “Man is Killed by U.S. Agent in Drug Raid in Honduras,” New York Times, June 24, 2012; U.S.
Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, “Update on Incident in Honduras (Taken Question),” July 9, 2012.
145 Damien Cave and Ginger Thompson, “U.S. Rethinks a Drug War After Deaths in Honduras,” New York Times,
October 12, 2012.
146 Alberto Arce and Martha Mendoza, “US Suspends Anti-Drug Radar Support in Honduras,” Associated Press,
September 7, 2012.
147 Damien Cave, “As U.S. Shares Intelligence with Honduras, Other Antidrug Aid Stays Frozen,” New York Times,
November 27, 2012.
148 For more information on CAFTA-DR, see CRS Report R42468, The Dominican Republic-Central America-United
States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA DR): Developments in Trade and Investment, by J. F. Hornbeck.
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from Honduras have grown by 21% (see Figure 4). Since a large portion of imports from
Honduras entered the United States duty free prior to implementation of the agreement, analysts
had predicted that CAFTA-DR would lead to a relatively larger increase in U.S. exports. Total
two-way trade amounted to $10.6 billion in 2011, $6.1 billion in U.S. exports to Honduras and
$4.5 billion in U.S. imports from Honduras.149 Similar to previous trade arrangements, CAFTA-
DR has provided substantial benefits to the Honduran maquila sector. Textiles and apparel
(assembled products from the maquila sector) account for 60% of U.S. imports from Honduras.
Likewise, textile and apparel inputs, such as yarns and fabrics, account for a substantial portion of
U.S. exports to Honduras. Other major U.S. exports to Honduras include oil and machinery.150
Figure 4. U.S. Trade with Honduras: 2002-2011
(Billions of U.S. dollars)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Exports
Imports
Source: CRS Presentation of U.S. International Trade Commission data.
Notes: 2012 data is not yet available.
U.S. foreign direct investment in Honduras has also increased since the implementation of
CAFTA-DR. Total U.S. foreign direct investment in the country amounted to $930 million in
2011, down slightly from 2010 but up 18% from $787 million in 2006.151 According to the State
Department, relatively low labor costs, proximity to the U.S. market, and Central America’s
largest port (Puerto Cortés) make Honduras attractive to investors. At the same time, high levels
of crime, a weak judicial system, corruption, low levels of educational attainment, and poor
149 U.S. International Trade Commission (USITC) data as presented by the USITC Interactive Tariff and Trade
DataWeb, January 2013.
150 U.S. Department of Commerce data, as presented by Global Trade Atlas, April 2012.
151 U.S. Department of Commerce, “U.S. Direct Investment Abroad Tables,” Survey of Current Business, September
2012.
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infrastructure hamper investment.152 Some Members of Congress have raised additional concerns
about the investment climate in Honduras as a result of several cases in which U.S.-owned
companies allegedly were driven out of business by anticompetitive practices or were
expropriated without compensation.153
Despite these increases in trade and investment, some in the United States and Honduras have
expressed concerns about the implementation of CAFTA-DR. Labor rights provisions have
received particular attention. According to the State Department, Honduran law provides for
unionization and collective bargaining, but places some restrictions on those rights and frequently
fails to enforce them. In 2011, “employers commonly threatened to close unionized factories and
harassed or dismissed workers seeking to unionize, including firing leaders soon after unions
were formed to prevent the union from functioning.” Moreover, “there was credible evidence that
apparel assembly factory employers continued with impunity to blacklist employees seeking to
form unions.”154
In March 2012, the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations
(AFL-CIO) joined with Honduran trade unions to file a petition with the U.S. Department of
Labor. The petition asserts that the government of Honduras has failed to effectively enforce its
labor laws and meet its obligations under CAFTA-DR, and calls on the U.S. government to
engage Honduras on these issues to ensure future compliance.155 The Labor Department’s Office
of Trade and Labor Affairs (OTLA) accepted the petition in May 2012, initiating a review of up
to 180 days to determine the accuracy of the charges. In November 2012, OTLA announced that
it would need to extend the review period. OTLA will issue a public report with its findings and
recommendations once the review is complete.156
Migration Issues
Migration issues are central to the U.S.-Honduran relationship as more than 731,000 Hispanics of
Honduran origin—equivalent to over 9% of the Honduran population—reside in the United
States. Some 487,000 (67%) of the Hondurans in the United States are foreign born, 80% of
whom have arrived since 1990.157 Immigration from Honduras to the United States is primarily
driven by high levels of poverty and unemployment. Given the persistence of those conditions,
152 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs, 2012 Investment Climate Statement -
Honduras, June 2012, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2012/191162.htm.
