Iran Sanctions
Kenneth Katzman
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
December 7, 2012
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RS20871
CRS Report for Congress
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epared for Members and Committees of Congress
Iran Sanctions
Summary
The principal objective of international sanctions—to compel Iran to verifiably confine its nuclear
program to purely peaceful uses—has not been achieved to date. However, a broad international
coalition has imposed progressively strict sanctions on Iran’s oil export lifeline, adversely
affecting Iran’s economy to the point where key Iran leaders are considering the need for a
nuclear compromise. Among the key causes of Iranian leaders’ worry:
• Oil exports provide about 70% of Iran’s government revenues and Iran’s oil
exports have declined to about 1.25 million barrels per day as of December 2012,
a dramatic decline from the 2.5 million barrels per day Iran exported during
2011. The main cause of that drop has been a European Union embargo on
purchases of Iranian crude oil that took full effect on July 1, 2012. This embargo
is coupled with decisions by several other Iranian oil customers to substantially
reduce purchases of Iranian oil in order to comply with a provision of the
FY2012 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 112-81). To date, twenty
countries have been deemed in compliance. The loss of sales has caused Iran to
reduce oil production to about 2.6 million barrels of day, from the longterm
baseline close to 4 million barrels per day. Other oil producers, particularly Saudi
Arabia, are selling additional oil to Iran’s customers, thus far preventing the lost
Iranian sales from raising world oil prices.
• The loss of hard currency revenues from oil—coupled with the cut off of Iran
from the international banking system and the decline of Iran’s foreign exchange
reserves—caused a collapse in the value of Iran’s currency, the rial, in early
October. That collapse prompted street demonstrations and a halt to commerce by
merchants who are uncertain how to price their goods. In response, Iran has tried
to impose currency controls and arrested some illegal currency traders, although
these steps are unlikely to restore public confidence in the regime’s economic
management.
Sanctions may be slowing Iran’s nuclear program somewhat by preventing Iran from obtaining
some needed technology from foreign sources. However, Department of Defense and other
assessments indicate that sanctions have not stopped Iran from building up its conventional
military and missile capabilities with indigenous skills. Iran is also judged not complying with
U.N. requirements that it halt any weapons shipments outside its borders, particularly with regard
to purported Iranian weapons shipments to help the embattled Asad government in Syria. And,
international sanctions targeting the regime’s human rights abuses do not appear to have altered
Iran’s repression of dissent or its efforts to monitor public use of the Internet.
Despite the imposition of what many now consider to be “crippling” sanctions, some in Congress
believe that economic pressure on Iran needs to increase further and faster. In the 112th Congress,
H.R. 1905, P.L. 112-158 (“Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act of 2012”), makes
sanctionable numerous additional forms of foreign energy dealings with Iran, including shipments
of crude oil, and enhances human rights-related provisions of previous Iran sanctions laws. A
Senate amendment to a FY2013 national defense authorization act (S. 3254), imposes sanctions
on several key sectors of Iran’s economic infrastructure. For a broader analysis of policy on Iran,
see CRS Report RL32048, Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses, by Kenneth Katzman.
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Contents
Overview and Objectives ................................................................................................................. 1
Energy Sector Sanctions: The Iran Sanctions Act (ISA) and Related Laws .................................... 1
The Iran Sanctions Act and Amendments .................................................................................. 2
Key “Triggers” .................................................................................................................... 2
Mandate and Time Frame to Investigate ISA Violations ..................................................... 6
Available Sanctions Under ISA ........................................................................................... 7
Waivers, Exemptions, and Termination Authority .............................................................. 8
Termination Requirements .................................................................................................. 9
Sunset Provisions ................................................................................................................ 9
Interpretations and Implementation of ISA and Related Laws ................................................ 10
Application to Crude Oil or Natural Gas Purchases from Iran ......................................... 10
Application to Sales to Iran of Energy-Related Equipment .............................................. 10
Application to Financing but Not Official Credit Guarantee Agencies ............................. 10
Application to Energy Pipelines ........................................................................................ 11
Application to Iranian Energy Institutions/NIOC and NITC ............................................ 11
Application to the Revolutionary Guard ........................................................................... 12
Application to Liquefied Natural Gas ............................................................................... 13
Sanctions Imposed Under ISA ................................................................................................ 13
ISA Sanctions Determinations and Exemptions ................................................................ 14
Sanctioning Oil Payments to Iran’s Central Bank: Section 1245 of FY2012 National
Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 112-81) ............................................................................. 17
Implementation/Exemptions Issued .................................................................................. 18
P.L. 112-158 Impedes Repatriation of Hard Currency to Iran ........................................... 19
Ban on U.S. Trade and Investment With Iran ................................................................................ 20
Major Provisions of the Trade and Investment Ban: What is Allowed or Prohibited.............. 20
Implementation ........................................................................................................................ 22
Non-Application to Refined Oil With Iranian Content ..................................................... 22
Application to Humanitarian Donations and Support ....................................................... 23
Application to Foreign Subsidiaries of U.S. Firms ........................................................... 23
Financial Sanctions: CISADA and Sanctions on Dealings with Iran’s Central Bank.................... 25
Early Efforts: Targeted Financial Measures ............................................................................ 26
Banking Provisions of CISADA ............................................................................................. 26
Sanctions Imposed............................................................................................................. 27
Section 311 of the Patriot Act .................................................................................................. 27
Executive Order 13599 on Impounding Iranian Assets ..................................................... 27
Sanctions on Iran’s Central Bank ...................................................................................... 28
Electronic Payments (SWIFT) Cutoff ............................................................................... 28
Terrorism-Related Sanctions .......................................................................................................... 28
Sanctions Triggered by Terrorism List Designation: Ban on U.S. Aid, Arms Sales,
Dual-Use Exports, and Certain Programs for Iran ............................................................... 28
No Ban on U.S. Official Humanitarian Aid ...................................................................... 29
Executive Order 13224: Sanctioning Terrorism Supporting Entities ...................................... 29
Implementation.................................................................................................................. 29
Proliferation-Related U.S. Sanctions ............................................................................................. 30
Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act ....................................................................................... 30
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Iran-North Korea-Syria Nonproliferation Act ......................................................................... 30
Executive Order 13382 ............................................................................................................ 31
Implementation.................................................................................................................. 31
Foreign Aid Restrictions for Suppliers of Iran ........................................................................ 31
U.S. Efforts to Promote Divestment .............................................................................................. 31
U.S. Sanctions Intended to Support Democratic Change in Iran or Alter Iran’s Foreign
Policy .......................................................................................................................................... 31
Expanding Internet and Communications Freedoms ............................................................... 32
CISADA Provisions .......................................................................................................... 32
March 2010 Administration Regulations: Providing Free Software to Iranians ............... 32
Executive Order 13606, P.L. 112-158, Executive Order 13628 ........................................ 33
Measures to Sanction Human Rights Abuses and Promote the Opposition ............................ 34
Section 105 of CISADA and Executive Order 13553 ....................................................... 34
Executive Order 13438 and 13572: Sanctioning Iranian Involvement
in the Region .................................................................................................................. 35
Separate Visa Ban .............................................................................................................. 35
Blocked Iranian Property and Assets ............................................................................................. 35
U.N. Sanctions ............................................................................................................................... 36
International Implementation and Compliance .............................................................................. 38
European Union ....................................................................................................................... 38
EU Oil Embargo and Central Bank of Iran Cutoff ............................................................ 38
Japan and South Korea ............................................................................................................ 40
India ......................................................................................................................................... 41
Pakistan ................................................................................................................................... 42
China and Russia ..................................................................................................................... 42
China ................................................................................................................................. 42
Turkey/Caucuses ..................................................................................................................... 43
Armenia ............................................................................................................................. 44
Persian Gulf and Other Regional States .................................................................................. 44
Afghanistan ....................................................................................................................... 44
Latin America .......................................................................................................................... 45
Africa ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Contrast With Previous Periods ............................................................................................... 45
World Bank Loans ................................................................................................................... 46
Effectiveness of Sanctions on Iran ................................................................................................. 50
Effect on Iran’s Nuclear Program Decisions and Capabilities ................................................ 50
Counter-Proliferation Effects ............................................................................................ 51
Effects on Iran’s Regional Political and Military Influence .................................................... 51
General Political Effects .......................................................................................................... 51
Human Rights-Related Effects ................................................................................................ 52
Economic Effects/Currency Collapse ...................................................................................... 53
Foreign Companies Exiting the Iran Market ..................................................................... 55
Foreign Firms Reportedly Remaining in the Iran Market ................................................. 56
Effect on Energy Sector Infrastructure and Development ....................................................... 57
Concerns About “Backfill” ................................................................................................ 58
Effect on Gasoline Availability and Importation ............................................................... 63
Humanitarian Effects/Air Safety ............................................................................................. 66
Possible Additional Sanctions ........................................................................................................ 66
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U.S. Legislative Initiatives in 2012 ......................................................................................... 66
Iran Sanctions in FY2013 National Defense Authorization Bill ....................................... 69
Possible Additional U.S. or International Sanctions ................................................................ 69
Sanctions Easing/Incentives .................................................................................................... 71
Tables
Table 1. Summary of Provisions of U.N. Resolutions on Iran Nuclear Program (1737,
1747, 1803, and 1929) ................................................................................................................ 37
Table 2. Top Energy Buyers From Iran and Reductions ................................................................ 40
Table 3. Comparison Between U.S., U.N., and EU and Allied Country Sanctions ....................... 46
Table 4. Post-1999 Major Investments/Major Development Projects
in Iran’s Energy Sector ............................................................................................................... 58
Table 5.Comparison of Major Provisions of H.R. 1905/P.L. 112-158 ........................................... 67
Table 6. Entities Sanctioned Under U.N. Resolutions and
U.S. Laws and Executive Orders ................................................................................................ 72
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 83
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Iran Sanctions
Overview and Objectives
U.S. sanctions have been a major feature of U.S. Iran policy since Iran’s 1979 Islamic revolution,
but U.N. and worldwide bilateral sanctions on Iran are a relatively recent (post-2006)
development. Many of the U.S. sanctions overlap each other as well as with the U.N. sanctions
and national measures of European and some Asian countries now in place. Some U.S. sanctions,
particularly the 1996 Iran Sanctions Act (ISA), caused differences of opinion between the United
States and its European allies because they mandate U.S. imposition of sanctions on foreign
firms. Successive Administrations have sought to ensure that U.S. sanctions do not hamper
cooperation with key international partners whose support is needed to isolate Iran.
The objectives of U.S. sanctions have evolved over time. In the mid-1980s, U.S. sanctions were
intended to try to compel Iran to cease supporting acts of terrorism and to limit Iran’s strategic
power in the Middle East more generally. Since the mid-1990s, U.S. sanctions have focused
increasingly on persuading or compelling Iran to limit the scope of its nuclear program to
purposes that can only be civilian. As Iran’s nuclear program has been increasingly identified as a
threat to stability in the Middle East and global energy supplies, the international community has
set requirements to limit Iran’s nuclear program, and other countries have joined U.S. sanctions to
try to force Iran to comply with those requirements.
This report analyzes U.S. and international sanctions against Iran and, in so doing, provides
examples, based on a wide range of open source reporting, of companies and countries that
conduct business with Iran. CRS has no way to independently corroborate any of the reporting on
which these examples are based and no mandate to assess whether any entity is complying with
U.S. or international sanctions against Iran.
Some of the sanctions are subject to interpretation regarding implementation. On November 13,
2012, the Administration published in the Federal Register (Volume 77, Number 219) “Policy
Guidance” explaining how intends to implement the sanctions discussed below.1 The guidance
also sets out examples of specific products and chemicals that are included in the definitions of
such terms as “petroleum,” “petroleum products,” and “petrochemical products” that are used in
the laws and executive orders discussed below.
Energy Sector Sanctions: The Iran Sanctions Act
(ISA) and Related Laws
Since 1996, Congress and successive Administrations have put in place steps to try to force
foreign energy firms to choose between participating in the U.S. market, or continuing to operate
in or conduct various energy-related transactions with Iran.
1 http://www.regulations.gov/#!documentDetail;D=DOS_FRDOC_0001-2175
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The Iran Sanctions Act and Amendments
The Iran Sanctions Act (ISA) is the core of those U.S. sanctions intended to force foreign firms
out of the Iranian energy market. It took advantage of the opportunity for the United States to try
to harm Iran’s energy sector when Iran, in November 1995, opened the sector to foreign
investment. To accommodate its insistence on retaining control of its national resources, Iran used
a “buy-back” investment program in which foreign firms gradually recoup their investments as
oil and gas is discovered and then produced. With input from the Administration, on September 8,
1995, Senator Alfonse D’Amato introduced the “Iran Foreign Oil Sanctions Act” to sanction
foreign firms’ exports to Iran of energy technology. A revised version instead sanctioning
investment in Iran’s energy sector passed the Senate on December 18, 1995 (voice vote). On
December 20, 1995, the Senate passed a version applying the provisions to Libya, which was
refusing to yield for trial the two intelligence agents suspected in the December 21, 1988,
bombing of Pan Am 103. The House passed H.R. 3107, on June 19, 1996 (415-0), and then
concurred on a Senate version adopted on July 16, 1996 (unanimous consent). The Iran and Libya
Sanctions Act was signed on August 5, 1996 (P.L. 104-172).
Since its enactment in 1996, ISA has attracted substantial attention because it is an “extra-
territorial sanction”—it authorizes U.S. penalties against foreign firms, many of which are
incorporated in countries that are U.S. allies. American firms are separately restricted from
trading with or investing in Iran under separate U.S. executive orders, as discussed below. Its
application has been further expanded by the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and
Divestment Act of 2012 (CISADA, P.L. 111-195 enacted July 1, 2010), Executive Order 13590 of
November 21, 2011, Executive Order 13622 of July 30, 2012, and the Iran Threat Reduction and
Syria Human Rights Act of 2012 (H.R. 1905, P.L. 112-158, signed August 10, 2012).
Originally called the Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA), ISA was enacted to try to deny Iran
the resources to further its nuclear program and to support terrorist organizations such as
Hizbollah, Hamas, and Palestine Islamic Jihad. Iran’s petroleum sector generates about 20% of
Iran’s GDP (which is about $870 billion), about 80% of its foreign exchange earnings, and about
50% of its government revenue for 2012. Iran’s oil sector is as old as the petroleum industry itself
(early 20th century), and Iran’s onshore oil fields are past peak production and in need of
substantial investment. Iran has 136.3 billion barrels of proven oil reserves, the third largest after
Saudi Arabia and Canada. With the exception of relatively small swap and barter arrangements
with neighboring countries, virtually all of Iran’s oil exports flow through the Strait of Hormuz,
which carries about one-third of all internationally traded oil exported by Iran and other countries
on the Persian Gulf.
Iran’s large natural gas resources (940 trillion cubic feet, exceeded only by Russia) were virtually
undeveloped when ISA was first enacted. Its gas exports are small, and most of its gas is injected
into its oil fields to boost their production.
Key “Triggers”
ISA consists of a number of “triggers”—transactions with Iran that would be considered
violations of ISA and could cause a firm or entity to be sanctioned under ISA’s provisions. When
triggered, ISA provides a number of different sanctions that the President could impose that
would harm a foreign firm’s business opportunities in the United States. ISA does not, and
probably could not practically, compel any foreign government to act against one of its firms.
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Original Trigger: “Investment” in Iran’s Energy Sector
ISA primarily targets foreign firms, because American firms are already prohibited from investing
in Iran under the 1995 trade and investment ban discussed below. The original version of ISA
requires the President to sanction companies (entities, persons) that make an “investment”2 of
more than $20 million3 in one year in Iran’s energy sector.4 The definition of “investment” in ISA
(§14 (9)) includes not only equity and royalty arrangements (including additions to existing
investment, as added by P.L. 107-24) but any contract that includes “responsibility for the
development of petroleum resources” of Iran. CISADA did not alter this trigger but it did amend
the definition of investment to explicitly include pipelines to or through Iran and contracts to lead
the construction, upgrading, or expansions of energy projects.
Trigger Added: Sales of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced
Conventional Weapons-Related Technology.
The Iran Freedom Support Act (P.L. 109-293, signed September 30, 2006) amended ISA to add a
trigger: that sanctions should be imposed on entities that sell to Iran weapons of mass destruction
(WMD) technology or “destabilizing numbers and types” of advanced conventional weapons.
Trigger Added by CISADA: Sales of Gasoline and Related Equipment and
Services
The originally enacted version of ISA did not address Iran’s gasoline dependency because that
version did not make sanctionable sales to Iran of gasoline or of equipment with which Iran can
itself build or expand its refineries or import gasoline.5 And, it did not clearly make sanctionable
Iranian investments in oil refineries abroad. In 2010, many in Congress argued that ISA should be
amended to address Iran’s dependency on gasoline imports—which at that time constituted about
40% of Iran’s total gasoline needs—and there were a limited group of major gasoline suppliers to
Iran. Others believed that sanction would not be effective because the Iranian government could
circumvent its effects through rationing, reducing gasoline subsidies, or increasing gasoline
production.
2 As amended by CISADA (P.L. 111-195), these definitions include pipelines to or through Iran, as well as contracts to
lead the construction, upgrading, or expansions of energy projects. CISADA also changes the definition of investment
to eliminate the exemption from sanctions for sales of energy-related equipment to Iran, if such sales are structured as
investments or ongoing profit-earning ventures.
3 Under §4(d) of the original act, for Iran, the threshold dropped to $20 million, from $40 million, one year after
enactment, when U.S. allies did not join a multilateral sanctions regime against Iran. However, P.L. 111-195 explicit
sets the threshold investment level at $20 million. For Libya, the threshold was $40 million, and sanctionable activity
included export to Libya of technology banned by Pan Am 103-related Security Council Resolutions 748 (March 31,
1992) and 883 (November 11, 1993).
4 The original ISA definition of energy sector included oil and natural gas, and CISADA added to that definition:
liquefied natural gas (LNG), oil or LNG tankers, and products to make or transport pipelines that transport oil or LNG.
5 Taking responsibility for constructing oil refineries or petrochemical plants in Iran (for example managing or playing
a major role in the construction contracts) did constitute sanctionable projects under the original version of ISA because
ISA’s definition of investment includes “responsibility for the development of petroleum resources located in Iran.”
Table 4 provides some information on openly announced contracts to upgrade or refurbish Iranian oil refineries.
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An effort to sanction gasoline sales—H.R. 2880—failed in the 110th Congress. In the 111th
Congress, a few initiatives to sanction sales of gasoline to Iran were adopted. These included the
FY2010 Energy and Water Appropriation (P.L. 111-85, October 28, 2009), which prohibited the
use of U.S. funds to fill the Strategic Petroleum Reserve with products from firms that sell over
$1 million worth of gasoline to Iran., and the FY2010 consolidated appropriation (P.L. 111-117)
denied Ex-Im Bank credits to any firm that sold gasoline and related equipment and services to
Iran. These initiatives did deter some gasoline sales to Iran, including prompting a decision in
December 2008 by Reliance Industries Ltd. of India to at least temporarily cease new sales of
refined gasoline to Iran. The Ex-Im Bank, in August 2008, had extended a total of $900 million in
financing guarantees to Reliance to help it expand.
CISADA Enactment and Provisions. Later in the 111th Congress, H.R. 2194, (Iran Refined
Petroleum Sanctions Act), containing the gasoline-related provisions discussed above, was passed
by the House on December 15, 2009, by a vote of 412-12. A bill in the Senate, the “Dodd-Shelby
Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act,” (S. 2799), was reported to
the full Senate by the Senate Banking Committee on November 19, 2009, and passed the Senate,
by voice vote, on January 28, 2010. It was adopted by the Senate under unanimous consent as a
substitute amendment to H.R. 2194 on March 11, 2010; it added to the House bill several
provisions beyond amending ISA—provisions affecting U.S.-Iran trade and other issues. The
conference report more closely resembled the more expansive Senate version.
The President signed the final version—the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and
Divestment Act of 2010 (CISADA) on July 1, 2010 (P.L. 111-195). CISADA’s main provisions to
amend ISA made sanctionable:
• Sales to Iran of over $1 million worth (or $5 million in a one year period) of
gasoline and related aviation and other fuels. (Fuel oil, a petroleum by-product
which is reportedly being sold to Iran by exporters in the Kurdish region of Iraq,
is not included in the definition of refined petroleum.)
• Sales to Iran of equipment or services (same dollar threshold as above) which
would help Iran make or import gasoline. Examples of such sales include
equipment and services that Iran can use to construct or maintain its oil
refineries, or provision of services such as gasoline shipping or related port
operations.
Executive Order 13590 (November 21, 2011): Application of ISA to Sales of
Energy Sector Equipment and Services, Including Petrochemicals
In the wake of a November 8, 2011, IAEA report indicating Iran might have worked on nuclear
explosive technology, on November 21, 2011, the Administration issued Executive Order 13590,
under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA). The Order expanding on the
authorities of the Iran Sanctions Act by directing the Secretary of State to impose at least one (1)
of the available ISA sanctions on foreign firms that:
• Provide to Iran $1 million or more (or $5 million in a one year period) worth of
goods or services that Iran could use to maintain or enhance its oil and gas sector.
This made sanctionable the activity in Iran of global oil services firms and the
sale to Iran of gear typically used in the oil industry such as drills, pumps,
vacuums, oil rigs, and the like.
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• Provide to Iran $250,000 (or $1 million in a one year period) worth of goods or
services that Iran could use to maintain or expand its production of petrochemical
products.6
• These two triggers—sale to Iran of general oil industry equipment and of
petrochemical production equipment—were codified in Section 201 of the Iran
Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-158). All ISA
provisions, such as time frame to begin and complete an investigation of
suspected transactions and other provisions, therefore apply to these transactions.
Trigger Added by Executive Order 13622 of July 30, 2012: Purchasing of Iranian
Crude Oil and Petrochemical Products
On July 30, 2012, President Obama issued Executive Order 13622 applying virtually all of the
ISA sanctions—and restrictions on foreign banks—to entities that the President determines have:
• purchased oil or other petroleum products from Iran7
• conducted transactions with the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) or
Naftiran Intertrade Company (NICO).
• purchased petrochemical products from Iran.
Under the Executive Order, sanctions do not apply if the parent country of the entity conducting
these transactions has received an exemption under Section 1245 of P.L. 112-81—an exemption
earned for “significantly reducing” oil purchases from Iran. (See below for more information on
the Section 1245 sanctions and exemption process.)
The E.O. also blocks U.S.-based property of firms determined to have provided financial support
to NIOC, NICO, or the Central Bank of Iran, or to have helped Iran purchase U.S. bank notes or
precious metals.
Triggers Added by the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Act (P.L. 112-158, H.R.
1905)
Section 201 of the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (P.L. 112-158, signed
August 10, 2012) amends ISA by adding several sanctions triggers, including:
• ownership of a vessel that is used to transport Iranian crude oil. This sanction
does not apply in cases of transporting oil to countries that have received
exemptions under P.L. 112-81, discussed below. The section also authorizes but
does not require the President, subject to regulations, to prohibit a ship from
6 A definition of what chemicals and products are considered “petrochemical products” is found in a Policy Guidance
statement published in the Federal Register on November 13, 2012.
http://www.regulations.gov/#!documentDetail;D=DOS_FRDOC_0001-2175
7 A definition of what chemicals and products are considered “petroleum products” for the purposes of the Order are in
the policy guidance issued November 13, 2012.
http://www.regulations.gov/#!documentDetail;D=DOS_FRDOC_0001-2175
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putting to port in the United States for two years, if it is owned by a person
sanctioned under this provision.
• Participation in a joint oil and gas development venture with Iran, outside Iran, if
that venture was established after January 1, 2002. The effective date carves out
an exemption for energy ventures in the Caspian Sea, such as the Shah Deniz oil
field there.
• Participation in a joint venture with Iran relating to the mining, production, or
transportation of uranium.
• Purchasing or facilitating the issuance of sovereign debt of the government of
Iran, including Iranian government bonds.
• Selling threshold amounts of energy industry equipment, including for the
production of petrochemicals. This provision represents a codification of
Executive Order 13590, above.
A separate provision of this law (Section 212) requires application of the “five out of twelve” ISA
sanctions on any company that provides insurance or re-insurance for the National Iranian Oil
Company (NIOC) or the National Iranian Tanker Company (NITC). The provision does not
specifically amend ISA.
Another provision, Section 302, requires the application of the five out of twelve ISA sanctions
against any person determined to have engaged in a “significant transaction” with the Islamic
Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) or any of its officials, agents, or affiliates. The provision does
not specifically amend ISA.
Executive Order 13628 of October 9, 2012
On October 9, 2012, the Administration issued Executive Order 13628. The Order implements the
Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act primarily by specifying the separate
authorities of the Department of State and the Department of the Treasury to impose the selected
sanctions. The Order also blocks the property of those Iranians’ deemed to have committed
censorship or limited free expression in Iran, as discussed further below.
Mandate and Time Frame to Investigate ISA Violations
In the original version of ISA, there was no firm requirement, and no time limit, for the
Administration to investigate potential violations and determine that a firm has violated ISA’s
provisions. CISADA, Section 102(g)(5), altered that by mandating that the Administration begin
an investigation of potential ISA violations when there is “credible information” about a potential
violation. The same section made mandatory the 180-day time limit for a determination of
violation. Under Section 102(h)(5), the mandate to investigate gasoline related sales can be
delayed an additional 180 days if an Administration report, submitted to Congress by June 1,
2011, asserts that its policies have produced a significant result in sales of gasoline to Iran. No
such report was submitted.