153 U.S. Congress, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, Next Steps for
Honduras, 111th Cong., 2nd sess., March 18, 2010, Serial No. 111-94 (Washington: GPO, 2010).
154 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices for 2011 – Honduras, May 2012, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?dlid=
186524#wrapper.
155 AFL-CIO, “The AFL-CIO Joins Honduran Trade Unions in Filing a Petition with Department of Labor against
Honduran Government for Failing to Enforce Labor Laws under Trade Agreement,” Press Release, March 29, 2012.
156 Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs, “Dominican Republic-Central America-United States
Free Trade Agreement; Notice of Extension of the Period of Review for Submission 2012-01 (Honduras),” 77 Federal
Register 66870, November 7, 2012.
157 Seth Motel and Eileen Patten, Hispanics of Honduran Origin in the United States, 2010, Pew Hispanic Center,
Statistical Profile, June 27, 2012.
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polling indicates that a third of Honduran citizens who still live in their home country would like
to emigrate.158
In addition to relieving social pressure, emigration plays an important role in the Honduran
economy. Remittances from migrant workers abroad are the largest single source of foreign
exchange for Honduras. They more than tripled between 2002 and 2008 before declining in 2009
as a result of the global financial crisis and U.S. recession, which left many Honduran immigrants
unemployed.159 Remittances have since recovered, however, growing by 13% in 2011 to reach
$2.9 billion (equivalent to 17% of GDP).160 The United States and Honduras have sought to
maximize the development impact of remittance flows with the Building Remittance Investment
for Development Growth and Entrepreneurship (BRIDGE) Initiative that was launched in
September 2010. Under the initiative, the United States and Honduras partner with financial
institutions to leverage the remittances they receive to obtain lower-cost, longer-term financing in
international capital markets and fund investments in infrastructure, public works, and
commercial development.161
Temporary Protected Status
Since Hurricane Mitch struck Honduras in 1998, the U.S. government has provided temporary
protected status (TPS) to allow eligible Hondurans—who may otherwise be deported—to stay in
the United States. Originally slated to expire in July 2000, TPS has now been extended 10 times.
The most recent TPS extension came on November 4, 2011, when the Secretary of Homeland
Security announced that the United States would continue to provide TPS for an additional 18
months, expiring on July 5, 2013 (prior to this extension, TPS would have expired January 5,
2012). According to the Federal Register notice on the most recent extension, the Secretary of
Homeland Security determined that the extension was warranted because there continues to be a
substantial, but temporary, disruption of living conditions in Honduras resulting from Hurricane
Mitch, and Honduras remains temporarily unable to adequately handle the return of its
nationals.162 An estimated 66,000 Hondurans residing in the United States benefit from TPS.163
Deportations
Deportations to Honduras have increased significantly over the past decade. Approximately
23,800 Hondurans were deported from the United States in FY2011, making Honduras one of the
158 UCA & ERIC-SJ, January 2013, op.cit., p.10.
159 “Roundtable Discussion: Outlook for Remittances to Latin America in 2010,” Inter-American Dialogue, April 12,
2010; “Latin America: Remittances Slide,” Economist Intelligence Unit, January 26, 2009.
160 Rene Maldonado, Natasha Bajuk, and Maria Luisa Hayem, Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean:
Regaining Growth, Inter-American Development Bank, Multilateral Investment Fund, Washington, DC, 2012,
http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getDocument.aspx?DOCNUM=36723460.