However, there was still a lack of precision over what constitutes “credible information” that an
investment or sanctionable sale has been undertaken. P.L. 112-158 contains a provision amending
ISA to provide a specific definition of “credible information,” including a corporate
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announcement or corporate filing to its shareholders that it has undertaken transactions with Iran
that are potentially sanctionable under ISA.
Earlier, P.L. 109-293, the “Iran Freedom Support Act” (signed September 30, 2006) amended ISA
by calling for, but not requiring, a 180-day time limit for a violation determination (there is no
time limit in the original law).8 Early versions of that legislation (H.R. 282, S. 333) contained ISA
amendment proposals that were viewed by the Bush Administration as too restrictive, including
setting a mandatory 90-day time limit for the Administration to determine whether an investment
is a violation; cutting U.S. foreign assistance to countries whose companies violate ISA; and
applying the U.S.-Iran trade ban to foreign subsidiaries of U.S. firms.
Oversight Mechanisms: Reports Required
The Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (P.L. 112-158) sets up several
mechanisms for Congress to oversee whether the Administration is investigating ISA violations.
Section 223 requires a Government Accountability Office report, within 120 days of enactment,
and another such report a year later, on companies that have undertaken specified activities with
Iran that might constitute violations of ISA. Section 224 amends a reporting requirement in
Section 110(b) of CISADA by requiring an Administration report every 180 days on investment
in Iran’s energy sector, joint ventures with Iran, and estimates of Iran’s imports and exports of
petroleum products.
Available Sanctions Under ISA
Once a firm is determined to be a violator, the original version of ISA required the imposition of
two of a menu of six sanctions on that firm. CISADA added three new possible sanctions and
required the imposition of at least three out of the nine against violators. H.R. 1905 amends ISA
by adding three available sanctions and requiring imposition on 5 out of the 12 available
sanctions. Executive Order 13590, and the July 30, 2012, Executive Order, discussed above,
provide for exactly the same penalties as those in ISA. The 12 available sanctions against the
sanctioned entity, from which the Secretary of State or the Treasury can select at least 5 (§6),
include:
1. denial of Export-Import Bank loans, credits, or credit guarantees for U.S. exports
to the sanctioned entity (original ISA);
2. denial of licenses for the U.S. export of military or militarily useful technology to
the entity (original ISA);
3. denial of U.S. bank loans exceeding $10 million in one year to the entity (original
ISA);
4. if the entity is a financial institution, a prohibition on its service as a primary
dealer in U.S. government bonds; and/or a prohibition on its serving as a
repository for U.S. government funds (each counts as one sanction) (original
ISA);
8 Other ISA amendments under that law included recommending against U.S. nuclear agreements with countries that
supply nuclear technology to Iran and expanding provisions of the USA Patriot Act (P.L. 107-56) to curb money-
laundering for use to further WMD programs.
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5. prohibition on U.S. government procurement from the entity (original ISA);
6. prohibitions in transactions in foreign exchange by the entity (added by
CISADA);
7. prohibition on any credit or payments between the entity and any U.S. financial
institution (added by CISADA);
8. prohibition of the sanctioned entity from acquiring, holding, using, or trading any
U.S.-based property which the sanctioned entity has a (financial) interest in
(added by CISADA);
9. restriction on imports from the sanctioned entity, in accordance with the
International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA, 50 U.S.C. 1701)
(original ISA);
10. a ban on a U.S. person from investing in or purchasing significant amounts of
equity or debt instruments of a sanctioned person (added by Iran Threat
Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act, P.L. 112-158);
11. exclusion from the United States of corporate officers or controlling shareholders
of a sanctioned firm (added by P.L. 112-158).
12. imposition of any of the ISA sanctions on principal offices of a sanctioned firm
(added by P.L. 112-158).
Mandatory ISA Sanction Imposed by CISADA: Prohibition on Contracts
With the U.S. Government
There is a mandatory sanction under ISA, in addition to the “five out of twelve” menu above.
CISADA (§102(b)) added a requirement in ISA that companies, as a condition of obtaining a U.S.
government contract, certify to the relevant U.S. government agency, that the firm—and any
companies it owns or controls—are not violating ISA.
A provision added by P.L. 112-158 (Section 311) also requires a certification that the contractor is
not knowingly engaging in a significant transaction with Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard
Corps (IRGC), or any of its agents or affiliates that have been sanctioned under several Executive
Orders discussed below. A contract may be terminated—and further penalties imposed—if it is
determined that the company’s certification of compliance was false. CISADA and P.L. 112-158
required revisions of the Federal Acquisition Regulation to reflect these requirements. The
CISADA requirement was imposed in regulations, as per an interim rule issued on September 29,
2010, and presumably the same procedure will be followed for the P.L. 112-158 amendments.
Waivers, Exemptions, and Termination Authority
The President had the authority under the original version of ISA to waive sanctions if he certifies
that doing so is important to the U.S. national interest (§9(c)). CISADA (§102(c)) changed the
9(c) ISA waiver standard to “necessary” to the national interest. H.R. 1905 modifies the standard
somewhat to “essential to the national security interests” of the United States. For sanctionable
transactions involving WMD equipment, the waiver standard, as modified by P.L. 112-158, is
“‘vital’ to the national security interests.”
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Under the original version of ISA, there was also waiver authority (§4(c)) if the parent country of
the violating firm joined a sanctions regime against Iran, but this waiver provision was changed
by the Iran Freedom Support Act (P.L. 109-293) to allow for a waiver determination based on
U.S. vital national security interests. The Section 4(c) waiver was altered by CISADA to provide
for a six month (extendable) waiver if doing so is vital to the national interest and if the parent
country of the violating entity is “closely cooperating” with U.S. efforts against Iran’s WMD and
advanced conventional weapons program. The criteria of “closely cooperating” are defined in the
conference report, with primary focus on implementing all U.N. sanctions against Iran. It could
be argued that using a Section 4 waiver, rather than a Section 9 waiver, would support U.S.
diplomacy with the parent country of the offending entity.
ISA (§5(f)) also contains several exceptions such that the President is not required to impose
sanctions that prevent procurement of defense articles and services under existing contracts, in
cases where a firm is the sole source supplier of a particular defense article or service. The
President also is not required to prevent procurement or importation of essential spare parts or
component parts.
In the 110th Congress, H.R. 1400, which passed the House on September 25, 2007 (397-16),
would have removed the Administration’s ability to waive ISA sanctions under Section 9(c).
“Special Rule” Exempting Firms That End Their Business With Iran
ISA, under a provision added by CISADA (§102(g)(5)), provides a means—a so-called “special
rule”—for firms to avoid any possibility of U.S. sanctions by pledging to verifiably end their
business with Iran and to forgo any sanctionable business with Iran in the future. Under the
special rule, the Administration is not required to make a determination of sanctionability against
a firm that makes such pledges. The special rule has been invoked on several occasions, as
discussed below.
Termination Requirements
In its entirety, ISA application to Iran would terminate if the Administration determines that Iran
has ceased its efforts to acquire WMD; is removed from the U.S. list of state sponsors of
terrorism; and no longer “poses a significant threat” to U.S. national security and U.S. allies.9 The
amendments to ISA made by CISADA (sanctions for selling gasoline and related equipment)
would terminate if the first two criteria are met.
Sunset Provisions
Without such determinations, ISA was to sunset on August 5, 2001, in a climate of lessening
tensions with Iran (and Libya) during the presidency in Iran of moderate Mohammad Khatemi.
However, some maintained that Iran would view its expiration as a concession, and renewal
legislation was enacted (P.L. 107-24, August 3, 2001). This law required an Administration report
on ISA’s effectiveness within 24 to 30 months of enactment; that report was submitted to
9 This latter termination requirement added by P.L. 109-293. This law also removed Libya from the act, although
application to Libya effectively terminated when the President determined on April 23, 2004, that Libya had fulfilled
the requirements of all U.N. resolutions on Pan Am 103.
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Congress in January 2004 and did not recommend that ISA be repealed. The ISA sunset was
subsequently extended to December 31, 2011 (by P.L. 109-293). The current sunset— December
31, 2016—was established by CISADA.
Interpretations and Implementation of ISA and Related Laws
The sections below analyze how ISA, as amended by the related laws, have been interpreted and
implemented through real-world cases and examples.
Application to Crude Oil or Natural Gas Purchases from Iran
Prior to the issuing of Executive Order 13622 and the enactment of P.L. 112-158, purchases of oil
or natural gas from Iran were not considered violations of ISA. As noted above, the Executive
Order and that law essentially render purchasing Iranian oil sanctionable —if the parent country
of the energy buyer or shipper has not received a sanctions exemption under P.L. 112-81, which is
discussed below. New customers for Iranian oil are automatically sanctionable under the Order
and under P.L. 112-81 because it is not possible for any new purchaser to receive an exemption
under P.L. 112-81—only existing customers are eligible for such exemption.
Application to Sales to Iran of Energy-Related Equipment
The original version of ISA did not sanction sales to Iran of equipment that Iran could use to
explore or extract its own oil or gas resources, unless such sales were structured to provide
ongoing profits or royalties (and therefore meet the definition of investments as provided in
ISA).10 For example, selling Iran an oil or gas drill rig or motors or other gear that Iran will use to
drill for oil or gas were not sanctionable under ISA, unless the sale is structured to provide the
seller ongoing profits or royalties. However, this exception was essentially voided by Executive
Order 13590 (November 21, 2011) and by P.L. 112-158, which consider such sales sanctionable.
Application to Financing but Not Official Credit Guarantee Agencies
The definitions of investment and other provisions of ISA make clear that financing for
investment in Iran’s energy sector, or for sales of gasoline and refinery-related equipment and
services, constitute sanctionable activity. Therefore, banks and other financial institutions that
assist energy investment and refining and gasoline procurement activities could be sanctioned
under ISA.
However, these definitions—including those in Executive Order 13622 and in P.L. 112-158—are
not interpreted to apply to official credit guarantee agencies—such as France’s COFACE and
Germany’s Hermes. These credit guarantee agencies are arms of their parent governments, and
ISA does not provide for sanctioning governments or their agencies.
In the 110th Congress, several bills—including S. 970, S. 3227, S. 3445, H.R. 957 (passed the
House on July 31, 2007), and H.R. 7112 (which passed the House on September 26, 2008)—
10 Prior to CISADA, the definition of investment in ISA specifically exempted sales of equipment or services under that
definition. CISADA omitted that exclusion.
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would have made such export credit guarantee agencies sanctionable, as well as financial
institutions and insurers generally. Early versions of CISADA would have made these entities
sanctionable but this was not included in the final law out of concern for alienating U.S. allies.
Application to Energy Pipelines
ISA’s definition of sanctionable “investment” has been consistently interpreted by successive
administrations to include construction of energy pipelines to or through Iran. Such pipelines are
deemed to help Iran develop its petroleum (oil and natural gas) sector. This interpretation was
reinforced by amendments to ISA in CISADA, which specifically included in the definition of
petroleum resources “products used to construct or maintain pipelines used to transport oil or
liquefied natural gas.” In discussing a potential Iran-Pakistan gas pipeline in March 2012,
Secretary of State Clinton made clear that the Obama Administration interprets the provision to
be applicable from the beginning of pipeline construction, and not from the start of oil or gas flow
through a finished project.11
Only a few significant pipelines involving Iran have been constructed. These pipelines serve as
the main vehicle through which Iran exports natural gas, in part because U.S. sanctions have
made it difficult for Iran to develop a liquefied natural gas (LNG) export capability. One pipeline,
built in 1997, carries natural gas from Iran to Turkey. Each country constructed the pipeline on its
side of their border. At the time the project was under construction, State Department testimony
stated that Turkey would be importing gas originating in Turkmenistan, not Iran, under a swap
arrangement. That was one reason given for why the State Department did not determine that the
project was sanctionable under ISA. However, many believe the decision not to sanction the
pipeline was because the line was viewed as crucial to the energy security of Turkey, a key U.S.
ally. Even though direct Iranian gas exports to Turkey through the line began in 2001, no
determination of sanctionability has been made.
In May 2009, Iran and Armenia inaugurated a natural gas pipeline between the two, built by
Gazprom of Russia. Armenia is Iran’s other main gas customer, aside from Turkey. No
determination of sanctionability has been announced.
The Clinton and Bush Administrations used the threat of ISA sanctions to deter oil routes
involving Iran and thereby successfully promoted an alternate route from Azerbaijan (Baku) to
Turkey (Ceyhan). The route became operational in 2005.
Application to Iranian Energy Institutions/NIOC and NITC
Many in the Administration and Congress have sought to sanction Iran’s key oil production and
export institutions. As noted above, provisions of P.L. 112-158 and Executive Order 13622
explicitly sanction foreign dealings with the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), which is
supervised by the Oil Ministry, the National Iranian Tanker Company (NITC) and a previously
sanctioned firm, Naftiran Intertrade Company (NICO), which is a subsidiary of NIOC.
Section 312 of P.L. 112-158 requires an Administration determination, within 45 days of
enactment (by September 24, 2012) whether NIOC and NITC are IRGC agents or affiliates. If so,
11 http://dawn.com/2012/03/01/tough-us-warning-on-iran-gas-pipeline/.
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financial transactions with those organizations would be sanctionable under CISADA (prohibition
on opening U.S.-based accounts). And, under Section 302 of P.L. 112-158, any person who
engages in a significant transaction with NIOC and NITC is subject to the imposition of five of
the twelve ISA sanctions. On September 24, 2012, the Department of the Treasury informed
Congress that it had determined that NIOC and NITC are agents or affiliates of the IRGC,
triggering the specified sanctions. And, as noted below, on November 8, 2012, the Treasury Dept.
named NIOC as a proliferation entity under Executive Order 13382 – that designation triggers
sanctions, under Section 104 of CISADA, on any foreign bank that deals directly with NIOC,
including with a NIOC bank account in a foreign country.
Some of the other major components of NIOC—although not explicitly sanctioned—are:
• The Iranian Offshore Oil Company;
• The National Iranian Gas Export Co.;
• Petroleum Engineering and Development Co.
Application to the Revolutionary Guard
Much of the work on Iran’s oil and gas fields is done through a series of contractors. Some of
them, such as Khatam ol-Anbia and Oriental Kish, have been identified by the U.S. government
as controlled by the IRGC and have been sanctioned under various Executive Orders, discussed
below. The August 2011 confirmation of Khatam ol-Anbia’s chief, Rostam Ghasemi, as oil
minister, has caused the U.S. government and many experts to assess that the IRGC role in Iran’s
energy sector is growing. As a consequence of his position in Iran, Ghasemi also serves during
2012 as chair of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) because it is Iran’s
turn to hold that rotating post. Ghasemi has been subjected to asset freezes by the United States
and an asset freeze and travel ban by the European Union. However, under an agreement between
OPEC and Austria, Ghasemi is allowed to travel to Vienna (OPEC’s headquarters) to attend
OPEC meetings and perform his duties as rotating head of the organization.
P.L. 112-158 (Section 311) amends ISA to mandate a ban on government contracts for companies
that fail to certify that they are not transacting business with the IRGC any of its sanctioned
affiliates, as noted above. Another section of P.L. 112-158 (Section 302) applies ISA sanctions to
the IRGC, although it does not actually amend ISA itself. The section requires application of 5 out
of 12 ISA sanctions to persons that materially assist, with financing or technology, the IRGC, or
assist or engage in “significant” transactions with any of its affiliates that are sanctioned under
Executive Order 13382, 13224, or similar Executive Orders discussed below—or which are
determined to be affiliates of the IRGC.
These provisions are intended, in part, to deter foreign firms from partnering with any of the
IRGC companies involved in Iran’s energy sector. However, some Iranian firms that work in
Iran’s energy sector have not been sanctioned under any U.S. Executive Order and their relations
with the IRGC are unclear, meaning that Section 302 of P.L. 112-158 might not trigger any
sanctions against these firms. These firms include Pasargad Oil Co, Zagros Petrochem. Co, Sazeh
Consultants, Qeshm Energy, and Sadid Industrial Group.
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Non-ISA-Related Provisions of P.L. 112-158 Specific to the IRGC
Separate provisions of P.L. 112-158, not related to ISA, impose sanctions on persons and firms
that support the IRGC. Section 301 requires the President, within 90 days of enactment (by
November 9, 2012), to identify “officials, agents, or affiliates” of the IRGC and to impose
sanctions in accordance with Executive Order 13382 or 13224 (which are discussed later in this
paper), including blocking any such designee’s U.S.-based assets or property. Some of these
designations, including of NIOC, were made by Treasury Dept. on November 8, 2012.
Section 303 requires the imposition of sanctions on agencies of foreign governments that provide
technical or financial support, or goods and services to sanctioned (under U.S. executive orders or
U.N. resolutions) members or affiliates of the IRGC. Sanctions include a ban on U.S. assistance
or credits for that foreign government agency, a ban on defense sales to it, a ban on U.S. arms
sales to it, and a ban on exports to it of controlled U.S. technology.
Application to Liquefied Natural Gas
The original version of ISA did not apply to the development of liquefied natural gas. Iran has no
LNG export terminals, in part because the technology for such terminals is patented by U.S. firms
and unavailable for sale to Iran. However, as noted below, CISADA specifically includes LNG in
the definition of petroleum resources and therefore makes investment in LNG (or supply of LNG
tankers or pipelines) sanctionable.
Sanctions Imposed Under ISA
The Obama Administration has used ISA authorities to discourage companies from continuing
their business with Iran. This is a contrast from the first 14 years after ISA’s passage, in which
successive Administrations hesitated to confront companies of partner countries. Despite
investments made in Iran’s energy sector, as shown in Table 4, the Administration made no
violations determinations from 1998 until September 2010.
The European Union opposed ISA as an extraterritorial application of U.S. law. In April 1997, the
United States and the EU agreed to avoid a trade confrontation over ISA and a separate Cuba
sanctions law (P.L. 104-114). The agreement involved the promise by the EU not to file any
complaint with the World Trade Organization (WTO) over this issue, in exchange for the eventual
May 18, 1998, announcement by the Clinton Administration to waive ISA sanctions (“national
interest”—§9c—waiver) on the first project determined to be in violation. That project was a $2
billion12 contract, signed in September 1997, for Total SA of France and its partners, Gazprom of
Russia and Petronas of Malaysia, to develop phases 2 and 3 of the 25+ phase South Pars gas field.
The EU, for its part, pledged to increase cooperation with the United States on nonproliferation
and counterterrorism. Then-Secretary of State Albright, in the May 18, 1998, waiver
announcement, indicated that similar future such projects by EU firms in Iran would not be
sanctioned, provided overall EU cooperation against Iranian terrorism and proliferation
continued.13
12 Dollar figures for investments in Iran represent public estimates of the amounts investing firms are expected to spend
over the life of a project, which might in some cases be several decades.
13 Text of announcement of waiver decision by then Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, containing expectation of
(continued...)
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However, the EU sanctions against Iran imposed since 2010 have largely rendered this
understanding, and this past dispute, moot. The EU countries, as discussed below, have begun to
adopt sanctions against Iran nearly as strict as the U.S. sanctions in place against Iran.
ISA Sanctions Determinations and Exemptions14
Prior to the passage of CISADA, several Members of Congress questioned why no penalties had
been imposed for violations of ISA. State Department reports to Congress on ISA, required every
six months, did not specifically state which foreign companies, if any, were being investigated for
ISA violations. No publication of such deals has been placed in the Federal Register, as required
by Section 5e of ISA. In an effort to address the congressional criticism, Under Secretary of State
for Political Affairs William Burns testified on July 9, 2008 (House Foreign Affairs Committee),
that the Statoil project (listed in Table 4) was under review for ISA sanctions. Statoil is
incorporated in Norway, which is not an EU member, and did not fall under the 1998 U.S.-EU
agreement discussed above.
Possibly in response to an October 2009 letter signed by 50 Members of Congress referencing
Table 4, then Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs Jeffrey Feltman testified before
the House Foreign Affairs Committee on October 28, 2009, that the Obama Administration would
complete a preliminary review of investments in Iran for violations of ISA by December 11,
2009. He testified that some announced projects did not result in actual investment. On February
25, 2010, Secretary of State Clinton testified before the House Foreign Affairs Committee that the
State Department’s preliminary review was completed and that some of the cases reviewed
“deserve[] more consideration” and were undergoing additional scrutiny. The preliminary review
was conducted, in large part, through State Department officials’ contacts with their counterpart
officials abroad and corporation officials, but the additional investigations of problematic
investments would involve the intelligence community, according to Secretary Clinton. State
Department officials told CRS in November 2009 that they intended to complete the additional
investigation and determine violations within 180 days of the completion of the preliminary
review, or by early August 2010. (The 180-day time frame was, according to the department
officials, consistent with the Iran Freedom Support Act amendments to ISA discussed above, even
though the 180-day time frame was not mandatory before CISADA.) On June 22, 2010, then
Assistant Secretary of State William Burns testified before the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee that there were “less than 10” cases of possible ISA violations.
September 30, 2010, Sanctions Determinations15
Several determinations of sanctionability were made on September 30, 2010:
• A Swiss-based Iranian-owned oil trading company—Naftiran Intertrade
Company (NICO)—became the first firm to be sanctioned under ISA. The three
penalties selected were: a ban on Ex-Im Bank credits; a denial of dual use export
(...continued)
similar waivers in the future, at http://www.parstimes.com/law/albright_southpars.html.
14 Much of this section is derived from a meeting between the CRS author and officials of the State Department’s
Economics Bureau, which is tasked with the referenced review of investment projects. November 24, 2009.
15 State Department statement. September 30, 2010.
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licensing to the firm; and a denial of bank loans exceeding $10 million. The
mandatory ban on receiving U.S. government contracts applies as well.
Exemptions Issued: That same day, following a months-long Administration review discussed
later, four major energy sector investing companies were deemed eligible to avoid sanctions,
under the ISA “special rule,” by pledging to end their business in Iran. They are
• Total of France,
• Statoil of Norway,
• ENI of Italy, and
• Royal Dutch Shell of Britain and the Netherlands.
There remained some difference of opinion on the Administration invocation of the special rule,
as evident at a hearing of the House Foreign Affairs Committee on December 1, 2010. At the
hearing, then Under Secretary Burns stated that companies exempted under the special rule had
pledged to end their existing investments in Iran “in the very near future.” Some Members of
Congress questioned the imprecision of that time frame formulation, asserting that some firms
would be working in Iran for several more years under their pledges. The energy firms insisted
they needed time to wind down their investments in Iran—under the buy-back program used for
investments in Iran, the energy firms are paid back their investment over time, making it highly
costly for them to suddenly end operations in Iran.
November 17, 2010, Special Rule Application
• Inpex of Japan was exempted from sanctions under the special rule on November
17, 2010, according to a State Department announcement. The firm announced
on October 15, 2010, that it is shedding its stake in the Azadegan development
project shown in the table.
March 29, 2011, Sanctions Determination Against Belarusneft
Several foreign investment agreements with Iran were not covered in the September 2010
determination but remained under Administration scrutiny. The Administration stated that
determinations will be made within 180 days (by April 1, 2011).
• On March 29, 2011, with that deadline approaching, the State Department
announced that one additional firm would be sanctioned under ISA—Belarusneft,
a subsidiary of the Belarus government owned Belneftekhim—for a $500 million
contract with Naftiran (the company sanctioned in September 2010) to develop
the Jofeir oil field discussed in Table 4. The three sanctions imposed were denial
of Ex-Im Bank financing, denial of U.S. export licenses, and denial of U.S. loans
above $10 million. Other subsidiaries of Belneftekhim were sanctioned in 2007
under Executive Order 13405 related to U.S. policy on Belarus.
The Administration announcement did not indicate that some of the other investments in Table 4
or other investments, for which no ISA determinations have been made to date, are still under
investigation.
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May 24, 2011: ISA Sanctions Imposed on Gasoline-Related Shippers
On May 24, 2011, the Administration issued its first sanctions determinations under the CISADA-
amended “trigger” that requires sanctions against sales of gasoline and related equipment and
services.16 The seven firms sanctioned were:
• Petrochemical Commercial Company International (PCCI) of Bailiwick of
Jersey and Iran
• Royal Oyster Group (UAE)
• Tanker Pacific (Singapore)
• Allvale Maritime (subsidiary of Ofer Brothers Group, Israel)
• Societie Anonyme Monegasque Et Aerienne (SAMAMA, Monaco)
• Speedy Ship (UAE/Iran)
• Associated Shipbroking (Monaco)
• Petroleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) of Venezuela
The determinations of sanctionability of Allvale and SAMAMA were issued on September 13,
2011, as a “clarification” of the May 24 determinations, which named Ofer Brothers Group (and
not Allvale or SAMAMA) as sanctioned entities at that time. Those two entities, as well as
Tanker Pacific are, according to an author conversation with an attorney for the Ofer Brothers
Group, affiliated with a Europe-based trust linked to deceased Ofer brother Sami Ofer, and not
Ofer Brothers Group based in Israel. Ofer Brothers Group, based in Israel, is not therefore under
sanction. The firms named were subjected primarily to the financial-related sanctions provided in
ISA. With respect to PDVSA, the Administration made clear in its announcement that U.S.-based
subsidiaries (such as Citgo) were not included in the determination and that U.S. purchases of
Venezuelan oil would not be affected.
The day prior to the May 2011 sanctions announcement, President Obama issued an Executive
Order clarifying that it is the responsibility of the Treasury Department to implement those ISA
sanctions that involve the financial sector, including bans on loans, credits, and foreign exchange
for, or imports from the sanctioned entity, as well as blockage of property of the sanctioned entity
(if these sanctions are selected by the Secretary of State, who makes the decision which penalties
to impose on sanctioned entities).
January 12, 2012, Determinations on Gasoline Sellers
On January 12, 2012, the Administration determined that three firms had sold more than the
threshold amounts of gasoline to Iran and imposed sanctions (ban on U.S. export licenses for
sales to the firms; a ban on Export Import Bank financing for them; and denial of loans of over
$10 million to them). The three firms are
• Zhuhai Zhenrong Company (China), for brokering sales of $500 million worth of
gasoline to Iran between July 2010 and January 2011.
16 The reasons for the sanctions, including size of gasoline shipments to Iran, as well as the ISA-related sanctions
selected, can be found at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2011/05/164132.htm
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• Kuo Oil Pte. Ltd. (Singapore), an energy trading firm that sold $25 million worth
of gasoline to Iran between late 2010 and early 2011.
• FAL Oil Company Ltd. (UAE), an independent energy trader that sold Iran over
$70 million worth of gasoline in late 2010.
August 10, 2012, Determination on Syrian Energy Firm
On August 10, 2012, the State Department sanctioned:
• Sytrol, a Syrian government-run oil company, for selling Iran over $36 million
worth of oil in April 2012.
Sanctioning Oil Payments to Iran’s Central Bank: Section 1245 of
FY2012 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 112-81)
In late 2011, some in Congress believed that action was needed to cut off the mechanisms oil
importers use to pay Iran hard currency for oil. Proposals to cut Iran’s Central Bank from the
international financial system were based on that objective, as well as the view that the Central
Bank helps other Iranian banks circumvent the U.S. and U.N. banking pressure. Some argued the
Treasury Department should designate the Central Bank as a proliferation entity under Executive
Order 13382 or a terrorism supporting entity under Executive Order 13224, but the
Administration did not do so.
In November 2011, provisions to sanction foreign banks that deal with Iran’s Central Bank were
incorporated a FY2012 national defense authorization bill (H.R. 1540). The provision was
modified slightly in conference action on the latter bill, enacted and signed on December 31, 2011
(P.L. 112-81). Section 1245 of P.L. 112-81, provides for the following:
• Requires the President to prevent a foreign bank from opening an account in the
United States—or impose strict limitations on existing U.S. accounts—if that
bank processes payments through Iran’s Central Bank.
• The provision applies to non-oil related transactions with the Central Bank of
Iran 60 days after enactment (by February 29, 2012).
• The provision applies to a foreign central bank only if the transaction with Iran’s
Central Bank is for oil purchases.
• Provides for a renewable waiver of 120 days duration if the President determines
that doing so is in the national security interest.
• The provision applied to transactions with the Central Bank for oil purchases
only after 180 days (as of June 28, 2012).
• Sanctions on transactions for oil apply only if the President certifies to
Congress—90 days after enactment (by March 30, 2012), based on a report by
the Energy Information Administration to be completed 60 days after enactment
(by February 29, 2012)—that the oil market is adequately supplied. The EIA
report and Administration certification are required every 90 days thereafter.
• Foreign banks can be granted an exemption from sanctions (for any transactions
with the Central Bank, not just for oil) if the President certifies that the parent
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country of the bank has significantly reduced its purchases of oil from Iran. That
determination is to be reviewed every 180 days. For countries whose banks
receive an exemption, the 180 day time frame begins from the time that parent
country last received an exemption.
The Administration had initially opposed the provision. In testimony, Under Secretary David
Cohen told the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on December 2, 2011, that the provision
could lead to a rise in oil prices that would benefit Iran. Yet, the Administration later saw value in
using the provision to pressure Iran. In the signing statement on the overall bill, President Obama
indicated he would implement the provision so as not to damage U.S. relations with partner
countries.
Implementation/Exemptions Issued
On February 27, 2012, the Department of the Treasury announced regulations to implement this
law. The first required EIA report was issued on February 29, 2012, saying “EIA estimates that
the world oil market has become increasingly tight over the first two months of this year.” On
March 30, 2012, President Obama determined that there is a sufficient supply of oil from
countries other than Iran to permit countries to reduce their oil purchases from Iran. A subsequent
EIA report of April 27, 2012, and Administration determination of June 11, 2012, made similar
findings and certifications, triggering potential sanctions on banks incorporated in countries not
deemed exempt as of June 28, 2012.
Implementation of the provision was complicated by the absence in the legislation of a definition
of “significant reduction” in oil purchases that would qualify a country for this exemption.
However, the lack of definition gave the Administration substantial flexibility in dealing with
foreign governments. On January 19, 2012, the Senators who drafted the provision wrote to
Treasury Secretary Geithner agreeing with outside experts that the Treasury Department should
define “significant reduction” as an 18% purchase reduction based on total price paid (not just
volumes).17 Administration officials say they have adopted that general standard when
considering exemptions.
The EU embargo on purchases of Iranian oil, announced January 23, 2012, and which took full
effect by July 1, 2012, implied that virtually all EU countries would obtain exemptions for having
“significantly reduced” oil buys from Iran. As noted in the section and table below, several
countries have reduced purchases from Iran and a total of 20 countries have been granted
exemptions from the Section 1245 sanctions for at least a 180-day period (from the time of their
exemption). Countries must continue to reduce their oil buys from Iran—relative to the previous
180-day period—to retain the exemption. And, as discussed above, retaining the exemption has
become crucial to continuing oil-related commerce with Iran, because Executive Order 13622 and
P.L. 112-158 sanctions oil dealings with Iran unless a parent country has an current exemption.
P.L. 112-158 also amended Section 1245 such that any country that has received an exemption
would retain that exemption if it completely ceases purchasing oil from Iran.
17 Text of letter from Senators Mark Kirk and Robert Menendez to Secretary Geithner. January 19, 2012.
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Exemptions Issued18
• On March 20, 2012, the Secretary of State announced the first group of 11
countries that had achieved an exemption for significantly reducing oil purchases
from Iran: Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan,
the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, and Britain. On September 14, 2012, these
exemptions were all renewed for another 180 days.19
• On June 11, 2012, the Administration granted seven more exemptions based on
reductions of oil purchases from Iran of about 20% in each case: India, Korea,
Turkey, Malaysia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and Taiwan. All seven exemptions
were renewed on December 7, 2012, for another 180 days.
• On June 28, 2012, the Administration granted exemptions to China and
Singapore, two remaining major Iran oil customers, with China the single largest
buyer (about 550,000 barrels per day in 2011). Both exemptions were renewed
on December 7, 2012.
The table later in this paper on major Iranian oil customers indicates cuts made by major
customers compared to 2011 levels.
Seventeen EU countries have not been granted exemptions. Some of them were not customers for
Iran’s oil and cannot therefore “significantly reduce” their buys from Iran any further. Therefore,
banks of these countries could potentially be sanctioned for any transactions with Iran’s Central
Bank. Some of these countries say that the sanctions provision amounts to a de facto U.S. effort
to enforce a total ban on EU trade with Iran.
Other early opposition from EU and other countries to the concept of sanctioning Iran’s Central
Bank was based on humanitarian grounds. One of the Central Bank’s roles is to keep Iran’s
currency, the rial, stable. It does so by using hard currency to buy rials to raise the currency value,
or to sell rials to bring the value down. An unstable currency could harm Iran’s ability to import
some needed foodstuffs and medical products, according to those opposing that sanction.
P.L. 112-158 Impedes Repatriation of Hard Currency to Iran
The ability of Iran to acquire hard currency is further impeded by a provision of the Iran Threat
Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (P.L. 112-158). Section 504 amends P.L. 112-81 to
require that any funds owed to Iran as a result of permitted or exempted transactions (for oil sales,
for example) be credited to an account located in the country with primary jurisdiction over the
foreign bank making the transaction. This has the net effect of preventing Iran from bringing
earned hard currency back to Iran, and will likely cause Iran to buy the products of the country
where the funds are acquired. Under that section, this sanction goes into effect 180 days after
enactment (February 6, 2013).
18 Announcements by the Department of State. March 20, 2012, June 11, 2012, and June 28, 2012.
19 “Statement on Iran” by Secretary of State Clinton. September 14, 2012.
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Ban on U.S. Trade and Investment With Iran
A comprehensive ban on U.S. trade with and investment in Iran was imposed on May 6, 1995, by
President Clinton, through Executive Order 12959, under the authority primarily of the
International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA, 50 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.).20 IEEPA gives
the President wide powers to regulate commerce with a foreign country when a state of
emergency is declared in relations with that country. Executive Order 12959 followed an earlier
March 1995 executive order barring U.S. investment in Iran’s energy sector, which was imposed
when President Clinton that month declared that a state of emergency exists with respect to Iran.
A subsequent Executive Order, 13059 (August 19, 1997) prevented U.S. companies from
knowingly exporting goods to a third country for incorporation into products destined for Iran.
The trade ban was intended to blunt criticism that U.S. trade with Iran made U.S. appeals for
multilateral containment of Iran less credible.
Each March since 1995, the U.S. Administration has renewed a declaration of a state of
emergency that triggers the President’s trade regulation authority under IEEPA. The operation of
the trade regulations is stipulated in Section 560 of the Code of Federal Regulations (Iranian
Transactions Regulations, ITR’s).
Some relaxations to the trade ban during 1999-2010 account for the fact that there is some trade
between the United States and Iran, although it is minimal. During the first eight months of 2012,
U.S. exporters sold about $200 million in goods to Iran, mostly grain sales. That is up nearly a
third from levels of the same period in 2011. CISADA, signed in July 2012, restored the strict ban
on imports from Iran as of September 29, 2010; the ban on exports to Iran was altered only
slightly by CISADA. CISADA’s codification and restoration of the full import ban largely
accounts for the fact that imports from Iran are negligible, primarily licensing of imports such as
artwork for exhibits.
Major Provisions of the Trade and Investment Ban: What is
Allowed or Prohibited
The following conditions and modifications, as administered by the Office of Foreign Assets
Control (OFAC) of the Treasury Department, apply to the operation of the trade ban (“Iran
Transaction Regulations,” ITRs):
• Civilian Airline Parts. Goods related to the safe operation of civilian aircraft may
be licensed for export to Iran (§560.528 of Title 31, C.F.R.). In 2006, the George
W. Bush Administration, in the interests of safe operations of civilian aircraft,
permitted a sale by General Electric of Airbus engine spare parts to be installed
on several Iran Air passenger aircraft (by European airline contractors). An
Obama Administration intent to sell Iran data to repair certain GE engines for its
legacy American-made aircraft, in order to ensure safe operation, was notified to
Congress on March 16, 2011. On June 23, 2011, the Administration sanctioned
20 The executive order was issued not only under the authority of IEEPA but also: the National Emergencies Act (50
U.S.C. 1601 et seq.; §505 of the International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (22 U.S.C. 2349aa-
9) and §301 of Title 3, United States Code.
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Iran Air as a proliferation entity under Executive Order 13382, rendering any
future licensing of parts or repairs for Iran Air unclear.
• Oil Dealings. The 1995 trade ban greatly expanded a 1987 ban on imports from
Iran under Executive Order 12613 (October 29, 1987). That 1987 ban was
imposed under authorities provided in Section 505 of the International Security
and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (22 U.S.C. 2349aa-9). The import ban
barred U.S. oil companies from importing Iranian oil but did not ban them from
buying Iranian oil and trading it overseas. The 1995 ban prohibits such trading of
Iranian oil overseas. The 1995 trade ban does allow U.S. companies to apply for
licenses to conduct “swaps” of Caspian Sea oil with Iran. However, these swaps
have been prohibited in practice; a Mobil Corporation application to do so was
denied in April 1999, and no known applications were submitted subsequent to
that first attempt.
• Personal Communications and Remittances. The ban does not apply to personal
communications (phone calls, e-mails), or to personal remittances. In February
2012, OFAC clarified guidance for personal remittances to relatives in Iran.
According to that guidance, U.S. banks can process remittances to family
members resident in Iran as long as the remittance is routed through a third
country bank and the receiving Iranian bank has not been sanctioned by the
United States.
• Food and Medical Exports. Since April 1999, commercial sales of food and
medical products to Iran have been allowed, on a case-by-case basis and subject
to OFAC licensing. On October 22, 2012, OFAC attempted to facilitate medical
sales by issuing a list of medical products, suc as scapels, prosethetics, canes,
burn dressings, and other products that could be sold to Iran under “general
license” – no advanced permission required. OFAC regulations have a specific
definition of “food” that can be sold to Iran on a licensing basis, and that list
definition does not include alcohol, cigarettes, gum, or fertilizer.21 According to
OFAC, licenses for exports of medicines to treat HIV and leukemia are routinely
expedited for sale to Iran, and license applications are viewed favorably for
business school exchanges, earthquake safety seminars, plant and animal
conservation, and medical training in Iran.
• Export Financing. As far as financing of approved U.S. sales to Iran, private
letters of credit can be used to finance approved transactions. But, no U.S.
government credit guarantees are available and U.S. exporters are not permitted
to deal directly with Iranian banks. The FY2001 agriculture appropriations law
(P.L. 106-387) contained a provision banning the use of official credit guarantees
for food and medical sales to Iran and other countries on the U.S. terrorism list,
except Cuba, although allowing for a presidential waiver to permit such credit
guarantees. No U.S. Administration has authorized credit guarantees, to date. In
December 2004, the trade ban was further modified to allow Americans to freely
engage in ordinary publishing activities with entities in Iran (and Cuba and
Sudan).
21 http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Programs/Documents/gl_food_exports.pdf
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• Import Ban. In April 2000, the trade ban was further eased to allow U.S.
importation of Iranian nuts, fruit products (such as pomegranate juice), carpets,
and caviar. Trade financing was permitted for U.S. importers of these goods. The
United States was the largest market for Iranian carpets before the 1979
revolution, but U.S. anti-dumping tariffs imposed on Iranian products in 1986
dampened imports of many Iranian products. As discussed above, CISADA
ended approval of such imports as of October 1, 2010.
Implementation
OFAC generally declines to discuss export licenses approved, and a press account on December
24, 2010,22 discussed that, at that time, OFAC had approved exports to Iran of such condiments as
ice cream sprinkles, chewing gum, food additives, hot sauces, body-building supplements, and
other goods that appear to have uses other than those that are purely humanitarian or nutritive.
U.S. exporters widely mentioned include Mars Co. (candy manufacturer); Kraft Foods; Wrigley’s
(gum); and McCormick and Co. (spices). Some previously licensed U.S. goods have been sold
through a Revolutionary Guard-owned chain of stores in Iran called Qods; as well as a
government-owned Shahrvand store and a chain called Refah. OFAC officials indicated in the
press accounts that such licenses were not in contradiction with U.S. law or policy, although there
might have been less than full scrutiny of some Iranian end users and that such scrutiny would be
increased in future licensing decisions. However, the 2011 clarification of the Iran trade
regulations, stipulating that cigarettes and gum are not foodstuffs, have likely cut down on
licensing of some of these products.
Non-Application to Refined Oil With Iranian Content
The ban on trade with Iran operates largely on items produced in and originating from Iran itself.
In the case of crude oil, the United States, as noted, cannot import or trade overseas any Iranian
crude oil. Existing regulations do not ban the importation, from foreign refiners, of gasoline or
other energy products in which Iranian oil is contained and mixed with oil from other producers.
The product of a specific refinery is considered a product of the country where that refinery is
located, and not a product of Iran, even if the product has some Iran-origin content. Some experts
say that it is feasible to exclude Iranian content from any refinery, if there were a decision to ban
U.S. imports of products with any Iranian content at all.
Much of the Iranian oil that is mixed and imported into the United States was imported from EU
countries, such as the Netherlands, which has major refineries in Rotterdam, in particular.
However, the EU ban on purchases of Iranian oil has largely mooted this issue, since no EU
refineries are importing any Iranian oil as of July 1, 2012. Only a few other refineries worldwide
both continue to receive Iranian oil and export gasoline to the United States—and U.S. gasoline
imports from those refineries are minor.
22 The information in this bullet is taken from: Becker, Jo. “With U.S. Leave, Companies Skirt Iran Sanctions.” New
York Times, December 24, 2010.
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Application to Humanitarian Donations and Support
Earthquakes and various events in Iran frequently raise questions about how the U.S. trade
regulations on Iran apply to humanitarian relief and donations. According to OFAC guidance,
U.S. non-governmental organizations (NGOs) require a specific license to operate in Iran, but
some of these NGOs say the licensing requirements are too onerous to make work in Iran
practical. For example, there are restrictions on how a U.S. NGO may expend funds in Iran, for
example to hire Iranian nationals.
As far as private donations by U.S. officials, donations to Iranian victims of natural disasters
(such as mailed packages of food, toys, clothes, etc.) are not prohibited. However, financial
donations to relief organizations, because such transfers generally require use of the international
banking system, does require a specific license. Similarly, NGOs that want to perform relief
efforts in Iran require a specific license to do so.
Selected Exceptions
In some cases, such as the earthquake in Bam in 2003 and the earthquake in northwestern Iran in
August 2012, OFAC has issued blanket temporary general licensing for relief organizations to
perform relief efforts in Iran. The latest temporary license that responded to the August 2012
earthquake in Iran was issued on August 21, 2012, for a period of 45 days (until October 5).
Under this temporary general license, an NGO can transfer up to $300,000 for efforts in Iran
under general license (no license application needed). Transferring larger amounts is possible, but
would require specific license. On October 5, 2012, the blanket license was extended until
November 19, 2012. In the Bam case, the blanket licensing was extended several times but
expired in March 2004.
In addition, provisions of CISADA and the Iran trade regulations would allow for licensing of
export on an emergency basis if the President considers such exports in the national interest.
Examples could include equipment to help Iran contain an oil spill or a disaster at its Bushehr
nuclear plant, or to rescue earthquake victims.
Application to Foreign Subsidiaries of U.S. Firms
The U.S. trade ban does not bar subsidiaries of U.S. firms from dealing with Iran, as long as the
subsidiary has no operational relationship to—or control by—the parent company. For legal and
policy purposes, foreign subsidiaries are considered foreign persons, not U.S. persons, and are
subject to the laws of the country in which the subsidiaries are incorporated. Section 218 of the
Iran Threat Reduction and Syrian Human Rights Act (P.L. 112-158) applies the U.S. trade ban to
foreign subsidiaries if (1) the subsidiary is more than 50% owned by the U.S. parent; (2) the
parent firm holds a majority on the Board of Directors; or (3) the parent firm directs the
operations of the subsidiary. However, many subsidiaries operate entirely autonomously and
might not meet the criteria for sanctionability stipulated in that law.
Among major foreign subsidiaries of U.S. firms that have traded with Iran are the following:
• An Irish subsidiary of the Coca Cola Company provides syrup for the U.S.-brand
soft drink to an Iranian distributor, Khoshgovar. Local versions of both Coke and
of Pepsi (with Iranian-made syrups) are also marketed in Iran by distributors who
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licensed the recipes for those soft drinks before the Islamic revolution and before
the trade ban was imposed on Iran.
• Transammonia Corp., via a Swiss-based subsidiary, is said to be conducting
business with Iran to help it export ammonia, a growth export for Iran.
• Press reports in early October 2011 indicated that subsidiaries of Kansas-based
Koch Industries may have sold equipment to Iran to be used in petrochemical
plants (making methanol) and possibly oil refineries, among other equipment.
However, the reports say the sales ended as of 2007, a time at which foreign firm
sales of refinery equipment to Iran were not clearly sanctionable under ISA.23
Some subsidiaries of U.S. firms that have been active in Iran and which have also received U.S.
government contracts, grants, loans, or loan guarantees, according to a March 7, 2010, New York
Times article.
Energy Related Subsidiaries. Some U.S. energy equipment and energy-related shipping firms
have been in the Iranian market as late as 2010, according to their “10-K” filings with the
Securities and Exchange Commission. These include Natco Group,24 Overseas Shipholding
Group,25 UOP (United Oil Products, a Honeywell subsidiary based in Britain),26 Itron,27 Fluor,28
Parker Drilling, Vantage Energy Services,29 PMFG, Ceradyne, Colfax, Fuel Systems Solutions,
General Maritime Company, Ameron International Corporation, and World Fuel Services Corp.
UOP reportedly sells refinery gear to Iran. However, such energy sector-related sales to Iran,
depending on the dollar value, are now likely sanctionable under ISA as amended by CISADA,
P.L. 112-158, and Executive Order 13622. It is therefore likely that many of these companies will
be exiting the Iranian market, if they have not done so already.
Subsidiaries of U.S. Firms Voluntarily Exiting Iran
As international sanctions against Iran have increased in recent years, many foreign subsidiaries
of U.S. firms had decided that the risks of continuing to do business with Iran outweigh the
benefits and exited the Iran market voluntarily.
• Chemical manufacturer Huntsman announced in January 2010 its subsidiaries
would halt sales to Iran.
• Halliburton. On January 11, 2005, Iran said it had contracted with U.S. company
Halliburton, and an Iranian company, Oriental Kish, to drill for gas in Phases 9
23 Asjylyn Loder and David Evans. “Koch Brothers Flout Law Getting Richer With Iran Sales.” Bloomberg News,
October 3, 2011.
24 Form 10-K Filed for fiscal year ended December 31, 2008.
25 Prada, Paulo, and Betsy McKay. Trading Outcry Intensifies. Wall Street Journal, March 27, 2007; Brush, Michael.
Are You Investing in Terrorism? MSN Money, July 9, 2007.
26 New York Times, March 7, 2010, cited previously.
27 Subsidiaries of the Registrant at December 31, 2009. http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/780571/
000078057110000007/ex_21-1.htm.
28 “Exhibit to 10-K Filed February 25, 2009.” Officials of Fluor claim that their only dealings with Iran involve
property in Iran owned by a Fluor subsidiary, which the subsidiary has been unable to dispose of. CRS conversation
with Fluor, December 2009.
29 Form 10-K for Fiscal year ended December 31, 2007.
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and 10 of South Pars. Halliburton reportedly provided $30 million to $35 million
worth of services per year through Oriental Kish, leaving unclear whether
Halliburton would be considered in violation of the U.S. trade and investment
ban or the Iran Sanctions Act (ISA),30 because the deals involved a subsidiary of
Halliburton (Cayman Islands-registered Halliburton Products and Service, Ltd.,
based in Dubai). On April 10, 2007, Halliburton announced that its subsidiaries
were no longer operating in Iran, as promised in January 2005.
• General Electric (GE). The firm announced in February 2005 that it would seek
no new business in Iran, and it reportedly wound down preexisting contracts by
July 2008. GE was selling Iran equipment and services for hydroelectric, oil and
gas services, and medical diagnostic projects through Italian, Canadian, and
French subsidiaries.
• On March 1, 2010, Caterpillar Corp. said it had altered its policies to prevent
foreign subsidiaries from selling equipment to independent dealers that have been
reselling the equipment to Iran.31 Ingersoll Rand, maker of air compressors and
cooling systems, followed suit.32
• In April 2010, it was reported that foreign partners of several U.S. or other
multinational accounting firms had cut their ties with Iran, including KPMG of
the Netherlands, and local affiliates of U.S. firms PricewaterhouseCoopers and
Ernst and Young.33
• Oilfield services firm Smith International said on March 1, 2010, it would stop
sales to Iran by its subsidiaries. Another oil services firm, Flowserve, said its
subsidiaries have voluntarily ceased new business with Iran as of 2006.34 FMC
Technologies took similar action in 2009, as did Weatherford35 in 2008.
Financial Sanctions: CISADA and Sanctions on
Dealings with Iran’s Central Bank
U.S. efforts to shut Iran out of the international banking system have gained strength as other
countries have joined the effort. These efforts have been implemented by the Treasury
Department through progressively strong actions discussed below, culminating with legislation in
late 2011 to cut off Iran’s Central Bank from the international financial system.
30 “Iran Says Halliburton Won Drilling Contract.” Washington Times, January 11, 2005.
31 “Caterpillar Says Tightens ‘No-Iran’ Business Policy.” Reuters, March 1, 2010.
32 Nixon, Ron. “2 Corporations Say Business With Tehran Will Be Curbed.” New York Times, March 11, 2010.
33 Baker, Peter. “U.S. and Foreign Companies Feeling Pressure to Sever Ties With Iran.” New York Times, April 24,
2010.
34 In September 2011, the Commerce Department fined Flowserve $2.5 million to settle 288 charges of unlicensed
exports and reexports of oil industry equipment to Iran, Syria, and other countries.
35 Form 10-K for Fiscal year ended December 31, 2008, claims firm directed its subsidiaries to cease new business in
Iran and Cuba, Syria, and Sudan as of September 2007.