161 Department of State, Office of the Spokesman, “U.S. BRIDGE Initiative Commitments with El Salvador and
Honduras,” September 22, 2010.
162 Department of Homeland Security, “Extension of the Designation of Honduras for Temporary Protected Status and
Automatic Extension of Employment Authorization Documentation for Honduran TPS Beneficiaries,” 76 Federal
Register 68488-68493, November 4, 2011.
163 For more information on TPS, see CRS Report RS20844, Temporary Protected Status: Current Immigration Policy
and Issues, by Ruth Ellen Wasem and Karma Ester.
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top recipients of deportees on a per capita basis.164 Increasing deportations from the United States
have been accompanied by similar increases in deportations from Mexico, a transit country for
Central American migrants bound for the United States. Honduran policymakers are concerned
about their country’s ability to absorb the large volume of deportees, as it is often difficult for
those returning to the country to find gainful employment. Individuals who do not speak Spanish,
who are tattooed, who have criminal records, and/or who lack familial support face additional
difficulties re-integrating into Honduran society. In addition to these social problems, leaders are
concerned that remittances may start to fall if the current high rates of deportations continue.165
Some analysts contend that increasing U.S. deportations of individuals with criminal records has
exacerbated the gang problem in Honduras and other Central American countries. They maintain
that gang-deportees have “exported” a Los Angeles gang culture to Central America, and that
they have recruited new members from among the local populations.166 U.S. Immigration and
Customs Enforcement (ICE) does not provide receiving countries with the complete criminal
records or gang affiliations of deportees, however, it may provide them with some information
regarding deportees’ criminal histories and gang affiliations when specifying why the deportees
were removed from the United States. Likewise, receiving countries may contact the FBI to
request criminal history checks on particular criminal deportees once they have arrived. Nearly
half of the Hondurans deported from the United States in FY2011 were removed on criminal
grounds.167
Trafficking in Persons
According to the State Department’s 2012 Trafficking in Persons Report, Honduras is primarily a
source and transit country for men, women, and children trafficked for the purpose of commercial
sexual exploitation and forced labor. Many victims are recruited from rural areas with promises of
employment and later subjected to forced prostitution in urban and tourist locales such as
Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, and the Bay Islands. Destination countries for trafficked Honduran
women and children include Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, and the United States.
There are also foreign victims of commercial sexual exploitation in Honduras, most having been
trafficked from neighboring countries, including economic migrants en route to the United States.
Recently, there have also been reports of rural families leasing out children for forced labor, and
urban gangs coercing young males to transport drugs.
The State Department maintains that Honduras does not fully comply with the minimum
standards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it notes that the government is making
significant efforts to do so. As a result, Honduras is considered a so-called “Tier 2” country. The
State Department report lauds the Honduran government for passing a comprehensive anti-
trafficking law that prohibits all forms of trafficking, includes sufficiently stringent punishments,
and establishes more robust victim protections. Nevertheless, the report asserts that the Honduran
government’s victim services remain inadequate, and its efforts against forced labor remain weak.
164 Information provided to CRS by the Department of Homeland Security, Immigration and Customs Enforcement,
Office of Congressional Relations, October 31, 2011.
165 Pamela Constable, “Deportees’ Bittersweet Homecoming; Migration is Boon, Bane for Honduras,” Washington
Post, June 27, 2007.
166 Ana Arana, “How the Street Gangs Took Central America,” Foreign Affairs, May/June 2005.
167 Information provided to CRS by the Department of Homeland Security, Immigration and Customs Enforcement,
Office of Congressional Relations, October 31, 2011.
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The State Department’s recommendations for Honduras include vigorously implementing the new
anti-trafficking law, increasing efforts to investigate and prosecute trafficking offenses, and
ensuring dedicated funding to provide specialized services and shelter to trafficking victims.168
Author Contact Information
Peter J. Meyer
Analyst in Latin American Affairs
pmeyer@crs.loc.gov, 7-5474
168 U.S. Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report, June
2012, http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2012/index.htm.
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