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Early Efforts: Targeted Financial Measures
On September 6, 2006, the Treasury Department barred U.S. banks from handling any indirect
transactions (“U-turn transactions,” meaning transactions with non-Iranian foreign banks that are
handling transactions on behalf of an Iranian bank) with Iran’s Bank Saderat, which the
Administration accused of providing funds to Hezbollah.36 The Treasury Department extended
that U-Turn restriction to all Iranian banks on November 6, 2008.
During 2006-2010, strengthened by leverage provided in five U.N. Security Council Resolutions,
then Under Secretary of the Treasury Stuart Levey and his aides presented information on Iran’s
efforts to use foreign banks to fund WMD programs and funnel money to terrorist groups. The
program convinced at least 80 foreign banks to cease handling financial transactions with Iranian
banks. Levey left office in April 2011 and was replaced by David Cohen.
The Treasury Department also used punishments to pressure firms to cease doing business with
Iran. In 2004, the Treasury Department fined UBS $100 million for the unauthorized movement
of U.S. dollars to Iran and other sanctioned countries, and in December 2005, the Treasury
Department fined Dutch bank ABN Amro $80 million for failing to fully report the processing of
financial transactions involving Iran’s Bank Melli (and another bank partially owned by Libya).
In the biggest such instance, on December 16, 2009, the Treasury Department announced that
Credit Suisse would pay a $536 million settlement to the United States for illicitly processing
Iranian transactions with U.S. banks. In June 2012, Dutch bank IMG agreed to pay a $619 million
penalty for moving billions of dollars through the U.S. financial system, using falsified records,
on behalf of Iranian and Cuban clients. Standard Chartered agreed in August 2012 to a $340
million settlement with New York State regulators for allegedly processing transactions with Iran
in contravention of U.S. regulations.37
On December 17, 2008, the U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York filed a civil
action seeking to seize the assets of the Assa Company, a UK-chartered entity. Assa allegedly was
maintaining the interests of Bank Melli in an office building in New York City. An Iranian
foundation, the Alavi Foundation, allegedly is an investor in the building. The assets were seized
by U.S. authorities in late 2009.
Banking Provisions of CISADA
The Treasury Department efforts were enhanced substantially by the authorities of Section 104 of
CISADA and U.N. and EU sanctions. The binding provisions of Section 104 of CISADA require
the Secretary of the Treasury to prescribe several sets of regulations to forbid U.S. banks from
opening new “correspondent accounts” or “payable-through accounts”—or force the cancellation
of existing such accounts—with foreign banks that process “significant transactions” with:
• The IRGC or any of its agents or affiliates that are sanctioned under U.S.
executive orders. The two executive orders that have served as the principal
source of U.S. sanctions against Iranian firms and organizations are Executive
Order 13224 (September 23, 2001) and 13382 (June 28, 2005), discussed
36 Kessler, Glenn. “U.S. Moves to Isolate Iranian Banks.” Washington Post, September 9, 2006.
37 Jessica Silver-Greenberg. “Regulator Says Bank Helped Iran Hide Deals” New York Times, August 7, 2012.
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elsewhere in this report. As noted above, NIOC and NITC were determined in
September 2012 to be affiliates of the IRGC, and NIOC was designated as a
proliferation entity under Executive Order 13382 on November 8, 2012.
• Any entity that is sanctioned by U.S. executive orders such as the two mentioned
above. To date, over 125 entities (including individuals), almost all of them Iran-
based or of Iranian origin, have been designated for Iran-related proliferation or
terrorism activities under these orders. A full list is at the end of this report.
• Any entity designated under the various U.N. Security Council resolutions
adopted to impose sanctions on Iran,
• Any entity that assists Iran’s Central Bank in efforts to help the IRGC acquire
weapons of mass destruction or support international terrorism.
Foreign banks that do not have operations in the United States typically establish correspondent
accounts or payable-through accounts with U.S. banks as a means of accessing the U.S. financial
system and financial industry. The provision leaves it to the Treasury Department to determine
what constitutes a “significant” financial transaction. The premise of the provision is that cutting
off Iran’s access to the international financial system harms Iran’s economy primarily by
preventing Iranian traders from obtaining letters of credit to buy or sell goods.
Sanctions Imposed
On July 31, 2012, the Administration announced the first sanctions under this provision of
CISADA. Sanctioned are: the Bank of Kunlun in China and the Elaf Islamic Bank in Iraq.
Section 311 of the Patriot Act
On November 21, 2011, the Administration took further steps to isolate Iran’s banking system and
to dissuade foreign banks and countries from dealing with any Iranian bank. Secretary of the
Treasury Geithner announced that day that the Administration had acted under Section 311 of the
USA Patriot Act (31 U.S.C. 5318A) to identify Iran as a “jurisdiction of primary money
laundering concern”38—that its financial system, including the Central Bank, constitutes a threat
to governments or financial institutions that do business with these banks. Banks that do business
with the Iranian financial system were declared at risk of supporting Iran’s pursuit of nuclear
weapons, its support for terrorism, and its efforts to deceive financial institutions and evade
sanctions. The designation carried no immediate penalty, per se, but it imposes additional
requirements on U.S. banks to ensure against improper Iranian access to the U.S. financial
system. It was also intended to cause foreign banks to cease doing business with Iranian banks.
Executive Order 13599 on Impounding Iranian Assets
Possibly in part to address congressional sentiment for extensive sanctions on the Central Bank,
on February 5, 2012, the President issued an Executive Order (13599) imposing further sanctions
on the Central Bank and on other entities determined to be owned or controlled by the Iranian
government. The order requires that any U.S.-based assets of the Central Bank of Iran, or of any
38 http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1367.aspx.
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Iranian government-controlled entity, be blocked (impounded) by U.S. financial institutions. U.S.
persons are prohibited from any dealings with such entities. U.S. financial institutions previously
were required to merely refuse such transactions with the Central Bank, or return funds to it, but
the order requires them to henceforth impound such assets. Several designations were made under
Order on July 12, 2012, as shown in Table 6 at the end of the report.
Sanctions on Iran’s Central Bank
Sanctions against Iran’s Central Bank, enacted in P.L. 112-81, are discussed above in the section
on energy-related sanctions. The main intent of the P.L. 112-81 sanctions was to prevent
payments to Iran for crude oil. However, the P.L. 112-81 sanctions apply to transactions with
Iran’s Central Bank beyond those for oil, as discussed above.
Electronic Payments (SWIFT) Cutoff
Many in Congress pressed for binding sanctions against electronic banking transfer systems, such
as Brussels-based SWIFT (Society of Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunications), that
process payments for Iranian banks. No binding sanctions have been enacted, although SWIFT
cut off sanctioned Iranian banks in March 2012. Section 220 of P.L. 112-158 requires reports on
electronic payments systems such as SWIFT that might be doing business with Iran, and
authorizes but does not mandate sanctions against such systems.
Terrorism-Related Sanctions
Iran was designated a “state sponsor of terrorism” on January 23, 1984, following the October
1983 bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks in Lebanon perpetrated by elements that later became
Hezbollah. This designation triggers substantial sanctions on any nation so designated.
Sanctions Triggered by Terrorism List Designation: Ban on U.S.
Aid, Arms Sales, Dual-Use Exports, and Certain Programs for Iran
The U.S. naming of Iran as a “state sponsor of terrorism,” commonly referred to as Iran’s
placement on the U.S. “terrorism list,” triggers several sanctions. Terrorism list designations are
made under the authority of Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of 1979 (P.L. 96-72, as
amended), sanctioning countries determined to have provided repeated support for acts of
international terrorism. The sanctions triggered by Iran’s continued listing are:
• Restrictions on sales of U.S. dual use items (Export Administration Act, as
continued through presidential authorities under the International Emergency
Economic Powers Act, IEEPA, as implemented by Executive Orders). Under
other laws, the designation bans direct U.S. financial assistance to Iran (§620A of
the Foreign Assistance Act, FAA, P.L. 87-195) and arms sales to Iran (§40 of the
Arms Export Control Act, P.L. 95-92, as amended), and requires the United
States to vote to oppose multilateral lending to the designated countries (§327 of
the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, P.L. 104-132).
Waivers are provided under these laws, but successive foreign aid appropriations
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laws since the late 1980s have banned direct assistance to Iran (loans, credits,
insurance, Ex-Im Bank credits) without providing for a waiver.
• Under the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (§§325 and 326 of
P.L. 104-132), a requirement that the President to withhold U.S. foreign
assistance to any country that provides to a terrorism list country foreign
assistance or arms. Waivers are provided. Section 321 of that act also makes it a
criminal offense for U.S. persons to conduct financial transactions with terrorism
list governments.
Aside from the terrorism list designation, Section 307 of the FAA (added in 1985) names Iran as
unable to benefit from U.S. contributions to international organizations, and require proportionate
cuts if these institutions work in Iran. For example, if an international organization spends 3% of
its budget for programs in Iran, then the United States is required to withhold 3% of its
contribution to that international organization. No waiver is provided for.
No Ban on U.S. Official Humanitarian Aid
The terrorism list designation, and other U.S. sanctions laws, do not bar disaster aid. The United
States donated $125,000, through relief agencies, to help victims of two earthquakes in Iran
(February and May 1997); $350,000 worth of aid to the victims of a June 22, 2002, earthquake;
and $5.7 million in assistance (out of total governmental pledges of about $32 million) for the
victims of the December 2003 earthquake in Bam, Iran, which killed as many as 40,000 people.
The United States military flew in 68,000 kilograms of supplies to Bam.
Executive Order 13224: Sanctioning Terrorism Supporting Entities
Executive Order 13324 (September 23, 2001) authorizes the President to freeze the assets of and
bar U.S. transactions with entities determined to be supporting international terrorism. This order,
issued two weeks after the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States, under the authority
of the IEEPA, the National Emergencies Act, the U.N. Participation Act of 1945, and Section 301
of the U.S. Code, was intended to primarily target Al Qaeda-related entities. However, it has
increasingly been applied to Iranian entities. Such Iran-related entities named and sanctioned
under this order are in Table 6, which also contains the names of Iranian entities sanctioned under
other orders and under United Nations resolutions.
Implementation
Among recent Iran-related designations under this order, on July 28, 2011, the Treasury
Department designated six Iran-based members of Al Qaeda under this order for allegedly serving
as financiers for Al Qaeda. On October 12, 2011, the Treasury Department designated Mahan Air,
an airline operating in Iran and the Persian Gulf region, under this order, for allegedly helping the
Qods Force (the arm of Iran’s Revolutionary Guard that supports pro-Iranian movements abroad)
ship weapons and other gear. On March 27, 2012, the Treasury Department designated another
Iranian airline, Yas Air, as well as five Iranian entities and one Nigerian entity for allegedly
attempting to ship Iranian weapons to Gambia and to Syria. On September 19, 2012, the Treasury
Department identified 117 Iranian aircraft (adding them to Treasury’s “Specially Designated
National” list) belonging to Mahan Air, Yas Air, and Iran Air (designated under E.O. 13382
below) that are allegedly involved in flying Iranian military aid to Syria.
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Proliferation-Related U.S. Sanctions
The state sponsor of terrorism designation, discussed above, bars Iran from U.S. exports of
technology that can be used for weapons of mass destruction programs (WMD). Iran-specific
anti-proliferation laws discussed below,39 and Executive Order 13382 (June 28, 2005), also seek
to prevent Iran from receiving advanced technology from the United States. Some of these laws
and executive measures seek to penalize foreign firms and countries that provide equipment to
Iran’s WMD programs.
Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act
The Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 102-484) imposes a number of sanctions on
foreign entities that supply Iran with WMD technology or “destabilizing numbers and types of
conventional weapons.” Sanctions imposed on violating entities include a ban, for two years, on
U.S. government procurement from that entity, and a two-year ban on licensing U.S. exports to
that entity. A sanction to ban imports to the United States from the entity is authorized.
If the violator is determined to be a foreign country, sanctions to be imposed are a one-year ban
on U.S. assistance to that country; a one-year requirement that the United States vote against
international lending to it; a one-year suspension of U.S. co-production agreements with the
country; a one-year suspension of technical exchanges with the country in military or dual use
technology; and a one-year ban on sales of U.S. arms to the country. The President is also
authorized to deny the country most-favored-nation trade status; and to impose a ban on U.S.
trade with the country.
The Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act (§1603) also provides for a “presumption of denial” for
all dual use exports to Iran (which would include computer software). A waiver to permit such
exports, on a case-by-case basis, is provided for.
Iran-North Korea-Syria Nonproliferation Act
The Iran Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 106-178), now called the Iran-North Korea-Syria Non-
Proliferation Act (INKSNA), authorizes sanctions on foreign persons (individuals or
corporations, not countries or governments) that are determined by the Administration to have
assisted Iran’s WMD programs. It bans U.S. extraordinary payments to the Russian Aviation and
Space Agency in connection with the international space station unless the President can certify
that the agency or entities under its control had not transferred any WMD or missile technology to
Iran within the year prior.40 (A continuing resolution for FY2009, which funded the U.S.
government through March 2009, waived this law to allow NASA to continue to use Russian
vehicles to access the International Space Station.) Table 6 at the end of the report lists entities
sanctioned under this law.
39 Such laws include the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 and the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58).
40 The provision contains certain exceptions to ensure the safety of astronauts, but it nonetheless threatened to limit
U.S. access to the international space station after April 2006, when Russia started charging the United States for
transportation on its Soyuz spacecraft. Legislation in the 109th Congress (S. 1713, P.L. 109-112) amended the provision
in order to facilitate continued U.S. access and extended INA sanctions provisions to Syria.
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Executive Order 13382
Executive Order 13382 (June 28, 2005) allows the President to block the assets of proliferators of
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and their supporters under the authority granted by the
International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA, 50 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.), the National
Emergencies Act (50 U.S.C. 1601 et seq.), and Section 301 of Title 3, United States Code. As is
the case with Executive Order 13224, this order has been used extensively to sanction Iran-related
entities; Table 6 lists Iran-related entities sanctioned under the order.
Implementation
As examples of entities designated under the Order, the IRGC is named as a proliferation entity.
As noted above, Iran Air was named as a proliferation-supporting entity under the Order on
March 27, 2012.
Foreign Aid Restrictions for Suppliers of Iran
In addition, successive foreign aid appropriations punish the Russian Federation for assisting Iran
by withholding 60% of any U.S. assistance to the Russian Federation unless it terminates
technical assistance to Iran’s nuclear and ballistic missiles programs.
U.S. Efforts to Promote Divestment
A growing trend not only in Congress but in several states is to require or call for or require
divestment of shares of firms that have invested in Iran’s energy sector (at the same levels
considered sanctionable under the Iran Sanctions Act).41 The concept of these sanctions is to
express the view of Western and other democracies that Iran is an outcast internationally. A
divestment provisions was contained in CISADA (P.L. 111-195)—in particular providing a “safe
harbor” for investment managers who sell shares of firms that invest in Iran’s energy sector.
Section 219 of the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act of 2012 requires
companies, in their reports to the Securities and Exchange Commission, to disclose whether it or
any corporate affiliate has engaged in any sanctionable transactions with Iran under ISA,
CISADA, and other applicable laws.
U.S. Sanctions Intended to Support Democratic
Change in Iran or Alter Iran’s Foreign Policy
A trend in U.S. policy since the June 2009 Iran election dispute has been to quietly and gradually
advance the prospects for the domestic opposition in Iran. Proposals to sanction the IRGC,
discussed throughout, represent one facet of that trend. The IRGC is not only involved in Iran’s
41 For information on the steps taken by individual states, see National Conference of State Legislatures. State
Divestment Legislation.
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WMD programs but it is also the key instrument through which the regime has suppressed the
pro-democracy movement. Another trend in legislation and Executive Orders has been to support
the ability of democracy activists in Iran to communicate, to reduce the regime’s ability to
monitor or censor Internet communications, and to identify and sanction Iranian human rights
abusers.
Earlier legislation, the Iran Freedom Support Act (IFSA, P.L. 109-293), represented a
congressional effort to promote the prospects for opponents of the regime. That law authorized
“sums as may be necessary” to assist Iranians who are “dedicated” to “democratic values … and
the adoption of a democratic form of government in Iran”; and “advocates the adherence by Iran
to nonproliferation regimes.”
Expanding Internet and Communications Freedoms
Some laws and Administration action focus on expanding Internet freedom in Iran or preventing
the Iranian government from using the Internet to identify opponents. Subtitle D of the FY2010
Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 111-84), called the “VOICE” (Victims of Iranian Censorship) Act
contained several provisions to increase U.S. broadcasting to Iran and to identify (in a report to be
submitted 180 days after enactment, or April 25, 2009) companies that are selling Iran technology
equipment that it can use to suppress or monitor the Internet usage of Iranians. The act authorized
funds to document Iranian human rights abuses since the June 12, 2009, presidential election.
Another provision (§1241) required an Administration report, not later than January 31, 2010, on
U.S. enforcement of sanctions against Iran, and the effect of those sanctions on Iran.
CISADA Provisions
In the 111th Congress, the “Reduce Iranian Cyber-Suppression Act,” (S. 1475 and H.R. 3284)
was incorporated into CISADA. The provision of CISADA (Section 106) prohibits U.S.
government contracts with foreign companies that sell technology that Iran could use to monitor
or control Iranian usage of the internet.
Another provision of CISADA (§103(b)(2)) exempts from the U.S. export ban on Iran equipment
to help Iranians communicate and use the Internet. The provisions were directed, in part, against
firms, including a joint venture between Nokia (Finland) and Siemens (Germany), reportedly sold
Internet monitoring and censorship technology to Iran in 2008.42
March 2010 Administration Regulations: Providing Free Software to Iranians
In line with this trend, on March 8, 2010, OFAC amended the Iran Transactions Regulations that
implement the U.S.-Iran trade ban to provide for a general license for providing to Iranians free
mass market software in order to facilitate Internet communications. The ruling appeared to
incorporate the major features of a proposal in the 111th Congress, H.R. 4301, the “Iran Digital
Empowerment Act.” The OFAC determination required a waiver of the provision of the Iran-Iraq
Arms Nonproliferation Act (§1606 waiver provision) discussed above.
42 Rhoads, Christopher. “Iran’s Web Spying Aided by Western Technology.” Wall Street Journal, June 22, 2009.
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The Administration took a further step on March 20, 2012, announcing a new licensing policy to
promote Internet freedom in Iran. The announcement seemed to reflect President Obama’s
Nowruz message that same day, saying the United States is committed to promoting Internet
freedom in Iran against counter-efforts by the regime. The Treasury Department announced that
several additional types of software and information technology products would be able to be
exported to Iran under general license, including personal communications, personal data storage,
browsers, plug-ins, document readers, and free mobile applications related to personal
communications. The exports are provided the products are available at no cost to the user.43
Executive Order 13606, P.L. 112-158, Executive Order 13628
Several Executive Orders and a law seek to sanction those Iranians and firms determined to be
monitoring or censoring Internet and other communication among Iranians.
Executive Order 13606
On April 23, 2012, President Obama issued an Executive Order (13606) directly addressing the
issue by sanctioning persons who commit “Grave Human Rights Abuses by the Governments of
Iran and Syria Via Information Technology (GHRAVITY).” The order blocks the U.S.-based
property and essentially bars U.S. entry and bans any U.S. trade with persons and entities listed in
an Annex and persons or entities subsequently determined to be:
• Operating any technology that allows the Iranian (or Syrian) government to
disrupt, monitor, or track computer usage by citizens of those countries.
• Selling to Iran or Syria any technology that enables those governments to carry
out such disruptions or monitoring.
• Assisting the two governments in such disruptions or monitoring.
The Executive Order named as violators and imposed sanctions on Iran’s Ministry of Intelligence
and Security (MOIS); the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC); the Law Enforcement
Forces (LEF); and Iranian Internet service provider Datak Telecom.44 Of these entities, similar
sanctions have been imposed through other Executive Orders (relating to facilitating proliferation,
terrorism, and human rights abuses) on the MOIS, the IRGC, and the LEF.
P.L. 112-158
Section 403 of the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (P.L. 112-158) codifies
Executive Order 13606 by imposing those same sanctions (visa ban, U.S.-based property
blocked) on persons/firms determined to have engaged in censorship in Iran, limited access to
media, or—for example a foreign satellite service provider—supported Iranian government
jamming or frequency manipulation.
43 Fact Sheet: Treasury Issues Interpretive Guidance and Statement of Licensing Policy on Internet Freedom in Iran,.
March 20, 2012.
44 Department of Treasury Documents. Fact Sheet: New Executive Order Targeting Human Rights Abuses Via
Information Technology. April 23, 2012.
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Executive Order 13628
This Executive Order, issued on October 9, 2012, and discussed above, contains a section
(Section 3) that implements Section 403 of P.L. 112-158 above by blocking the property of
persons/firms determined to have committed the censorship, limitation of free expression, or
assistance in jamming stipulated by P.L. 112-158. Various entities were designated under the
Order on November 8, 2012, as presented in the table at the end of the paper.
Measures to Sanction Human Rights Abuses and
Promote the Opposition
Another part of the effort to help Iran’s opposition has been legislation to sanction regime
officials involved in suppressing the domestic opposition in Iran. Senator John McCain
introduced a stand-alone bill, S. 3022, the “Iran Human Rights Sanctions Act, and later proposed
those provisions as an amendment to S. 2799 (the Senate version of what became CISADA).
abusers.
Section 105 of CISADA and Executive Order 13553
The provisions of S. 3022 were incorporated into CISADA as Section 105. The section bans
travel and freezing assets of those Iranians determined to be human rights abusers.
On September 29, 2010, the Administration implemented Section 105 of CISADA when
President Obama signed an Executive Order (13553) providing for the CISADA sanctions against
Iranians determined to be responsible for or complicit in post-2009 Iran election human rights
abuses. Along with the order, an initial group of eight Iranian officials was penalized, including
Mohammad Ali Jafari, the commander-in-chief of the IRGC, and several other officials who were
in key security or judicial positions at the time of the June 2009 election and aftermath. Several
additional officials and security force entities have been sanctioned since, as shown in Table 6 at
the end of this report. Under State Department interpretations of the executive order, if an entity is
designated, all members of that entity are ineligible for visas to enter the United States.45 Similar
sanctions against many of these same officials—as well as several others—have been imposed by
the European Union.
Provisions Added by P.L. 112-158: Sanctioning Sales of Anti-Riot Equipment
Section 402 of the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-158)
amends Section 105 of CISADA by adding a new provisions that sanctions (visa ban, U.S.
property blocked) for any person or company that sells the Iranian government goods or
technologies that it can use to commit human rights abuses against its people. Such goods include
firearms, rubber bullets, police batons, chemical or pepper sprays, stun grenades, tear gas, water
cannons, and like goods. Under that section, ISA sanctions are additionally to be imposed on any
person determined to be selling such equipment to the IRGC.
45 U.S. Department of the Treasury, Office of Public Affairs. Treasury Sanctions Iranian Security Forces for Human
Rights Abuses, June 9, 2011.
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Executive Order 13438 and 13572: Sanctioning Iranian Involvement
in the Region
Some sanctions have been imposed to try to punish Iran’s attempts to exert influence in the
region. On July 7, 2007, President Bush issued Executive Order 13438. The order sanctions
Iranian persons who are posing a threat to Iraqi stability, presumably by providing arms or funds
to Shiite militias there. Some persons sanctioned have been Qods Force officers, some have been
Iraqi Shiite militia-linked figures, and some entities have been sanctioned as well.
Executive Order 13572, issued on April 29, 2011, targets those responsible for human rights
abuses and repression of the Syrian people. The Qods Force and a number of Iranian Qods Force
officers, including its overall commander Qasem Soleimani, have been sanctioned under this
Order (and under other executive orders, as shown in the table at the end). The Iranians
sanctioned allegedly helped Syria commit abuses against protesters and repress its domestic
opposition movement that has conducted nationwide demonstration since March 2011. In
September 2011, the European Union similarly sanctioned the Qods Force for its purported
assistance to Syria’s repression.
Separate Visa Ban
On July 8, 2011, in conjunction with Britain, the United States imposed visa restrictions on more
than 50 Iranian officials for participating in political repression in Iran. The State Department
announcement stated that the names of those subject to the ban would not be released because
visa records are confidential. The action was taken under the authorities of Section 212(a)(3)(C)
of the Immigration and Nationality Act, which renders inadmissible to the United States a foreign
person whose activities could have serious consequences for the United States.
There are certain exemptions in the case of high level Iranian visits to attend the United Nations.
Under the U.N. Participation Act (P.L. 79-264) that provides for U.S. participation in the United
Nations and as host nation of U.N. headquarters in New York, visas are routinely issued to heads
of state and members of their entourage attending these meetings. In September 2012, however,
the State Dept. refused visas for 20 members of Iranian President Ahmadinejad’s traveling party
on the grounds of past involvement in terrorism or human rights abuses. Still, in line with U.S.
obligations under the Act, Ahmadinejad was allowed to fly to the United States on Iran Air, even
though Iran Air is a U.S.-sanctioned entity, and his plane reportedly was allowed to stay at
Andrews Air Force base for the duration of his visit.
Blocked Iranian Property and Assets
Iranian leaders continue to assert that the United States is holding Iranian assets, and that this is
an impediment to improved relations. A U.S.-Iran Claims Tribunal at the Hague continues to
arbitrate cases resulting from the 1980 break in relations and freezing of some of Iran’s assets.
Major cases yet to be decided center on hundreds of Foreign Military Sales (FMS) cases between
the United States and the shah’s regime, which Iran claims it paid for but were unfulfilled. A
reported $400 million in proceeds from the resale of that equipment was placed in a DOD FMS
account and may remain in this escrow account, although DoD has not provided CRS with a
precise balance. Additionally, according to the Treasury Department “Terrorist Assets report” for
2010, about $48 million in Iranian diplomatic property and accounts remains blocked—this
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amount includes proceeds from rents received on the former Iranian embassy in Washington, DC,
and 10 other properties in several states, along with 6 related bank accounts.46
Other past disputes include the mistaken U.S. shoot-down on July 3, 1988, of an Iranian Airbus
passenger jet (Iran Air flight 655), for which the United States paid Iran $61.8 million in
compensation ($300,000 per wage earning victim, $150,000 per nonwage earner) for the 248
Iranians killed. The United States did not compensate Iran for the airplane itself, although
officials involved in the negotiations told CRS in November 2012 that the United States might
have later provided a substitute, used aircraft to Iran.
In another case, there are reportedly about $2 billion in securities-related assets held by Citigroup,
deposited there by Luxembourg-based Clearstream Banking SA, a payments-clearing
organization. The assets reputedly belong to Iran and have been frozen and held against terrorism
judgments against Iran, although it is not clear whether such assets fall under existing authorities
to impound Iranian assets to pay terrorism or other judgments against Iran. Iran’s Central Bank
reportedly plans to file a motion in U.S. court to unfreeze the assets. Pending legislation in the
112th Congress, discussed below, would consider those assets to be Iranian assets subject to
seizure and use to pay judgments against Iran in various terrorism-related cases. In a recent
judgement, on July 6, 2012, a U.S. federal judge ordered Iran to pay $813 million to the families
of the 241 U.S. soldiers killed in the October 23, 1983, bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks in
Beirut. That brings to $8.8 billion the total amount awarded, in eight judgments against Iran, for
that bombing, which was perpetrated by Islamist elements that ultimately became Lebanese
Hezbollah.
U.N. Sanctions
U.N. sanctions apply to all U.N. member states, and therefore have tended, in other cases, to be
more effective than unilateral sanctions. There is increasing convergence among all these varying
sets of sanctions. As part of a multilateral process of attempting to convince Iran to choose the
path of negotiations or face further penalty, during 2006-2008, three U.N. Security Council
resolutions—1737, 1747, and 1803—imposed sanctions primarily on Iran’s weapons of mass
destruction (WMD) infrastructure. In addition, Resolution 1747 imposed a ban on Iran’s
exportation of weaponry outside Iran’s borders. After failed negotiations with Iran during 2009,
Resolution 1929 was adopted on June 9, 2010, by a vote of 12-2 (Turkey and Brazil), with one
abstention (Lebanon). (Iranian entities and persons under U.N. sanctions are in Table 6.)
Resolution 1929:47
• added several firms affiliated with the Revolutionary Guard firms to the list of
sanctioned entities, and made mandatory a ban on travel for Iranian persons
named in it and in previous resolutions—including those Iranians for whom there
was a nonbinding travel ban in previous resolutions.
46 http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Documents/tar2010.pdf.
47 Text of the resolution is at http://www.isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/
Draft_resolution_on_Iran_annexes.pdf.
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• gave countries the authorization to inspect any shipments—and to dispose of its
cargo—if the shipments are suspected to carry contraband items. However,
inspections on the high seas are subject to concurrence by the country that owns
that ship. This provision is modeled after a similar provision imposed on North
Korea, which did cause that country to reverse some of its shipments.
• prohibited countries from allowing Iran to invest in uranium mining and related
nuclear technologies, or nuclear-capable ballistic missile technology.
• banned sales to Iran of most categories of heavy arms to Iran and requests
restraint in sales of light arms, but does not bar sales of missiles not on the “U.N.
Registry of Conventional Arms.”
• required countries to insist that their companies refrain from doing business with
Iran if there is reason to believe doing so could further Iran’s WMD programs.
• requested that countries prohibit Iranian banks to open in their countries, or for
their banks to open in Iran, if doing so could contribute to Iran’s WMD activities.
• did not mandate a ban on shipping insurance for shipments to Iran; international
investment in Iran’s energy sector; the provision of trade credits to Iran; or all
financial dealings with Iranian banks.
Table 1. Summary of Provisions of U.N. Resolutions on Iran Nuclear Program
(1737, 1747, 1803, and 1929)
Freeze the assets of over 80 named Iranian persons and entities, including Bank Sepah, and several corporate affiliates
of the Revolutionary Guard. (Entities named in annexes to each of the resolutions.)
Prohibit transfer to Iran of nuclear, missile, and dual use items to Iran, except for use in light-water reactors
Prohibit Iran from exporting arms or WMD-useful technology
Prohibit Iran from investing abroad in uranium mining, related nuclear technologies or nuclear capable ballistic missile
technology (1929)
Require Iran to suspend uranium enrichment, and to refrain from any development of ballistic missiles that are
nuclear capable (1929)
Require that countries ban the travel of over 40 named Iranians
Mandates that countries not export major combat systems to Iran (1929)
Calls for “vigilance” (a nonbinding call to cut off business) with respect to all Iranian banks, particularly Bank Melli and
Bank Saderat.
Calls for vigilance (voluntary restraint) with respect to providing international lending to Iran and providing trade
credits and other financing and financial interactions.
Cal s on countries to inspect cargoes carried by Iran Air Cargo and Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines—or by any
ships in national or international waters—if there are indications they carry cargo banned for carriage to Iran.
Searches in international waters would require concurrence of the country where the ship is registered. (1929)
A Sanctions Committee, composed of the 15 members of the Security Council, monitors Implementation of all Iran
sanctions and collects and disseminates information on Iranian violations and other entities involved in banned
activities. A “panel of experts” is empowered by 1929 to assist the U.N. sanctions committee in implementing the
Resolution and previous Iran resolutions, and to suggest ways of more effective implementation.
Source: Text of U.N. Security Council resolutions 1737, 1747, 1803, and 1929. http://www.un.org. More
information on specific provisions of each of these resolutions and the nuclear negotiations with Iran is in CRS
Report RL32048, Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses, by Kenneth Katzman.
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International Implementation and Compliance48
U.S. and European/allied approaches have converged since 2002, when the nuclear issue came to
the fore. Previously, European and other countries had appeared less concerned than is the United
States about Iran’s support for militant movements in the Middle East or Iran’s strategic power in
the Persian Gulf and were reluctant to sanction Iran to address those issues. Since 2010, this
convergence of views has produced an unprecedented degree of global cooperation in pressuring
Iran. And, increasingly, Iran’s neighbors—reluctant to antagonize the large power by cooperating
with international sanctions—are joining the effort. Some countries have joined the burgeoning
sanctions regime not necessarily out of conviction of the efficacy of sanctions but rather as a
means of perhaps heading off unwanted military action by the United States or Israel against
Iran’s nuclear facilities. A comparison between U.S., U.N., and EU sanctions against Iran is
contained in Table 3 below, although noting that there are differing legal bases and authorities for
these sanctions.
To increase international compliance with all applicable sanctions, on May 1, 2012, President
Obama issued an Executive Order (13608) giving the Treasury Department the ability to identify
and sanction (cutting them off from the U.S. market) foreign persons who help Iran or Syria
evade U.S. and multilateral sanctions.
European Union
The European Union and other Western allies of the United States have closely aligned their
sanctions with those of the United States. On November 21, 2011, in a concerted action with
those taken by the U.S. Treasury Department (see above under §311 of the Patriot Act), Britain
and Canada announced they would no longer do business with Iran’s financial institutions,
including Iran’s Central Bank. Iran’s parliament subsequently voted to downgrade relations with
Britain, a move that, on November 29, 2011, contributed to the overrunning of the British
Embassy in Tehran by pro-government students, with at least the partial apparent complicity of
regime security forces. That attack prompted Britain to give all Iranian diplomats 48 hours to
leave Britain. Canada followed suit by closing its embassy in Tehran in September 2012.
EU Oil Embargo and Central Bank of Iran Cutoff
In joining U.S. efforts to cut Iran’s oil export lifeline, on January 23, 2012, the EU decided to:
• Refrain from new contracts to purchase Iranian oil and to wind down existing
contracts by July 1, 2012, after which all EU purchases of Iranian oil were to
cease. Collectively, the EU bought about 600,000 barrels per day of Iranian oil in
2011, about a quarter of Iran’s total oil exports. A planned review on May 1,
2012, was not held because of an EU consensus to proceed with the embargo,
despite the effect of the move on the EU’s vulnerable economies, such as Spain,
Italy, and Greece. Those three countries each bought more than 10% of their
48 Note: CRS has no mandate or capability to “judge” compliance or cooperation of any country with U.S., multilateral,
or international sanctions against Iran. This section is intended to analyze some of the major themes discussed by
experts in assessing the degree to which other countries are helping U.S. policy toward Iran, and bearing in mind there
are many other issues and considerations in U.S. relations with the countries discussed here.
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imported oil from Iran. Britain and Germany only got about 1% of their oil from
Iran, and France about 4%. Saudi Arabia and other suppliers, such as Libya, Iraq,
and UAE, are reportedly stepping in as alternative suppliers.
• Ban insurance for shipping oil or petrochemicals from Iran. Even before this took
full effect on July 1, 2012, some EU-based insurers reportedly closed their
offices in Iran.
• Stop all trade with Iran in gold, precious metals, diamonds, and petrochemical
products.
• Freeze the assets of Iran’s Central Bank, although transactions would still be
permitted for approved legitimate trade.
• Freeze the assets of several Iranian firms involved in shipping arms to Syria or
which support shipping by IRISL, and cease doing business with port operator
Tidewater (see above).
As discussed above, partly as a consequence of the EU decision, 10 EU countries have been
granted exemptions from any U.S. sanctions imposed under the P.L. 112-81 Central Bank
sanctions. Even though the EU countries have adopted the oil embargo, some EU countries
criticize aspects of the U.S. sanctions against Iran’s Central Bank as a de-facto ban on even
civilian trade with Iran, such as in automobiles. This is because financing is often needed to
facilitate trade, and the blocking of financing and payments mechanisms limits the capability to
trade with Iran.
Subsequent EU Steps
SWIFT Cutoff. The Belgium-based SWIFT organization (Society for Worldwide International
Financial Transfers) announced in February 2012 that it would adopt any EU decision to end
transactions with Iranian banks blacklisted by the EU (about 18 Iranian banks that meet that
criteria are members of the network). As of March 17, 2012, based on EU authorization, SWIFT
ended transactions with these Iranian banks.
Additional EU Sanctions Adopted October 15, 2012. In response to a lack of progress in nuclear
negotiations with Iran, the EU adopted the following additional measures:
• A ban on transactions between European and all Iranian banks, unless
specifically authorized.
• A ban on provision of short-term export credits, guarantees and insurance.
• A ban on imports of natural gas from Iran, although volumes are small, going
mainly to Bulgaria and Greece, via Turkey.
• A ban on exports of graphite, semi-finished metals such as aluminum and steel,
and industrial software, all of which could be used in Iran’s nuclear or missile
programs.
• A ban on providing shipbuilding technology, oil storage capabilities, and flagging
or classification services for Iranian tankers and cargo vessels.
These sanctions are likely to stall Iran’s attempt to position itself as a gas exporter to Europe. The
Obama Administration, like its predecessors, takes the view that Iran be excluded from gas
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pipeline projects to Europe, even though the projects might make Europe less dependent on
Russian gas supplies.
Table 2. Top Energy Buyers From Iran and Reductions
(amounts in barrels per day, bpd)
Country/Bloc
2011
Average 2012 (est.)
European Union (particularly Italy,
600,000
Negligible
Spain, and Greece)
China 550,000
380,000
Japan 325,000
170,000
India 320,000
280,000
South Korea
230,000
180,000
Turkey 200,000
150,000
South Africa
80,000
0
Malaysia 55,000
30,000
Sri Lanka
35,000
20,000
Taiwan 35,000
20,000
Singapore 20,000
15,000
Other 55,000
25,000
Total 2.5 mbd
1.27 mbd
Source: International Energy Agency, rough estimates based on CRS conversations with foreign diplomats and
press reports. The 2012 figures reflect import reductions pledged by the named customer in order to receive
Section 1245 exemptions. Actual volumes might differ and import volumes may fluctuate dramatically over short
periods of time as actual tanker deliveries occur.
Japan and South Korea
Japan and South Korea have joined the international coalition that is pressuring Iran, in part to
maintain their close relations with the United States, but also out of concern about Iran’s nuclear
program. In September 2010, Japan and South Korea announced Iran sanctions similar to those of
the EU, including limiting trade financing for Iran, limiting new banking relations with Iran,
sanctioning numerous named Iranian entities, and restricting new projects in Iran’s energy sector.
On December 16, 2011, South Korea announced new sanctions to align policy with the
November 2011 U.S. decision to sanction sales to Iran of energy sector equipment.
The cooperation of Japan and South Korea is considered by U.S. officials essential to overall U.S.
strategy of cutting Iran’s exports of oil substantially. Both countries have sharply reduced oil
imports from Iran and, as a result, both have been issued sanctions exemptions under P.L. 112-81.
Japan’s exemption was extended on September 14, 2012, for another 180 days and South Korea’s
exemption was renewed on December 7, 2012. Both countries were concerned about the effects
of the EU ban on insuring ships carrying Iranian oil, but they worked around that by setting up
new insurance mechanisms. Japan’s exemption has benefitted its banks, such as Mitsubishi UFJ
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Iran Sanctions
Financial Group, Mizuho, and Sumitomo Mitsui, that continue to process transactions with Iran’s
Central Bank.49
India
India is implementing U.N. sanctions against Iran but its cultural, economic, and historic ties - as
well as its strategic need for access to Afghanistan - have made India hesitant to back all aspects
of U.S. and EU sanctions on Iran. India supported multilateral sanctions when its central bank, in
late December 2010, announced that it would no longer use a regional body, the Asian Clearing
Union, to handle transactions with Iran. The Asian Clearing Union, based in Tehran, was set up in
the 1970s by the United Nations to ease commerce among Asian nations, but there have been
allegations that Iran was using the Clearing Union to avoid European banking sanctions. With
India’s purchases of about 320,000 barrels per day of Iranian oil (2011 average) made difficult by
the move, in February 2011, India and Iran agreed to use an Iranian bank, Europaisch-Iranische
Handelsbank (EIH), to clear the payments. When the EU named EIH and about 100 other entities
as Iran proliferation-related activities in May 2011, India and Iran again searched for an
alternative payments mechanism, eventually identifying Turkey’s Halkbank as an acceptable
processor.
The U.S. law sanctioning dealings with Iran’s Central Bank (Section 1245 of P.L. 112-81, see
above) led Halkbank in January 2012 to withdraw from that arrangement. India took advantage of
that new difficulty to force concessions from Iran, including an Iranian agreement in March 2012
to accept payment for about 45% of the oil sales in rupees, India’s local currency, which is not
convertible. Rupee accounts facilitate the settlement of payments for oil in the form of barter
trade, and India does not have to use hard currency to pay Iran for the oil it buys.
The payments difficulties have caused India to continue reducing its dependence on Iranian oil.
Since 2008, India has reduced its imports of Iranian oil by volume and as a percentage of India’s
total oil imports, to the point where Iran only supplies about 10% of India’s oil imports, down
from over 16% in 2008. Despite India’s assertions that additional reductions would require
significant investment to switch over refineries that handle Iranian crude, Deputy Oil Minister
R.P.N. Singh told India’s parliament on May 15, 2012, that India would cut Iranian imports by
another 11% from May 2012 until the end of India’s fiscal year in March 2013. The Obama
Administration welcomed the pledge, and India received an exemption in the second tranche of
exemptions issued on June 11, 2012. Indian refiners have cut buys from Iran largely in line with
the government’s requests, although some months might see increases as a batch of oil shipments
arrive. India’s exemption was renewed on December 7, 2012.
The increased use of barter to conduct India-Iran trade might lead to an expansion of India-Iran
trade in purely civilian goods. India sent a large trade delegation to Iran (March 10-14, 2012) to
discuss increased exports to Iran of staple goods such as sugar and wheat—commodities not
subject to international sanctions. An Iranian trade delegation visited India in May 2012. Indian
officials say some of their major companies, including the Tata conglomerate, have ended or
reduced their business with Iran.
49 “Japan May Cut Iran Oil Imports by Over 20 Percent” Reuters, February 23, 2012.
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India appears to be distancing itself from participation in the Iran-Pakistan gas pipeline project
discussed below. India reportedly has been concerned about the security of the pipeline, the
location at which the gas would be officially transferred to India, pricing of the gas, tariffs, and
the source in Iran of the gas to be sold. If Iran resolves its disputes with the international
community, India may envision an alternative to the pipeline project as a means of tapping into
Iran’s vast gas resources. During high-level economic talks in early July 2010, Iranian and Indian
officials reportedly raised the issue of constructing an underwater natural gas pipeline, which
would avoid going through Pakistani territory. However, such a route would presumably be much
more expensive to construct than would be an overland route.
Pakistan
A test of Pakistan’s compliance with sanctions is a pipeline project intended to carry Iranian gas
to Pakistan. The $7 billion project was finalized on June 12, 2010. Energy experts50 say Iran has
largely completed the pipeline extension from its network to the Pakistan border. Pakistan
reportedly is moving forward with construction on its side of the border, but the extent of work
completed, if any, is unclear. Potentially complicating the project is that Chinese banks reportedly
withdrew commitments to provide about $1 billion in financing for the Pakistan construction. Iran
and Pakistan had said it is to become operational by mid-2014. During the Bush Administration,
Secretary of State Rice on several occasions “expressed U.S. concern” about the pipeline deal or
called it “unacceptable.” During trips to Pakistan in 2012, the late Ambassador Richard
Holbrooke, the Administration Special Representative on Pakistan and Afghanistan, raised the
possibility that the project could be sanctioned if it is undertaken, citing enactment of CISADA.
China and Russia
The position of Russia, China, and several other countries—that they will impose only those
sanctions specifically required by U.N. Security Council resolutions—has been of concern to
several Members of Congress. Russia is an oil exporter itself and a need to preserve oil imports
from Iran is therefore not a factor in its Iran policy calculations. However, Russia has earned hard
currency from large projects in Iran, such as the Bushehr nuclear reactor, and it also seeks not to
provoke Iran into supporting Islamist movements in the Muslim regions of Russia and the Central
Asian states.
China
Members and outside experts have expressed concern that Chinese firms, in particular, might
move to fill the void in Iran’s energy industry left by vacating European firms (“backfill”), but
Administration officials say they have not seen evidence of such a trend. Some Members have
also criticized successive Administrations for refusing to sanction Chinese companies for what
appear to be clear violations of ISA and other U.S. sanctions provisions.
Like India, China appears to be seeking to take advantage of the sanctions for its own purposes,
and in so doing signaling to Iran that it disapproves of its behavior. China had said in early 2012
that it would not reduce its oil purchases from their 2011 average level of about 550,000 barrels
50 For example, Bijan Kajehpour of Atieh Consulting. Presentation at CSIS, October 4, 2011.
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Iran Sanctions
per day, despite the threat of the U.S. sanctions. Administration officials said on June 11, 2012,
that there was dialogue with China intended to persuade it to cut its oil buys from Iran and China
subsequently pledged to cut Iranian oil purchases by about 18% (to about 450,000 barrels per
day). For that pledge, it received a P.L. 112-81 sanctions exemption on June 28, 2012. Some
analysts questioned whether the exemption should be extended in December 2012, but energy
analysts say China’s purchases from Iran have fallen sharply, as shown in the table above. The
exemption was renewed on December 7, 2012.
A sustained, continual reduction of China’s oil buys from Iran is considered crucial to U.S.
strategy of reducing Iranian oil exports. China is still Iran’s largest single customer. And, U.S.
officials want China to continue to settle its trade balance with Iran in local currency or with
additional Chinese exports of goods, in order to further deprive Iran of hard currency. Some of the
payments due Iran are reportedly settled in gold.
An even more significant concern is that China may be refusing or failing to prevent Iran from
acquiring weapons and WMD technology. Secretary of State Clinton singled out China on
January 19, 2011, as not enforcing all aspects of international sanctions that bar sales of most
nuclear-related equipment to Iran; the comment came of the eve of the state visit to the United
States by President Hu Jintao. On March 9, 2011, State Department Special Adviser for Non-
Proliferation and Arms Control, Robert Einhorn, said Iran may be working with Chinese firms to
obtain sensitive technology useful for nuclear weapons development. In some cases, Iran has
been able, according to some reports, to obtain sophisticated technology from U.S. firms.51
Turkey/Caucuses
Turkey is a large buyer of Iranian oil; in 2011, it averaged 196,000 bpd. Turkey also buys natural
gas from Iran through their mutual pipeline. In March 2012, Turkey said it would cut its buys
from Iran by 10%-20% and, as an apparent result, Turkey got a P.L. 112-81 sanctions exemption
on June 11, 2012. It was renewed on December 7, 2012. Turkey reportedly is settling much of its
oil bill from Iran with shipments to Iran of gold, perhaps to improve its own balance of payments.
That form of payment by Turkey is not banned, and sanctions proposed in the 112th Congress (see
below) are intended to halt such transfers. Turkey will also be key to implementing the EU
decision on October 15, 2012, to bar sales of Iranian gas to Europe, since Iran’s gas shipments
transit Turkey to reach customers in Bulgaria and Greece.
Turkey is constructing a second Iran-Turkey gas pipeline. The work is being performed by Som
Petrol. This project might test Turkey’s compliance with ISA as well as the U.S. willingness to
sanction a key ally for such projects.52
Turkey has, on several occasions, blocked or impounded Iranian arms and other contraband
shipments bound for Syria or Lebanese Hezbollah. This was discussed in the June 12, 2012,
report on sanctions implementation by the U.N. panel of experts chartered by Resolution 1929.
51 Warrick, Joby. “Iran Using Fronts to Get Bomb Parts From U.S.” Washington Post, January 11, 2009; Institute for
Science and International Security. “Iranian Entities’ Illicit Military Procurement Networks.” David Albright, Paul
Brannan, and Andrea Scheel. January 12, 2009.
52 Information provided to the author by the New York State government. July 2012.
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Armenia
Press reports say Iran is looking to neighboring Armenia, with which it has extensive trade
relations and a natural gas pipeline linkage, as a possibly ally to circumvent international
sanctions on Iran’s financial industry. Armenia has said its banking controls are strong and that
Iran is unable to process transactions illicitly through Armenia’s banks.53
Persian Gulf and Other Regional States
The Persian Gulf countries are, themselves, oil exporters, and their role is evaluated for their
potential to compensate for reduction in other country purchases of oil from Iran. Those Gulf
states with spare capacity, particularly Saudi Arabia, have been willing to fully supply the market,
and their cooperation with other U.S. sanctions against Iran, such as on preventing the
reexportation to Iran of U.S. technology, and halting banking relationships with and gasoline sales
to Iran, is improving. This is a departure from the recent past, in which the Gulf states appeared
hesitant to provoke Iran’s wrath by siding with U.S.-led sanctions. CRS Report RL32048, Iran:
U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses, by Kenneth Katzman, discusses the relations between Iran
and other Middle Eastern states.
The UAE is particularly closely watched by U.S. officials because of its historic extensive
business dealings with Iran. U.S. officials offered substantial praise for the decision announced
March 1, 2012, by Dubai-based Noor Islamic Bank to end transactions with Iran. Iran reportedly
used the bank to process a substantial portion of its oil payments. UAE representatives say that
Iranian banks still operating in UAE conduct transactions only in cash, leaving them virtually
inactive, but that ordering them closed outright would provoke Iran unnecessarily.
Iran and Kuwait have held talks on the construction of a 350-mile pipeline that would bring
Iranian gas to Kuwait. The two sides have apparently reached agreement on volumes (8.5 million
cubic meters of gas would go to Kuwait each day) but not on price.54 There are also discussions
reported between Iran and Iraq on constructing pipelines to facilitate oil and gas swaps between
the two, but no firm movement on these projects is evident.
Afghanistan
Some reports say that Iranian currency traders are using Afghanistan to acquire dollars that are in
short supply in Iran. In Afghanistan, where donor spending is high, the dollar operates as a second
national currency. Iranian traders—acting on behalf of wealthy Iranians seeking to preserve the
value of their savings—are said to be carrying local currency to Afghanistan to buy up some of
the dollars available there. There are also allegations that Iran is using an Iran-owned bank in
Afghanistan, Arian Bank, to move funds in an out of Afghanistan. The Treasury Department has
warned Afghan traders not to process dollar transactions for Iran.
53 Louis Charbonneau. “Iran Looks to Armenia to Skirt Banking Sanctions.” Reuters, August 21, 2012.
54 http://www.kuwaittimes.net/read_news.php?newsid=NDQ0OTY1NTU4; http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?
nn=8901181055.
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Latin America
Iran is looking to several Latin American countries, including Venezuela, Cuba, Ecuador,
Nicaragua, and Bolivia, to try to reduce the effects of international sanctions. Iran believes that
these and other Latin American countries might be willing, in part because of their own
differences with the United States, to conduct certain transactions with Iran that might be
sanctionable. Venezuela appears willing to help Iran and, as noted earlier in this report, its state
oil company has been sanctioned under the ISA. For the most part, however, Iran’s trade and
other business dealings with Latin America remain modest and likely to reduce the effect of
sanctions on Iran only marginally.
Africa
As noted above, countries in Africa are not major customers for Iranian oil, with the exception of
South Africa. However, U.S. officials are concerned that Iran might increasingly look to countries
in Africa to help it circumvent international sanctions.
In June 2012, Kenya contracted to buy about 30 million barrels of Iranian oil, but cancelled the
contract the following month after the United States warned that going ahead with the purchase
could hurt U.S.-Kenya relations. In late June 2012, Representative Howard Berman sent a letter
to Tanzania’s president warning that Tanzania could face aid cuts or other punishments if it
continued to “re-flag” Iranian oil tankers.55 Tanzania has re-flagged about 6-10 Iranian tankers.
Perhaps fearing similar criticism, in September 2012 Sierra Leone removed nine vessels from its
shipping register after determining they belonged to IRISL.
Contrast With Previous Periods
The emerging consensus on Iran sanctions differs from early periods when there was far more
disagreement. Reflecting the traditional European preference for providing incentives rather than
enacting economic punishments, during 2002-2005, there were active negotiations between the
European Union and Iran on a “Trade and Cooperation Agreement” (TCA). Such an agreement
would have lowered the tariffs or increased quotas for Iranian exports to the EU countries.56
However, negotiations were discontinued after the election of Ahmadinejad in June 2005, at
which time Iran’s position on its nuclear program hardened. Similarly, there is insufficient
international support to grant Iran membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) until
there is progress on the nuclear issue. Iran first attempted to apply to join the WTO in July 1996.
On 22 occasions after that, representatives of the Clinton and then the George W. Bush
Administration blocked Iran from applying (applications must be by consensus of the 148
members). As discussed above, as part of an effort to assist the EU-3 nuclear talks with Iran, at a
WTO meeting in May 2005, no opposition to Iran’s application was registered, and Iran formally
began accession talks.
55 “Tanzania Must Stop Re-Flagging Iran Tankers: U.S. Lawmaker.” Reuters, June 29, 2012.
56 During the active period of talks, which began in December 2002, there were working groups focused not only on the
TCA terms and proliferation issues but also on Iran’s human rights record, Iran’s efforts to derail the Middle East peace
process, Iranian-sponsored terrorism, counter-narcotics, refugees, migration issues, and the Iranian opposition PMOI.
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Iran Sanctions
Earlier, during the 1990s, EU countries maintained a policy of “critical dialogue” with Iran, and
the EU and Japan refused to join the 1995 U.S. trade and investment ban on Iran. The European
dialogue with Iran was suspended in April 1997 in response to the German terrorism trial
(“Mykonos trial”) that found high-level Iranian involvement in killing Iranian dissidents in
Germany, but resumed in May 1998 during Khatemi’s presidency. In the 1990s, European and
Japanese creditors—over U.S. objections—rescheduled about $16 billion in Iranian debt. These
countries (governments and private creditors) rescheduled the debt bilaterally, in spite of Paris
Club rules that call for multilateral rescheduling. In July 2002, Iran tapped international capital
markets for the first time since the Islamic revolution, selling $500 million in bonds to European
banks.
World Bank Loans
The July 27, 2010, EU measures narrowed substantially the prior differences between the EU and
the United States over international lending to Iran. As noted above, the United States
representative to international financial institutions is required to vote against international
lending, but that vote, although weighted, is not sufficient to block international lending. In 1993
the United States voted its 16.5% share of the World Bank against loans to Iran of $460 million
for electricity, health, and irrigation projects, but the loans were approved. To block that lending,
the FY1994-FY1996 foreign aid appropriations (P.L. 103-87, P.L. 103-306, and P.L. 104-107) cut
the amount appropriated for the U.S. contribution to the bank by the amount of those loans. The
legislation contributed to a temporary halt in new bank lending to Iran. (In the 111th Congress, a
provision of H.R. 6296—Title VII—cut off U.S. contributions to the World Bank, International
Finance Corp., and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Corp. if the World Bank approves a
new Country Assistance Strategy for Iran or makes a loan to Iran.)
During 1999-2005, Iran’s moderating image had led the World Bank to consider new loans over
U.S. opposition. In May 2000, the United States’ allies outvoted the United States to approve
$232 million in loans for health and sewage projects. During April 2003-May 2005, a total of
$725 million in loans were approved for environmental management, housing reform, water and
sanitation projects, and land management projects, in addition to $400 million in loans for
earthquake relief.
Table 3. Comparison Between U.S., U.N., and EU and Allied Country Sanctions
Implementation by EU and
U.S. Sanctions
U.N. Sanctions
Some Allied Countries
General Observation: Most
Increasingly sweeping, but still
EU abides by al U.N. sanctions on
sweeping sanctions on Iran of
intended to primarily target Iran’s
Iran, and new sanctions imposed by
virtually any country in the world
nuclear and other WMD programs.
EU countries since July 27, 2010,
No mandatory sanctions on Iran’s
closely aligns EU sanctions with
energy sector.
those of the U.S.
Japan and South Korean sanctions
also increasingly extensive.
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Iran Sanctions
Implementation by EU and
U.S. Sanctions
U.N. Sanctions
Some Allied Countries
Ban on U.S. Trade with and
U.N. sanctions do not ban civilian
No general EU ban on trade in
Investment in Iran:
trade with Iran or general civilian
civilian goods with Iran but, as a
sector investment in Iran. Nor do
consequence of EU oil embargo
Executive Order 12959 bans (with
U.N. sanctions mandate restrictions
from Iran and other decisions, EU
limited exceptions) U.S. firms from
on provision of trade financing or
sanctions are now nearly as
exporting to Iran, importing from
financing guarantees by national
extensive as the United States. All
Iran, or investing in Iran.
export credit guarantee agencies.
trade credits and credit guarantees
There is an exemption for sales to
now banned as result of October
Iran of food and medical products,
15, 2012, EU announcement.
but no trade financing or financing
Japan and South Korea have banned
guarantees are permitted.
medium- and long-term trade
financing and financing guarantees.
Short-term credit still al owed.
Sanctions on Foreign Firms that
No U.N. equivalent exists. However,
EU now bans almost al dealings
Do Business With Iran’s Energy
preambular language in Resolution
with Iran’s energy sector, including
Sector:
1929 “not[es] the potential
purchases of Iranian oil and gas,
connection between Iran’s revenues
shipping insurance, and sales of
The Iran Sanctions Act, P.L. 104-172,
derived from its energy sector and
energy sector equipment.
CISADA, several Executive Orders,
the funding of Iran’s proliferation-
and H.R. 1905 mandate sanctions on
sensitive nuclear activities.” This
Japanese and South Korean
firms that conduct virtual y any type
wording is interpreted by most
measures ban new energy projects
of transaction with/in Iran’s energy
observers as providing U.N. support
in Iran and call for restraint on
sector. Exemptions are permitted for for countries who want to ban their
ongoing projects. South Korea in
firms of countries that have
companies from investing in Iran’s
December 2011 cautioned its firms
“significantly reduced” purchases of
energy sector.
not to sel energy or petrochemical
Iranian oil each 180 days.
equipment to Iran. No ban on oil
buys, but both are cutting such
purchases sharply.
Ban on Foreign Assistance:
No U.N. equivalent
EU measures of July 27, 2010, ban
grants, aid, and concessional loans
U.S. foreign assistance to Iran—
to Iran. Also prohibit financing of
other than purely humanitarian aid—
enterprises involved in Iran’s energy
is banned under §620A of the
sector.
Foreign Assistance Act. That section
bans U.S. assistance to countries on
Japan and South Korea measures do
the U.S. list of “state sponsors of
not specifically ban aid or lending to
terrorism.” Iran has been on this
Iran, but no such lending by these
“terrorism list” since January 1984.
countries is under way.
Iran is also routinely denied direct
U.S. foreign aid under the annual
foreign operations appropriations
acts (most recently in §7007 of
division H of P.L. 111-8).
Ban on Arms Exports to Iran:
Resolution 1929 (operative paragraph EU sanctions include a
8) bans all U.N. member states from
comprehensive ban on sale to Iran
Because Iran is on the “terrorism
selling or supplying to Iran major
of all types of military equipment,
list,” it is ineligible for U.S. arms
weapons systems, including tanks,
not just major combat systems.
exports pursuant to §40 of the Arms
armored vehicles, combat aircraft,
Export Control Act (AECA, P.L. 95-
warships, and most missile systems,
No similar Japan and South Korean
92). The International Trafficking in
or related spare parts or advisory
measures announced, but neither
Arms Regulations (ITAR, 22 CFR
services for such weapons systems.
has exported arms to Iran.
Part 126.1) also cite the President’s
authority to control arms exports
and to comply with U.N. Security
Council Resolutions.
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Iran Sanctions
Implementation by EU and
U.S. Sanctions
U.N. Sanctions
Some Allied Countries
Restriction on Exports to Iran of The U.N. Resolutions on Iran,
EU bans the sales of dual use items
“Dual Use Items”:
cumulatively, ban the export of
to Iran, in line with U.N.
almost all dual-use items to Iran.
resolutions. Oct. 2012 measures
Primarily under §6(j) of the Export
ban graphite and finished metal sales
Administration Act (P.L. 96-72) and
to Iran.
§38 of the Arms Export Control Act,
there is a denial of license
Japan announced ful adherence to
applications to sell Iran goods that
strict export control regimes when
could have military applications.
evaluating sales to Iran. South Korea
has adopted similar policies.
Sanctions Against International
Resolution 1747 (oper. paragraph 7)
The July 27, 2010, measures
Lending to Iran:
requests, but does not mandate, that
prohibit EU members from
countries and international financial
providing grants, aid, and
Under §1621 of the International
institutions refrain from making
concessional loans to Iran, including
Financial Institutions Act (P.L. 95-
grants or loans to Iran, except for
through international financial
118), U.S. representatives to
development and humanitarian
institutions.
international financial institutions,
purposes.
such as the World Bank, are
No specific similar Japan or South
required to vote against loans to Iran
Korea measures announced.
by those institutions.
Sanctions Against Foreign Firms Resolution 1737 (oper. paragraph 12) The EU measures imposed July 27,
that Sell Weapons of Mass
imposes a worldwide freeze on the
2010, commit the EU to freezing
Destruction-Related Technology assets and property of Iranian entities the assets of entities named in the
to Iran:
named in an Annex to the
U.N. resolutions, as well as
Resolution. Each subsequent
numerous other named Iranian
Several laws and regulations,
Resolution has expanded the list of
entities.
including the Iran-Syria North Korea
Iranian entities subject to these
Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 106-178),
sanctions.
Japan and South Korea froze assets
the Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation
of U.N.-sanctioned entities.
Act (P.L. 102-484) and Executive
Order 13382 provide for sanctions
against entities, Iranian or otherwise,
that are determined to be involved in
or supplying Iran’s WMD programs
(asset freezing, ban on transaction
with the entity).
Ban on Transactions With
No direct equivalent, but Resolution
No direct equivalent, but many of
Terrorism Supporting Entities:
1747 (oper. paragraph 5) bans Iran
the Iranian entities named as
from exporting any arms—a
blocked by the EU, Japan, and South
Executive Order 13224 bans
provision widely interpreted as trying
Korea overlap or complement
transactions with entities determined to reduce Iran’s material support to
Iranian entities named as terrorism
by the Administration to be
groups such as Lebanese Hizbol ah,
supporting by the United States.
supporting international terrorism.
Hamas, Shiite militias in Iraq, and
Numerous entities, including some of insurgents in Afghanistan.
Iranian origin, have been so
designated.
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Iran Sanctions
Implementation by EU and
U.S. Sanctions
U.N. Sanctions
Some Allied Countries
Travel Ban on Named Iranians:
Resolution 1803 imposed a binding
The EU sanctions announced July
ban on international travel by several
27, 2010, contains an Annex of
CISADA and H.R. 1905 provide for a Iranians named in an Annex to the
named Iranians subject to a ban on
prohibition on travel to the U.S.,
Resolution. Resolution 1929
travel to the EU countries. An
blocking of U.S.-based property, and
extended that ban to additional
additional 60+ Iranians involved in
ban on transactions with Iranians
Iranians, and forty Iranians are now
human rights abuses were subjected
determined to be involved in serious
subject to the ban. However, the
to EU sanctions since.
human rights abuses against Iranians
Iranians subject to the travel ban are
since the June 12, 2009, presidential
so subjected because of their
Japan and South Korea have
election there, or with persons
involvement in Iran’s WMD
announced bans on named Iranians.
selling Iran equipment to commit
programs, not because of
such abuses.
involvement in human rights abuses.
Restrictions on Iranian Shipping: Resolution 1803 and 1929 authorize
The EU measures announced July
countries to inspect cargoes carried
27, 2010, bans Iran Air Cargo from
Under Executive Order 13382, the
by Iran Air and Islamic Republic of
access to EU airports. The
U.S. Treasury Department has
Iran Shipping Lines (IRISL)—or any
measures also freeze the EU-based
named Islamic Republic of Iran
ships in national or international
assets of IRISL and its affiliates.
Shipping Lines and several affiliated
waters—if there is an indication that
Insurance and re-insurance for
entities as entities whose U.S.-based
the shipments include goods whose
Iranian firms is banned.
property is to be frozen.
export to Iran is banned.
Japan and South Korean measures
took similar actions against IRISL
and Iran Air.
Banking Sanctions:
No direct equivalent
The EU freeze on Iran Central Bank
assets announced January 23, 2012,
During 2006-2011, several Iranian
However, two Iranian banks are
and October 15, 2012, ban on al
banks have been named as
named as sanctioned entities under
transactions with Iranian banks
proliferation or terrorism supporting
the U.N. Security Council
unless authorized, closely align EU
entities under Executive Orders
resolutions.
sanctions on this issue with those of
13382 and 13224, respectively (see
the United States.
Table 6 at end of report).
November 21, 2011: Britain and
CISADA prohibits banking
Canada bar their banks from any
relationships with U.S. banks for any
transactions with Iran Central Bank.
foreign bank that conducts
transactions with Iran’s
March 2012: Brussels-based SWIFT
Revolutionary Guard or with Iranian
says expelled sanctioned Iranian
entities sanctioned under the various
banks from the electronic payment
U.N. resolutions.
transfer system.
November 21, 2011: Treasury
Japan and South Korea measures
Department names Iranian financial
similar to the 2010 EU sanctions,
sector as a jurisdiction of primary
with South Korea adhering to the
money laundering concern.
same 40,000 Euro authorization
requirement. Japan and S. Korea
December 31, 2011: President
froze the assets of 15 Iranian banks;
Obama signed Defense
South Korea targeted Bank Mel at
Authorization (P.L. 112-81)
for freeze.
preventing U.S. accounts with foreign
banks that process transactions with
Iran’s Central Bank.
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Implementation by EU and
U.S. Sanctions
U.N. Sanctions
Some Allied Countries
No direct equivalent, although, as
Resolution 1929 (oper. paragraph 7)
EU measures on July 27, 2010,
discussed above, U.S. proliferations
prohibits Iran from acquiring an
require adherence to this provision
laws provide for sanctions against
interest in any country involving
of Resolution 1929.
foreign entities that help Iran with its
uranium mining, production, or use
nuclear and ballistic missile programs. of nuclear materials, or technology
related to nuclear-capable ballistic
missiles.
Paragraph 9 of Resolution 1929
prohibits Iran from undertaking “any
activity” related to ballistic missiles
capable of delivering a nuclear
weapon.
Effectiveness of Sanctions on Iran
Assessing the effectiveness of U.S. and international sanctions depends upon which goals are
being examined. The following sections examine the effectiveness of sanctions according to a
variety of criteria.
Effect on Iran’s Nuclear Program Decisions and Capabilities
There is a consensus that U.S. and U.N. sanctions have not, to date, accomplished their core
strategic objective of compelling Iran to verifiably limit its nuclear development to purely
peaceful purposes. By all accounts—the United States, the P5+1, the United Nations, the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)—Iran has not complied with the applicable
provisions of the U.N. Security Council resolutions requiring that outcome.
This assessment might be altered depending on the outcome of a process of nuclear talks with
Iran that began in Istanbul during April 13-14, 2012, and continued in Baghdad on May 23-24,
2012, and in Moscow during June 18-19, 2012. Technical level talks since then have been
intended to determine if and when P5+1—Iran talks might resume. The 2012 talks have discussed
specific proposals that might build confidence for eventual resolution of the nuclear issue, but
Iran is demanding an early lifting of the EU oil embargo and other sanctions. The Administration
argues that Iran’s expressed willingness to bargain seriously indicates that sanctions are affecting
leadership calculations, but others, particularly senior leaders in Israel, see Iran as using talks to
play for time to further develop its nuclear program. On October 4, 2012, amid a collapse of
Iran’s currency discussed below, Secretary of State Clinton stated that sanctions could be lifted
“in short order” if Iran were to agree to P5+1 proposals on the nuclear issue. If talks resume in
January 2013, as expected, reports indicate the P5+1 are considering a graduated but substantial
easing of sanctions in exchange for verified steps Iran takes to prove the peaceful intent of its
nuclear program.
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Counter-Proliferation Effects
A related issue is whether the cumulative sanctions have directly set back Iran’s nuclear efforts by
making it difficult for Iran to import needed materials or skills. In a speech on November 22,
2011, National Security Adviser Tom Donilon said:
The effect of these sanctions has been clear. Coupled with mistakes and difficulties in Iran,
they have slowed Iran’s nuclear efforts. Sanctions and export control efforts have made it
more difficult and costly for Iran to acquire key materials and equipment for its enrichment
program, including items that Iran cannot produce itself.57
Others, however, say that there is not clear evidence that sanctions are slowing Iran’s program.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reports, including one released November 16, 2012,
have consistently said that Iran’s stockpile of low-enriched uranium—and its capacity to enrich
uranium at its hardened site at Fordow, near Qom—continues to expand, as do its holdings of
20% enriched uranium.
Effects on Iran’s Regional Political and Military Influence
Sanctions against Iran have not, to date, clearly reduced Iran’s influence or strategic capabilities
in the Middle East. Iran continues to financially and militarily support militant movements in the
Middle East, including the exportation of arms to some of these movements, and to Syria, in
contravention of U.N. Resolution 1747. Iran’s shipment of arms is discussed in the U.N. Panel of
Experts report of June 12, 2012 (U.N. document S/2012/395), mentioned earlier.
A Defense Department report of April 2012, required by P.L. 111-84, called into question the
expectations that sanctions would erode Iran’s conventional military capabilities. The report
discusses Iran’s increasing capabilities in short range ballistic missiles and other weaponry, as
well as acquisition of new ships and submarines.58 It is not clear if any country violated
Resolution 1929 by selling Iran heavy systems, whether such shipments were made before the
Resolution took effect in June 2012, or whether Iran made these systems itself. The report also
discusses Iran’s continued development of medium range ballistic missiles. The issues of Iran’s
regional influence and conventional capabilities are discussed in CRS Report RL32048, Iran:
U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses.
General Political Effects
The international community has hoped that international sanctions might cause a rift within the
senior Iranian leadership. There has been a split since early 2011 between President Ahmadinejad
and Supreme Leader Ali Khamene’i, but the rift was driven primarily by longstanding differences
over the future direction of the Islamic revolution, not by international sanctions. However, as
sanctions have visibly weakened Iran’s economy, most Iranian politicians are blaming
Ahmadinejad for mismanagement that has aggravated the effects of sanctions. After Iran’s
currency collapsed on un-official trading markets in early October 2012, triggering large street
protests, a sufficient number of Iranian parliamentarians (94, which is more than the 74 needed)
57 Speech by National Security Adviser Tom Donilon at the Brookings Institution. November 22, 2011.
58 Department of Defense. Annual Report of Military Power of Iran. April 2012.
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signed onto a formal request that Ahmadinejad appear before the Majles (parliament) to answer
questions about the currency crisis.
One U.S. intelligence official told journalists in January 2012 that the Administration believes
sanctions could also be used to undermine the Iranian regime outright, although that is not the
widely stated goal of U.S. and international sanctions.59 The October 3, 2012, street
demonstrations protesting the currency collapse mostly blaming the regime, and particularly
Ahmadinejad. Earlier evidence of economic frustration came in the form of a riot in the town of
Nishapur—formerly a bastion of support for Ahmadinejad—in late July because the price of
chicken, a staple of many Iranian dishes, had escalated beyond the reach of many families. These
street actions were significant but they were not sustained, suggesting they do not amount to a
burgeoning uprising against the regime. Iran’s population, whether opposed to or supportive of
the government now, have lived through deprivation during the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq War.
The regime also closely watches the attitudes and opinions of Iran’s influential merchant class
(“bazaaris”). The bazaaris’ shift against the former shah of Iran was key to his downfall. The
bazaaris have tended to support the current regime as a provider of economic stability, but they
closed their shops in Tehran on October 3, 2012, to protest the currency collapse. However, the
shutdown was not sustained beyond one day and no organized opposition seems to be emanating
from this constituency.
Labor is also a key interest group. Labor strikes, particularly in the oil sector, were also key to the
1979 downfall of the shah’s rule. There were anecdotal reports of labor unrest in 2011, including
strikes for overdue pay, but these strikes did not appear to have overtly political objectives.
Human Rights-Related Effects
U.S. and international sanctions have not, to date, had a measurable effect on human rights
practices in Iran. Executions have increased in recent years, but that is likely a result of increased
opposition activity stimulated by the 2009 uprising in Iran, and not specifically because the
regime is trying to prevent criticism of its handling of sanctions. Nor has the regime’s ability to
monitor and censor use of the Internet and other media been materially affected to date.
Still, the sanctions have caused several major firms have stop selling Iran equipment that it might
use to assist Iran’s repression of its people – a trend that could benefit media freedom in Iran over
the longer term. For example, German telecommunications firm Siemens (accused of selling
technology that Iran used to monitor the Internet) announced on January 27, 2010, that it would
stop signing new business deals in Iran as of mid-2010.60 A large Chinese firm, Huawei, long
accused by activists of selling Iran Internet monitoring or censorship gear as part of its work in
Iran’s communications industry announced in December 2011 that it was no longer seeking new
business in Iran and withdrawing its sales staff there. A South African firm, MTN Group, owns
49% of Irancell and has been accused by some groups of acting on the Iranian government to shut
down some social network services during times of protest in Iran.61 On August 8, 2012, MTN
59 Karen DeYoung and Scott Wilson. “Public Ire Is One Goal of Sanctions Against Iran, U.S. Official Says.”
Washington Post, January 11, 2012.
60 End, Aurelia. “Siemens Quits Iran Amid Mounting Diplomatic Tensions.” Agence France Press, January 27, 2010.
61 http://www.examiner.com/article/obama-adviser-plouffe-received-100-000-from-iranian-associated-firm
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announced it is in talks with U.S. officials about how to move its assets out of Iran—an apparent
attempt to reduce its involvement in the Iran market.
On October 11, 2012, Eutelsat, a significant provider of satellite service to Iran’s state
broadcasting establishment, ended that relationship. The move followed the EU sanctioning in
March 2012 of the head of the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) Ezzatollah
Zarghami.
Still, several major telecommunications firms are said to still be active in Iran, including
Deutsche Telekom, Ericsson, Emirates Telecom, LG Group, NEC Corporation, and Asiasat. In
mid-October 2012, Israeli news sources asserted that Sweden opposed additional sanctions
against Iran in order to preserve a pending deal for Ericsson to help build a network for Irancell.
Economic Effects/Currency Collapse
The accumulation of international, bilateral, and multilateral sanctions is beginning to take a
dramatic toll on Iran’s economy, by the admission of Iranian leaders. At a press conference on
October 2, 2012, as Iran’s currency, the rial, was collapsing, Ahmadinejad attributed the currency
collapse clearly to international sanctions, although he might have been trying to deflect critics
trying to blame the collapse on economic mismanagement. Ahmadinejad had acknowledged to
the Majles in late December 2011 that Iran is shut out of the international banking system, and he
stated on July 3, 2012, that the sanctions (as of the July 1 EU oil embargo) were the most onerous
in Iran’s history.
The early October currency collapse - which saw the value on unofficial markets fall in one week
from about 28,000 to one U.S. dollar to nearly 40,000 to one dollar - shocked the leadership and
the public. Earlier, the rial had fallen from about 13,000 to the dollar in late September 2011 to
about 28,000 to the dollar as of mid-September 2012—including a significant decline from about
23,000 to the dollar to the 28,000 to the dollar level in the first two weeks of September 2012.
The collapse appeared to reflect a perception that Iran’s hard currency reserves are being depleted
by the sharp fall in Iran’s oil sales. Oil sales account for about 80% of Iran’s foreign currency
earnings, and the proceeds are controlled by the government (Central Bank), not the private
sector. The plummeting currency suggested the government was trying to conserve its supply of
dollars by refusing to make them available to the unofficial currency exchangers that operate in
Tehran and the large cities. The collapse rendered less credible Supreme Leader Ali Khamene’i’s
assertion on July 11, 2012, that decades of sanctions had “vaccinated” Iran from the effects of
current sanctions (referring to the EU embargo) because Iran had, in that time, developed self-
sufficiency.
The factors in the currency collapse, and other indicators of the effect of sanctions and
mismanagement on Iran’s economy include the following:
• The EU oil embargo and the restrictions on transactions with Iran’s Central Bank
have crippled Iran’s oil sales. As of late November 2012, sales appear to have
fallen to about 1.1 million – 1.3 million barrels per day, from the average of 2.5
million barrels per day in 2011 (see chart above on Iran oil buyers). Reducing
Iran’s sales further might depend on whether U.S. officials are able to persuade
China, in particular, to further cut buys from Iran – and to sustain those cuts.
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• Iran has been storing some unsold oil on tankers in the Persian Gulf, and it is
building new storage tanks on shore. Iran has stored excess oil (21 million
barrels, according to Citigroup Global Markets) to try to keep production levels
up—shutting down wells risks harming them and it is costly and time consuming
to resume production at a well that has been shut. However, since July 2012, Iran
reportedly has been forced to shut down some wells, and overall oil production
has fallen to about 2.6 million barrels per day from the level of nearly 4.0 mbd at
the end of 2011.62
• The oil sales losses Iran is experiencing are likely to produce over $50 billion in
hard currency revenue losses in a one year period at current oil prices. The IMF
estimated Iran’s hard currency reserves to be $106 billion as of the end of 2011,
and some economists say that figure may have fallen to about $80 billion as of
November 2012. Analysts at one outside group, the Foundation for the Defense
of Democracies, believe Iran’s hard currency reserves might be exhausted
entirely by July 2014 at current rates of depletion.63 Compounding the loss of oil
sales by volume is that many of its oil transactions reportedly are now conducted
on a barter basis—or in exchange for gold, which is hard currency but harder to
use than cash. And, the February 6, 2013 imposition of sanctions on Iran’s ability
to repatriate hard currency could cause the depletion rate to increase.
• To try to stretch its hard currency reserve, on October 15, 2012, Iran said it would
not supply hard currency for purchases of luxury goods such as cars or
cellphones (the last two of the government’s ten categories of imports, ranked by
their importance). The government is still supplying hard currency for essential
and other key imports. Importers for essential goods can obtain dollars at the
official rate of 12,260 to the dollar, and importers of other key categories of
goods can obtain dollars at a new rate of 28,500 to the dollar. The regime has also
threatened to arrest the unofficial currency traders who sell dollars at less than the
rate of about 28,500 to the dollar. The few unofficial traders that remain active
are said to be trading at approximately that rate so as not to risk arrest.
• Some private funds are going into the Tehran stock exchange and hard assets,
such as property, partly mitigating the effects of the overall economic
deterioration for the relatively well-off.
• Some Iranians and outside economists worry that hyper-inflation might result.
The government estimates that the inflation rate is about 25%, but many
economists believe it exceeds 70%. This has caused Iranian merchants to
withhold goods or shut down entirely because they are unable to set accurate
prices. Almost all Iranian factories depend on imports and the currency collapse
is making it difficult for them to operate. Beyond the issue of the cost of
imported goods, the Treasury Department’s designations of affiliates and ships
belong to Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines (IRISL) reportedly are
harming Iran’s ability to ship goods at all, and have further raised the prices of
goods to Iranian import-export dealers. Some ships have been impounded by
various countries for nonpayment of debts due on them.
62 Rick Gladstone. “Data on Iran Dims Outlook for Economy.” New York Times, October 13, 2012.
63 Foundation for the Defense of Democracies conversation with the author. November 16, 2012.
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• Suggesting Iran’s operating budget is already struggling, some reports say the
government has fallen behind in its payments to military personnel and other
government workers. Others say the government has begun “means testing” in
order to reduce social spending payments (such as subsidy compensation,
discussed below) to some of the less needy families. It also has postponed phase
two of an effort to wean the population off subsidies, in exchange for cash
payments of about $40 per month to 60 million Iranians. Phase one of that
program began in December 2010 after several years of debate and delay, and
was praised for rationalizing gasoline prices. Gasoline prices now run on a tiered
system in which a small increment is available at the subsidized price of about
$1.60 per gallon, but amounts above that threshold are available only at a price of
about $2.60 per gallon, close to the world price. Before the subsidy phase out,
gasoline was sold for about 40 cents per gallon.
• Press reports indicate that sanctions have caused Iran’s production of automobiles
to fall by about 40% from 2011 levels. Iran produces cars for the domestic
market, such as the Khodro, based on licenses from European auto makers such
as Renault and Peugeot.
• The currency collapse has led many economists to question the findings of an
IMF forecast, released in October 2012, that Iran would return to economic
growth in 2013, after a small decline in 2012.
Foreign Companies Exiting the Iran Market
The sanctions have caused Iran to be viewed by international firms as “radioactive,” causing
many international firms to exit the Iranian market even if doing so (for non-U.S. firms) is not
required by any U.N. sanction. Many experts believe that, over time, the efficiency and output of
Iran’s economy will decline as foreign expertise departs and Iran attracts alternative investment
from or imports goods from less capable foreign companies. On the other hand, travelers to Iran
say many foreign products, including U.S. products such as Apple iPhones, are readily available
in Iran, suggesting that such products are being reexported to Iran from neighboring countries.
Examples of major non-U.S. companies discontinuing business with Iran include the following:
• ABB of Switzerland said in January 2010 it would cease doing business with
Iran.
• Siemens of Germany was active in the Iran telecommunications infrastructure
market, but announced in February 2010 that it would cease pursuing business in
Iran. Finemeccanica, a defense and transportation conglomerate of Italy, followed
suit, as did Thyssen-Krupp, a German steelmaker.
• Germany’s Daimler (Mercedes-Benz maker) said in April 2010 it would freeze
planned exports to Iran of cars and trucks and Porsche reportedly has suspended
its sales in Iran as well. Italian carmaker Fiat reportedly has pulled out of the Iran
market.
• Finnish mobile phone maker Nokia reportedly has stopped selling phones in Iran.
• French carmaker Peugeot, which produces cars locally in partnership with Iran’s
Khodro Group, has said it will suspend its operations in Iran from July 1, 2012.
Peugeot is 7% owned by General Motors. GM is not known to have any
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involvement in or to supply any GM content to the Peugeot Iran activities, as
such GM involvement would violate the U.S. trade ban in effect for Iran.
• In August-September 2010, Japan and South Korea announced that their
automakers Toyota, Hyundai, and Kia Motors would cease selling automobiles to
Iran. However, it is unclear whether all South Korean car sales to Iran ceased—in
June 2012, South Korean trade officials said exports to Iran, including Samsung
mobile phones and Hyundai cars, would only be approved if their payment
period were 180 days or less. This restriction is to protect against Iranian
payments defaults because of the severe economic pressure Iran is under.
• Attorneys for BNP Paribas of France told the author in July 2011 that, as of 2007,
the firm was pursuing no new business in Iran, although it was fulfilling existing
obligations in that market.
• On June 30, 2011, according to press reports, the Danish shipping giant Maersk
told Iran that it would no longer operate out of Iran’s three largest ports. The
firm’s decision reportedly was based on the U.S. announcement on June 23,
2011, that it was sanctioning the operator of those ports, Tidewater Middle East
Co., as a proliferation entity under Executive Order 13382. The pullout of
Maersk will likely further raise shipping costs.
• The State Department reported on September 30, 2010, that Hong Kong company
NYK Line Ltd. had ended shipping business with Iran (on any goods).
• Persuading oil services firms to exit Iran was the intent of Executive Order 13590
of November 21, 2011, which makes such activity sanctionable. Well before the
order was issued, one large oil services firm Schlumberger, which in incorporated
in the Netherlands Antilles, said it will wind down its business with Iran.
However, press reports citing company documents say all contracts with Iran
might not be terminated until at least 2013.64
• As discussed above, Indian diplomats told the author in April 2012 that the large
conglomerate Tata is ending its business in Iran.
Foreign Firms Reportedly Remaining in the Iran Market
Still, many major firms continue to run the financial risk of doing business with Iran. Some of the
well-known firms that continue to do so include Alcatel-Lucent of France; Bank of Tokyo-
Mitsubishi UFJ; Bosch of Germany; Canon of Japan; ING Group of the Netherlands; Mercedes of
Germany; Renault of France; Samsung of South Korea; Sony of Japan; Volkswagen of Germany;
Volvo of Sweden; and numerous others. Some of the foreign firms that trade with Iran, such as
Mitsui and Co. of Japan, Alstom of France, and Schneider Electric of France, are discussed in a
March 7, 2010, New York Times article on foreign firms that do business with Iran and also
receive U.S. contracts or financing. The Times article does not claim that these firms have
violated any U.S. sanctions laws. Other firms that work in Iran’s telecommunications sector are
discussed in the section above on sanctions to hinder Iran’s ability to monitor the Internet.
64 Stockman, Farah. “Oil Firm Says It Will Withdraw From Iran.” Boston Globe, November 12, 2010.
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Other questions have arisen over how U.S. sanctions might apply to business with foreign firms
that Iran might acquire a full or partial interest in. Such firms include Daewoo Electronics of
South Korea, where an Iranian firm—Entekhab Industrial Corp.—bid to take over that firm.
Another example is Adabank of Turkey, which reportedly might be sold to Iran.
Effect on Energy Sector Infrastructure and Development
As noted throughout, the U.S. objective has been to focus sanctions against Iran’s energy sector,
considered the engine of Iran’s economy currently and in the future. Beyond the effect of the EU
oil embargo, the Iran Sanctions Act penalties and overall reluctance of major firms to remain in
Iran’s energy sector have caused Iran to decline as a global energy producer. Even before the
international community began leaving Iran’s energy sector, Iran was having trouble maintaining
production at a level of 4 mbd, let alone increasing production. Without foreign help, Iranian
energy firms are unable to derive maximum yield from existing fields or efficiently and
effectively develop new fields.
U.S. officials in 2011 said that Iran has lost $60 billion in investment as numerous major firms
have either announced pullouts from some of their Iran projects, declined to make further
investments, or resold their investments to other companies. It is therefore highly unlikely that
Iran will attract the $145 billion in new investment by 2018 that Iran’s deputy Oil Minister said in
November 2008 that Iran needs. Similar estimates come from independent Iranian energy experts,
who say that, as of October 2011, the sector needs $130 billion in investment from 2011 until
2020.65 Observers at key energy fields in Iran say there is little evidence of foreign investment
activity and little new development activity sighted, including at the large South Pars gas field
that Iran has focused on for at least 10 years.
Others maintain that Iran’s gas sector can compensate for declining oil exports, although Iran has
used its gas development primarily to reinject into its oil fields rather than to export. Iran exports
about 3.6 trillion cubic feet of gas, primarily to Turkey (which reexports some to Europe), but
also to Armenia. On the other hand, sanctions have rendered Iran unable to develop a liquefied
natural gas (LNG) export business. Some Members of Congress believe that ISA would have
been even more effective in injuring Iran’s energy sector if successive administrations had
imposed ISA sanctions more aggressively.
A Government Accountability Office (GAO) report of August 3, 2011, contains tables that discuss
those firms that have discontinued commercial activity in Iran’s energy sector, as well as those
still operating and investing.66 Table 3 shows international firms that have invested or remain
invested in Iran’s energy sector. Some of them have not been determined to have violated ISA and
may be under investigation by the State Department. As discussed above, some firms have been
sanctioned, and others have avoided sanctions either through Administration waivers or
invocation of the “special rule.”
The EU sanctions apparently have also derailed a BP-NIOC joint venture in the Rhum gas field,
200 miles off the coast of Scotland. BP announced in November 2010 that it would stop
production there to ensure compliance with the EU sanctions. In addition, partners in the Trans-
65 Khajehpour presentation at CSIS. Op. cit.
66 GAO. GAO-11-855R. Firms Reported in Open Sources As Having Commercial Activity in Iran’s Oil, Gas, and
Petrochemical Sectors. August 3, 2011.
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Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) said in September 2010 that the pipeline would not be used to transport
Iranian gas to Europe.
Concerns About “Backfill”
There has been a concern that some of the investment void might be “backfilled,” at least partly,
by Asian firms such as those from China, Malaysia, Vietnam, and countries in Eastern Europe.
However, many such deals are said to be in preliminary stages, and clear examples of
“backfilling” are few, to date. Most of the companies that might backfill abandoned projects are
perceived as not being as technically capable as those that have withdrawn from Iran.
To try to mitigate the trend in Iran has been that the “backfill” is being conducted by domestic
companies, particularly those controlled or linked to the Revolutionary Guard (IRGC). Deals with
Polish and Russian firms fell apart in late 2011, and their projects reportedly were taken over by
domestic Iranian firms. Still, backfill by Iranian firms has potential pitfalls because foreign firms
are reluctant to partner with IRGC firms, which are increasingly targeted by international
sanctions. In July 2010, after the enactment of Resolution 1929 and CISADA, the Revolutionary
Guard’s main construction affiliate, Khatem ol-Anbiya, announced it had withdrawn from
developing Phases 15 and 16 of South Pars—a project worth $2 billion.67 Khatem ol-Anbiya took
over that project in 2006 when Norway’s Kvaerner pulled out of it.
Table 4. Post-1999 Major Investments/Major Development Projects
in Iran’s Energy Sector
Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
Feb.
Doroud (oil)
Total (France)/ENI
$1 billion
205,000 bpd
1999
(Italy)
(Energy Information Agency, Department
of Energy, August 2006.)
Total and ENI exempted from sanctions
on September 30 because of pledge to
exit Iran market
April
Balal (oil)
Total/ Bow Valley
$300 million
40,000 bpd
1999
(Canada)/ENI
(“Balal Field Development in Iran
Completed,” World Market Research
Centre, May 17, 2004.)
Nov.
Soroush and Nowruz (oil)
Royal Dutch Shell
$800 million
190,000 bpd
1999
(Netherlands)/Japex
(“News in Brief: Iran.” Middle East
(Japan)
Economic Digest, (MEED) January 24,
2003.)
Royal Dutch exempted from sanctions on
9/30 because of pledge to exit Iran
market
April
Anaran bloc (oil)
Norsk Hydro and
$105 million
65,000
2000
Statoil (Norway) and
(MEED Special Report, December 16,
Gazprom and Lukoil
67 “Iran Revolutionary Guards Pull Out of Gas Deal Over Sanctions.” Platts, July 19, 2010.
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Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
2005, pp. 48-50.)
(Russia) No production
to date; Statoil and
Norsk have left project.
July
Phase 4 and 5, South Pars (gas)
ENI
$1.9 billion
2 billion cu.
2000
ft./day (cfd)
(Petroleum Economist, December 1, 2004.)
Gas onstream as of
Dec. 2004
ENI exempted 9/30 based on pledge to
exit Iran market
March
Caspian Sea oil exploration—
GVA Consultants
$225 million
NA
2001
construction of submersible drilling rig
(Sweden)
for Iranian partner
(IPR Strategic Business Information
Database, March 11, 2001.)
June
Darkhovin (oil)
ENI
$1 billion
100,000 bpd
2001
(“Darkhovin Production Doubles.” Gulf
Field in production
Daily News, May 1, 2008.) ENI told CRS
in April 2010 it would close out all Iran
operations by 2013.
ENI exempted from sanctions on 9/30, as
discussed above
May
Sheer Energy
$80 million
25,000 bpd
2002
Masjid-e-Soleyman (oil)
(Canada)/China
National Petroleum
(“CNPC Gains Upstream Foothold.”
Company (CNPC).
MEED, September 3, 2004.)
Local partner is
Naftgaran Engineering
Sept.
LG Engineering and
$1.6 billion
2 billion cfd
2002
Phase 9 + 10, South Pars (gas)
Construction Corp.
(now known as GS
(“OIEC Surpasses South Korean
Engineering and
Company in South Pars.” IPR Strategic
Construction Corp.,
Business Information Database,
South Korea)
November 15, 2004.)
On stream as of early
2009
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Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
October
Phase 6, 7, 8, South Pars (gas)
Statoil (Norway)
$750 million
3 billion cfd
2002
(Source: Statoil, May 2011)
Field began producing late 2008;
operational control handed to NIOC in
2009. Statoil exempted from sanctions on
9/30/2010 because Statoil pledged to exit
Iran market.
January
Azadegan (oil)
Inpex (Japan) 10%
$200 million
260,000 bpd
2004
stake. CNPC agreed to
(Inpex stake);
(“Japan Mul s Azadegan Options.” APS
develop “north
China $1.76
Review Oil Market Trends, November
Azadegan” in Jan. 2009
billion
27, 2006.)
October 15, 2010: Inpex announced it
would exit the project by selling its stake;
“special rule” exempting it from ISA
investigation invoked November 17,
2010.
August
Tusan Block
Petrobras (Brazil)
$178 million
No
2004
production
Oil found in block in Feb. 2009, but not in
commercial quantity, according to the
firm. (“Iran-Petrobras Operations.” APS
Review Gas Market Trends, April 6,
2009; “Brazil’s Petrobras Sees Few
Prospects for Iran Oil,”
(http://www.reuters.com/article/
idUSN0317110720090703.)
October
Yadavaran (oil)
Sinopec (China), deal
$2 billion
300,000 bpd
2004
finalized Dec. 9, 2007
Formal start of development of the field
still delayed as of September 2011
(“China Curbs Iran Energy Work,”
Reuters, September 2, 2011)
2005
Saveh bloc (oil)
PTT (Thailand)
?
?
GAO report, cited below
June
Garmsar bloc (oil)
Sinopec (China)
$20 million
?
2006
Deal finalized in June 2009
(“China’s Sinopec signs a deal to develop
oil block in Iran—report,” Forbes, 20
June 2009, http://www.forbes.com/feeds/
afx/2006/06/20/afx2829188.html.)
July
Arak Refinery expansion
Sinopec (China); JGC
$959 million
Expansion to
2006
(Japan). Work may have (major initial
produce
(GAO reports; Fimco FZE Machinery
been taken over or
expansion;
250,000 bpd
website; http://www.fimco.org/index.php?
continued by Hyundai
extent of
option=com_content&task=view&id=70&
Heavy Industries (S.
Hyundai work
Itemid=78.)
Korea)
unknown)
Sept.
Khorramabad block (oil)
Norsk Hydro and
$49 million
?
2006
Statoil (Norway).
Seismic data gathered, but no production
is planned. (Statoil factsheet, May 2011)
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Iran Sanctions
Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
Dec.
North Pars Gas Field (offshore gas).
China National
$16 billion
3.6 billion cfd
2006
Includes gas purchases
Offshore Oil Co.
Work crews reportedly pulled from the
project in early-mid 2011. (“China Curbs
Iran Energy Work” Reuters, September 2,
2011)
Feb.
LNG Tanks at Tombak Port
Daelim (S. Korea)
$320 million
200,000 ton
2007
capacity
Contract to build three LNG tanks at
Tombak, 30 miles north of Assaluyeh
Port.
(May not constitute “investment” as
defined in pre-2010 version of ISA,
because that definition did not specify
LNG as “petroleum resource” of Iran.)
“Central Bank Approves $900 Million for
Iran LNG Project.” Tehran Times, June
13, 2009.
Feb.
Phase 13, 14—South Pars (gas)
Royal Dutch Shell,
$4.3 billion
?
2007
Repsol (Spain)
Deadline to finalize as May 20, 2009,
apparently not met; firms submitted revised
proposals to Iran in June 2009.
(http://www.rigzone.com/news/article.asp?
a_id=77040&hmpn=1.)
State Department said on September 30,
2010, that Royal Dutch Shel and Repsol
have ended negotiations with Iran and will
not pursue this project any further
March
Esfahan refinery upgrade
Daelim (S. Korea)
NA
2007
(“Daelim, Others to Upgrade Iran’s
Esfahan Refinery.” Chemical News and
Intelligence, March 19, 2007.)
July
Phase 22, 23, 24—South Pars (gas)
Turkish Petroleum
$12. billion
2 billion cfd
2007
Company (TPAO)
Pipeline to transport Iranian gas to
Turkey, and on to Europe and building
three power plants in Iran. Contract not
finalized to date.
Dec.
Golshan and Ferdows onshore and
SKS Ventures,
$16 billion
3.4 billion cfd
2007
offshore gas fields and LNG plant
Petrofield Subsidiary
(Malaysia)
contract modified but reaffirmed
December 2008
(GAO report; Oil Daily, January 14,
2008.)
2007
Jofeir Field (oil)
Belarusneft (Belarus)
$500 million
40,000 bpd
(unspec.)
under contract to
GAO report cited below. Belarusneft, a
Naftiran.
subsidiary of Belneftekhim, sanctioned
under ISA on March 29, 2011. Naftiran
No production to date
sanctioned on September 29, 2010, for
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Iran Sanctions
Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
this and other activities.
2008
Dayyer Bloc (Persian Gulf, offshore,
Edison (Italy)
$44 million
?
oil)
GAO report cited below
Feb.
Lavan field (offshore natural gas)
PGNiG (Polish Oil and
$2 billion
2008
Gas Company, Poland)
GAO report cited below invested.
PGNiG invested, but delays caused Iran
to void PGNiG contract in December
2011. Project to be implemented by
Iranian firms. (Fars News, December 20,
2011)
March
Danan Field (on-shore oil)
Petro Vietnam
? ?
2008
Exploration and
“PVEP Wins Bid to Develop Danan
Production Co.
Field.” Iran Press TV, March 11, 2008
(Vietnam)
April
Iran’s Kish gas field
Oman (co-financing of
$7 billion
1 billion cfd
2008
project)
Includes pipeline from Iran to Oman
(http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=
112062§ionid=351020103.)
April
Moghan 2 (onshore oil and gas,
INA (Croatia)
$40-$140
?
2008
Ardebil province)
million
(dispute over
GAO report cited below
size)
-
Kermanshah petrochemical plant
Uhde (Germany)
300,000
(new construction)
metric tons/yr
GAO report cited below
January
“North Azadegan”
CNPC (China)
$1.75 billion
75,000 bpd
2009
(Chinadaily.com. “CNPC to Develop
Azadegan Oilfield,”
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/
2009-01/16/content_7403699.htm.)
January
Bushehr Polymer Plants
Sasol (South Africa)
?
Capacity is 1
2009
million tons
Production of polyethelene at two
per year.
polymer plants in Bushehr Province
Products are
exported
(GAO August 2011 report)
from Iran.
March
Phase 12 South Pars (gas)—part 1. Incl.
Taken over by Indian
$8 billion
20 million
2009
LNG terminal construction and Farzad-B
firms (ONGC, Oil India from Indian
tonnes of
natural gas bloc. Project stalled due to
Ltd., Hinduja, Petronet
firms/$1.5
LNG annually
sanctions; ONGC and Hinduja have had
in 2007). Sonanagol
billion
by 2012
difficulty financing the project. Sonangol
(Angola) has 20% stake, Sonangol/$780
reportedly exited project in February 2012
and PDVSA (Venezuela) million
due to inability to finance its stake.
involved as well.
PDVSA
“Noose Tightens Around Iran Oil.”
Washington Post, March 6, 2012.
August
Abadan refinery
Sinopec
up to $6
2009
billion if new
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Iran Sanctions
Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
Upgrade and expansion; building a new
refinery is
refinery at Hormuz on the Persian Gulf
built
coast
October
South Pars Gas Field—Phases 6-8,
G and S Engineering
$1.4 billion
2009
Gas Sweetening Plant
and Construction
(South Korea)
CRS conversation with Embassy of S.
Korea in Washington, D.C, July 2010
Contract signed but then abrogated by S.
Korean firm
Nov.
South Pars: Phase 12—Part 2 and
Daelim (S. Korea)—
$4 billion ($2
2009
Part 3
Part 2; Tecnimont
bn each part)
(Italy)—Part 3
(“Italy, South Korea To Develop South
Pars Phase 12.” Press TV (Iran),
November 3, 2009,
http://www.presstv.com/pop/Print/?id=
110308.)
Feb.
South Pars: Phase 11
CNPC (China)
$4.7 billion
2010
Drilling was to begin in March 2010, but
drilling still delayed as of September 2011.
(“China Curbs Iran Energy Work,”
Reuters, September 2, 2011)
2011
Azar Gas Field
Gazprom (Russia)
Gazprom contract voided in late 2011 by
Iran due to Gazprom’s unspecified failure
to fulfill its commitments.
Dec.
Zagheh Oil Field
Tatneft (Russia)
$1 billion
55,000 barrels
2011
per day within
Preliminary deal signed December 18, 2011
five years
(Associated Press, December 18, 2011)
Sources: As noted in table, as wel as CRS conversations with officials of the State Department Bureau of
Economics, and officials of embassies of the parent government of some of the listed companies (2005-2009).
Some information comes from various GAO reports, the latest of which was updated on August 3, 2011, in
GAO-11-855R. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d11855r.pdf.
Note: CRS has neither the mandate, the authority, nor the means to determine which of these projects, if any,
might constitute a violation of the Iran Sanctions Act. CRS has no way to confirm the precise status of any of the
announced investments, and some investments may have been resold to other firms or terms altered since
agreement. In virtual y all cases, such investments and contracts represent private agreements between Iran and
its instruments and the investing firms, and firms are not necessarily required to confirm or publicly release the
terms of their arrangements with Iran. Reported $20 million+ investments in oil and gas fields, refinery upgrades,
and major project leadership are included in this table. Responsibility for a project to develop Iran’s energy
sector is part of ISA investment definition.
Effect on Gasoline Availability and Importation
In March 2010, well before the enactment of CISADA on July 1, 2010, several gas suppliers to
Iran, anticipating this legislation, announced that they had stopped or would stop supplying
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Iran Sanctions
gasoline to Iran.68 Others have ceased since the enactment of CISADA. Some observers say that
gasoline deliveries to Iran fell from about 120,000 barrels per day before CISADA to about
30,000 barrels per day immediately thereafter,69 although importation recovered to about 80,000
barrels per day by September 2011 and has remained roughly around that level since. Some
gasoline sellers, possibly including some already sanctioned for this activity (see above) appear to
be selling to Iran.
The phaseout of gasoline subsidies discussed above has reduced demand for gasoline. Iran has
also increased domestic production by converting at least two petrochemical plants to gasoline
production, through a generally inferior process that initially produces benzene, leading to a large
increase in air pollution in Tehran. Iran also says it has accelerated renovations and other
improvements to existing gasoline refineries, allocating $2.2 billion for that purpose. Even before
the subsidy reduction, there had not been significant gasoline shortages or gasoline rationing.
Building new refining capacity appears to be Iran’s long term effort to reduce its vulnerability to
gasoline supply reductions. Iran’s deputy oil minister said in July 2010 Iran would try to invest
$46 billion to upgrade its nine refineries and build seven new ones, a far larger amount than Iran
had previously allocated for this purpose. Given Iran’s economic difficulties as of mid-2012, it is
doubtful Iran has the resources to invest at that level for this purpose.
The main suppliers to Iran prior to the CISADA sanctions, according to the GAO, are listed
below, and most have stopped such sales, although some reports say that partners or affiliates of
these firms may still sell to Iran in cases where the corporate headquarters have announced a halt.
As noted in a New York Times report of March 7, 2010,70 and a Government Accountability Office
study released September 3, 2010,71 some firms that have supplied Iran have received U.S. credit
guarantees or contracts:
• Vitol of Switzerland (notified GAO it stopped selling to Iran in early 2010);
• Trafigura of Switzerland (notified GAO it stopped selling to Iran in November
2009);
• Glencore of Switzerland (notified GAO it stopped selling in September 2009);
• Total of France (notified GAO it stopped sales to Iran in May 2010);
• Reliance Industries of India (notified GAO it stopped sales to Iran in May 2009).
• Petronas of Malaysia (said on April 15, 2010, it had stopped sales to Iran);72
• Lukoil of Russia (reported to have ended sales to Iran in April 2010,73 although
some reports continue that Lukoil affiliates are supplying Iran);
68 Information in this section derived from, Blas, Javier. “Traders Cut Iran Petrol Line.” Financial Times, March 8,
2010.
69 Information provided at Foundation for Defense of Democracies conference on Iran. December 9, 2010.
70 Becker, Jo and Ron Nixon. “U.S. Enriches Companies Defying Its Policy on Iran.” New York Times, March 7, 2010.
71 GAO-10-967R. Exporters of Refined Petroleum Products to Iran. September 3, 2010.
72 http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/009370f0-486e-11df-9a5d-00144feab49a.html.
73 http://www.defenddemocracy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11788115&Itemid=105.
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Iran Sanctions
• Royal Dutch Shell of the Netherlands (notified GAO it stopped sales in October
2009);
• Kuwait’s Independent Petroleum Group (told U.S. officials it stopped selling
gasoline to Iran as of September 2010);74
• Tupras of Turkey (stopped selling to Iran as of May 2011, according to the State
Department);
• British Petroleum of United Kingdom, Shell, Q8, Total, and OMV are no longer
selling aviation fuel to Iran Air, according to U.S. State Department officials on
May 24, 2011;
• A UAE firm, Golden Crown Petroleum FZE, told the author in April 2011 that, as
of June 29, 2010, it no longer leases vessels for the purpose of shipping
petroleum products from or through Iran;
• Munich Re, Allianz, Hannover Re (Germany) were providing insurance and re-
insurance for gasoline shipments to Iran. However, they reportedly have exited
the market for insuring gasoline shipments for Iran;75
• Lloyd’s (Britain). The major insurer had been the main company insuring Iranian
gas (and other) shipping, but reportedly has ended that business as of July 2010
According to the State Department, key shipping associations have created
clauses in their contracts that enable ship owners to refuse to deliver gasoline to
Iran;
• According to the State Department on May 24, 2011, Linde of Germany has said
it had stopped supplying gas liquefaction technology to Iran, contributing to
Iran’s decision to suspend its LNG program.
Firms Believed to Still Be Supplying Gasoline or Related Equipment
Some firms are reported to still be selling gasoline to Iran or helping it import gasoline. They
include:
• The firms sanctioned by the Administration on May 24, 2011 (discussed above),
which have not announced cessation of deliveries to Iran despite being
sanctioned. They include PCCI (Jersey/Iran); Royal Oyster Group (UAE);
Speedy Ship (UAE/Iran); Tanker Pacific (Singapore); Ofer Brothers Group
(Israel); Associated Shipbroking (Monaco); and Petroleos de Venezuela
(Venezuela).
• Zhuhai Zhenrong, Unipec, and China Oil of China. Zhuhai Zhenrong is
reportedly continuing to sell to Iran even though it was sanctioned for this
activity on January 12, 2012, as noted above.
• Emirates National Oil Company of UAE has been reported by GAO to still be
selling to Iran. Another UAE energy trader, FAL, may still be selling even though
it was sanctioned on January 12, 2012, as discussed above.
74 http://www.defenddemocracy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11788115&Itemid=105.
75 http://www.defenddemocracy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11788115&Itemid=105.
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Iran Sanctions
• Hin Leong Trading of Singapore was reported by GAO to still be selling gasoline
to Iran. Kuo Oil of Singapore may still be selling even though it was sanctioned
on January 12, 2012, as discussed above;
• Some refiners in Bahrain reportedly may still be selling gasoline to Iran.
Humanitarian Effects/Air Safety
The effects of sanctions on the population’s living standards was discussed above. Some Iranian
pilots have begun to complain publicly and stridently that U.S. sanctions are causing Iran’s
passenger airline fleet to deteriorate to the point of jeopardizing safety. Since the U.S. trade ban
was imposed in 1995, 1,700 passengers and crew of Iranian aircraft have been killed in air
accidents, although it is not clear how many of the crashes, if any, were due specifically to the
difficultly in providing U.S. spare parts to Iran’s fleet.76
Press reports have mounted since mid-2012 that sanctions are hurting the population’s ability to
obtain Western-made medicines, such as chemo-therapy medicines, and other critical goods.
Some of the scarcity is caused by banks’ refusal to finance such sales, even though doing so is
technically allowed under all applicable sanctions. Some believe that a proliferation of press
reports about such deprivations is changing the focus about Iran sanctions from Iran’s non-
compliance to the suffering of the Iranian public, and thereby causing growing opposition in
Europe and elsewhere to increasing sanctions on Iran.
Possible Additional Sanctions
Even though international sanctions are now comprehensive, some experts believe that additional
pressure is needed to convince Iranian leaders that they must negotiate curbs on Iran’s nuclear
enrichment program.
U.S. Legislative Initiatives in 2012
Many in the 112th Congress believe that the cumulative effects of U.S. and international sanctions
remain insufficient to accomplish key U.S. policy goals and that additional sanctions legislation is
needed. Still, the Administration prefers taking its own action—which it can calibrate to account
for the views of U.S. partner countries—rather than be bound by specific congressional
requirements.
This belief generated the enactment of H.R. 1905 —The “Iran Threat Reduction and Syria
Human Rights Act of 2012” – the provisions of which are discussed above. H.R. 1905 passed the
House on December 14, 2011, by a vote of 410-11. On May 21, 2012, the Senate substituted the
provisions of its own version, S. 2101, and passed H.R. 1905 by voice vote. A House-Senate
agreed version was announced on July 30, 2012, and passed both chambers on August 1, 2012
(voice vote in the Senate and a vote of 421-6 in the House). The President signed it into law on
August 10, 2012 (P.L. 112-158). The final version of the law contained some provisions of other
bills introduced in the 112th Congress and some of which advanced to floor action, including H.R.
76 Thomas Erdbink. “Iran’s Aging Airliner Fleet Seen As Faltering Under U.S. Sanctions.” July 14, 2012.
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2105, which passed the House on December 14, 2011; S. 1048, S. 879, H.R. 1714, S. 366, and
H.R. 740.
Not adopted in P.L. 112-158 was another bill, H.R. 4317, that would require sanctions against any
foreign firm that conducts any transaction with Iran’s energy sector, including oil purchasing, or
H.R. 4070, that would freeze Iranian assets held by a clearing corporation (such as the
Clearstream account discussed above) and use the funds to pay judgments against Iran for acts of
terrorism. Another idea not included in P.L. 112-158 was to apply sanctions on foreign banks
under the CISADA law to dealings with all Iranian banks, not just the ones that are already
sanctioned (as is the current situation under CISADA).
Table 5.Comparison of Major Provisions of H.R. 1905/P.L. 112-158
(Key provisions are discussed in detail in the text of the report and are summarized here.)
House-passed version
Senate-passed version (S. 2101 as
Enacted Version (P.L. 112-
amended)
158)
Restates virtually all provisions of the
No equivalent
No equivalent
Iran Sanctions Act
Adds two sanctions to the ISA menu.
Similar provision
Adds three sanctions to ISA
menu
Requires the President to impose at
Requires the President to
least 6 out of the expanded ISA menu
impose 5 out of the 12 ISA
of 11 available sanctions on violators.
sanctions on violators.
Extends ISA sanctions (majority of the Extends ISA sanctions to persons who
Provisions discussed in text,
menu) any firm that helps Iran issue
participate in energy related joint
including sanctions on shipping
sovereign debt.
ventures with Iran.
oil from Iran, Iran energy joint
ventures, uranium mining
Does not extend ISA sanctions to
Codifies Executive Order 13590 to apply ventures, purchasing Iran
energy joint ventures with Iran.
ISA sanctions to providers of energy and
sovereign debt, and insuring
petrochemical equipment to Iran.
NIOC or NITC.
Subjects U.S. persons to penalty if
Subjects to ISA sanctions foreign persons Similar to Senate version.
they conduct any business with the
who engage in “significant” transactions
IRGC or its affiliated entities, or with
with the IRGC, its agents, or affiliates.
any foreign firm that conducts such
banned transactions with the IRGC or
its affiliates.
Bars foreign aid, arms sales, and U.S.
support for loans to any government
providing support to the IRGC.
Bans commerce between Iran and
Similar provision
Similar provision
subsidiaries of U.S. firms, in cases
where the subsidiary is controlled or
more than 50% owned by the parent.
Bans previously permissible licensing
No provision
No provision
of the sale to Iran of U.S. equipment
to provide for the safe operation of
Iran’s civilian aircraft fleet.
Authorizes aid to groups promoting
No provision
No provision
democracy in Iran.
Requires an Administration report
Excludes from the United States Iranian
Similar to House version
listing all persons who are members of students who study issues related to
named Iranian government
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institutions, including high ranking
Iran’s energy sector or nuclear program.
IRGC officers—and ban visas for the
named individuals.
Contains elements similar to H.R. 740
Similar provision
Similar provision
on Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC) disclosures.
Sanctions Iran’s Central Bank if the
No provision
No provision. This sanction
President determines that it helped
mooted by enactment of P.L.
Iran acquire WMD or facilitated
112-81.
transactions for the Revolutionary
Guard or for entities sanctioned by
the United States.
Sets as U.S. policy to press Iraq not to No provision
No provision
close Camp Ashraf.
No equivalent
Bars foreign banks from the U.S. market
Other provisions sanctioning
if they process transactions with the Iran transactions with NIOC and
National Oil Company (NIOC) and the
NITC discussed in text of
Iran National Tanker Company (NITC).
report.
(This is similar to a stand-alone bill, H.R.
3843.)
No equivalent
Authorizing sanctions against the inter-
Authorizes but does not
bank communication system SWIFT
mandate sanctions on SWIFT
(Society for Worldwide Interbank
and similar services.
Financial Telecommunication), its
directors and significant shareholders—
and similar services—if they continue to
process transactions with Iranian banks.
No provisions on Syria
Strengthens U.S. sanctions against Syria.
Similar to Senate version
No equivalent
Strengthens sanctions against persons
Similar to Senate version.
aiding censorship in Iran, or who fail to
prevent Iran from jamming or
manipulating broadcast signals, including
by satellite service providers for Iran.
No equivalent
A sense of Congress that “al options are No provision.
on the table” with respect to Iran and
clarification that no provision is to be
construed as authorization for military
force against Iran (or Syria).
No equivalent
Considers as Iranian “assets” securities
No provision.
owned by Iran and held by or transferred
via clearing corporations—and therefore
subjects such holdings to U.S.
impoundment for the purpose of paying
judgments against Iran for past acts of
terrorism.
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Iran Sanctions in FY2013 National Defense Authorization Bill
An Iran sanctions amendment to S. 3254, the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2013,
was adopted 94-0 on November 30, 2012. Its major provisions are the following:
• It blocks property and imposes at least 5 ISA sanctions on entities that provides
goods or services to the energy, shipbuilding, and shipping sectors of Iran, or to
port operations there – or which provides insurance for such transactions. It
blocks U.S. banking activity of a foreign bank that facilitates financial
transactions for supply of these goods or services. These sanctions do not apply
when such transactions involve purchases of Iranian oil by countries that have
active exemptions under the P.L. 112-81 (FY2012 National Defense
Authorization Act). The sanctions do not apply to transactions related to the
purchase of natural gas from Iran.
• A provision imposes ISA sanctions on any entity that provides precious metals to
Iran (such as gold), or semi-finished metals or software for integrating industrial
processes. There is no exception for countries exempted under P.L. 112-81.
• Another provision sanctions Iran’s state broadcasting establishment (Islamic
Republic of Iran Broadcasting) as a human rights abuser, triggering sanctions
discussed above (Section 105 of CISADA).
• A provision targets elements of the Iranian government that are engaged in
corruption such as cornering the market for certain imports, such as advanced
medicines.
Possible Additional U.S. or International Sanctions
There are a number of other possible sanctions that might receive consideration—either in a
global or multilateral framework, or U.S. unilateral action targeting foreign firms and entities.
• U.S. Sanctions to Compel a Ban on All Trade With Iran. Some organizations,
such as United Against Nuclear Iran, advocate steps that would sanctions
virtually all foreign trade with Iran, with exceptions for food and medical
products. This idea appears to have opposition among U.S. allied governments
that object to measures that broadly affect the Iranian people or curb commerce
in purely civilian goods.
• Comprehensive Ban on Energy Imports from Iran. Many experts believe that the
most effective sanction would be a mandated, worldwide embargo on the
purchase of Iranian crude oil. Despite the curbing of Iranian oil imports by all
major buyers, there are no indications that a comprehensive worldwide embargo
would achieve consensus at the U.N. Security Council. However, Executive
Order 13622 and P.L. 112-158 come close to constituting a U.S. unilateral move
to compel others to cease purchasing Iranian oil. And, as noted, on October 15,
2012, the EU adopted a ban on gas imports from Iran.
• Iran Oil Free Zone. Prior to the EU oil embargo on Iran, there was discussion of
forcing a similar result by closing the loophole in the U.S. trade ban under which
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Iranian crude oil, when mixed with other countries’ oils at foreign refineries in
Europe and elsewhere, can be imported as refined product. Such a ban would
likely cause EU and other major refiners to stop buying Iranian oil, likely forcing
down the price received by Iran for its oil, although without raising the world
price of oil significantly. Some argue this concept has been mooted by the EU oil
embargo, while others say the step still has value in making sure the EU oil
embargo on Iran is not lifted or modified.
• Mandating Reductions in Diplomatic Exchanges with Iran or Prohibiting Travel
by Iranian Officials. Some have suggested a worldwide ban on travel to Iranian
civilian officials, such as those involved in suppressing democracy activists.
Some have called on countries to reduce their diplomatic presence in Iran, or to
expel some Iranian diplomats from Iranian embassies in their territories.
However, the EU came one step closer to this option after the November 29
attack on the British Embassy in Tehran. Canada closed its embassy in Tehran in
September 2012. The EU, as noted, on December 1, 2011, named numerous
Iranian persons as subject to a visa ban.
• Barring Iran from International Sporting Events. A further option is to limit
sports or cultural exchanges with Iran, such as Iran’s participation in the World
Cup soccer tournament. However, many experts oppose using sporting events to
accomplish political goals.
• Sanctioning Iranian Profiteers and Corruption. Some experts believe that the
United States and international community has not effectively targeted for
sanctions Iranians who are exercising special rights, monopolies, or political
contacts for personal gain, and depriving average Iranians of economic
opportunity and of goods at reasonable prices.
• Banning Passenger Flights to and from Iran. Bans on flights to and from Libya
were imposed on that country in response to the finding that its agents were
responsible for the December 21, 1988, bombing of Pan Am 103 (now lifted).
There are no indications that a passenger aircraft flight ban is under consideration
among the P5+1. A variation of this idea could be the imposition of sanctions
against airlines that are in joint ventures or codeshare arrangements with Iranian
airlines.
• A Ban on Exports to Iran of Refined Oil Products and Energy Equipment and
Services. Another possibility is to make worldwide the U.S. and EU bans on sales
of energy equipment or services to Iran. During the 1990s, U.N. sanctions against
Libya for the Pan Am 103 bombing banned the sale of energy equipment to
Libya.
• Limiting Lending to Iran by International Financial Institutions. Resolution 1747
calls for restraint on but does not outright ban international lending to Iran. An
option is to make a ban on such lending mandatory. Some U.S. groups have
called for the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to withdraw all its holdings in
Iran’s Central Bank and suspend Iran’s membership in the body.
• Banning Trade Financing or Official Insurance for Trade Financing. Another
option is to mandate a worldwide ban on official trade credit guarantees. This
was not mandated by Resolution 1929, but several countries imposed this
sanction subsequently. In discussions that led to Resolution 1929, a ban on
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investment in Iranian bonds reportedly was considered but deleted to attract
China and Russia’s support.
• Banning Worldwide Investment in Iran’s Energy Sector. Most major countries
have already adopted this sanction, but some advocate a U.N. Security Council
ban on investment so that countries such as China would be compelled to end
further investment in that Iranian sector.
• Restricting Operations of and Insurance for Iranian Shipping. One option,
reportedly long under consideration, has been a worldwide ban on provision of
insurance or reinsurance for any shipping to or from Iran. A call for restraint is in
Resolution 1929, but is not mandatory. As of July 1, 2012, the EU is slated to ban
such insurance, and many of the world’s major insurers are in Europe.
• Imposing a Worldwide Ban on Sales of Arms to Iran. Resolution 1929 imposes a
ban on sales of major weapons systems to Iran, but another option is to extend
that ban to all lethal equipment.
Sanctions Easing/Incentives
Some believe that the United States and its international partners need to prepare for possibly
easing sanctions as part of a nuclear agreement with Iran. During the rounds of talks with Iran in
2012 the P5+1 have offered more modest steps as “reciprocity” for any agreement with Iran.
Steps offered included civilian aircraft parts, civilian assistance to Iran’s nuclear reactor that is
used to produce medical isotopes, safety upgrades for the civilian reactor at Bushehr, and possibly
technical assistance to Iran’s energy sector. The negotiating group has also reportedly considered
to withdraw the EU ban on shipping insurance to Iranian oil tankers that went into effect July 1,
2012, in concert with the EU oil purchase embargo.
Iran is widely perceived as insisting that the EU oil embargo be lifted in exchange for a nuclear
deal, and many believe there will be no Iranian agreement unless that is offered. Some observers
believe Congress, in legislation, should spell out specific sanctions laws that would be altered if
Iran were to meet international nuclear demands. Other observers believe that the international
community should offer incentives—such as promises of aid, investment, trade preferences, and
other benefits—if Iran were to completely abandon uranium enrichment in Iran or were there to
be a new regime formed in Iran.
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Table 6. Entities Sanctioned Under U.N. Resolutions and
U.S. Laws and Executive Orders
(Persons listed are identified by the positions they held when designated; some have since changed.)
Entities Named for Sanctions Under Resolution 1737
Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEIO) Mesbah Energy Company (Arak supplier)
Kalaye Electric (Natanz supplier))
Pars Trash Company (centrifuge program) Farayand Technique (centrifuge program)
Defense Industries Organization (DIO)
7th of Tir (DIO subordinate)
Shahid Hemmat Industrial Group (SHIG)—missile program
Shahid Bagheri Industrial Group (SBIG)—missile program
Fajr Industrial Group (missile program)
Mohammad Qanadi, AEIO Vice President
Behman Asgarpour (Arak manager)
Ehsan Monajemi (Natanz construction manager)
Jafar Mohammadi (Adviser to AEIO)
Gen. Hosein Salimi (Commander, IRGC Air Force)
Dawood Agha Jani (Natanz official)
Ali Hajinia Leilabadi (director of Mesbah Energy)
Lt. Gen. Mohammad Mehdi Nejad Nouri (Malak Ashtar University of Defence Technology rector)
Bahmanyar Morteza Bahmanyar (AIO official)
Reza Gholi Esmaeli (AIO official)
Ahmad Vahid Dastjerdi (head of Aerospace Industries Org., AIO)
Maj. Gen. Yahya Rahim Safavi (Commander in Chief, IRGC)
Entities/Persons Added by Resolution 1747
Ammunition and Metallurgy Industries Group (controls 7th of Tir)
Parchin Chemical Industries (branch of DIO)
Karaj Nuclear Research Center
Novin Energy Company
Cruise Missile Industry Group
Sanam Industrial Group (subordinate to AIO)
Ya Mahdi Industries Group
Kavoshyar Company (subsidiary of AEIO)
Sho’a Aviation (produces IRGC light aircraft for asymmetric warfare)
Bank Sepah (funds AIO and subordinate entities)
Esfahan Nuclear Fuel Research and Production Center and Esfahan Nuclear Technology Center
Qods Aeronautics Industries (produces UAV’s, para-gliders for IRGC asymmetric warfare)
Pars Aviation Services Company (maintains IRGC Air Force equipment)
Gen. Mohammad Baqr Zolqadr (IRGC officer serving as deputy Interior Minister
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Brig. Gen. Qasem Soleimani (Qods Force commander)
Fereidoun Abbasi-Davani (senior defense scientist)
Mohasen Fakrizadeh-Mahabai (defense scientist)
Seyed Jaber Safdari (Natanz manager)
Mohsen Hojati (head of Fajr Industrial Group)
Ahmad Derakshandeh (head of Bank Sepah)
Brig. Gen. Mohammad Reza Zahedi (IRGC ground forces commander)
Amir Rahimi (head of Esfahan nuclear facilities)
Mehrdada Akhlaghi Ketabachi (head of SBIG)
Naser Maleki (head of SHIG)
Brig. Gen. Morteza Reza’i (Deputy commander-in-chief, IRGC)
Vice Admiral Ali Akbar Ahmadiyan (chief of IRGC Joint Staff)
Brig. Gen. Mohammad Hejazi (Basij commander)
Entities Added by Resolution 1803
Thirteen Iranians named in Annex 1 to Resolution 1803; al reputedly involved in various aspects of nuclear program.
Bans travel for five named Iranians.
Electro Sanam Co.
Abzar Boresh Kaveh Co. (centrifuge production)
Barzaganin Tejaral Tavanmad Saccal
Jabber Ibn Hayan
Khorasan Metallurgy Industries
Niru Battery Manufacturing Co. (Makes batteries for Iranian military and missile systems)
Ettehad Technical Group (AIO front co.)
Industrial Factories of Precision
Joza Industrial Co.
Pshgam (Pioneer) Energy Industries
Tamas Co. (involved in uranium enrichment)
Safety Equipment Procurement (AIO front, involved in missiles)
Entities Added by Resolution 1929
Over 40 entities added; makes mandatory a previously nonbinding travel ban on most named Iranians of previous
resolutions. Adds one individual banned for travel—AEIO head Javad Rahiqi
Amin Industrial Complex
Armament Industries Group
Defense Technology and Science Research Center (owned or control ed by Ministry of Defense)…….
Doostan International Company
Farasakht Industries
First East Export Bank, PLC (only bank added by Resolution 1929)
Kaveh Cutting Tools Company
M. Babaie Industries
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Malek Ashtar University (subordinate of Defense Technology and Science Research Center, above)
Ministry of Defense Logistics Export (sells Iranian made arms to customers worldwide)
Mizan Machinery Manufacturing
Modern Industries Technique Company
Nuclear Research Center for Agriculture and Medicine (research component of the AEIO)
Pejman Industrial Services Corp.
Sabalan Company
Sahand Aluminum Parts Industrial Company
Shahid Karrazi Industries
Shahid Sattari Industries
Shahid Sayyade Shirazi Industries (acts on behalf of the DIO)
Special Industries Group (another subordinate of DIO)
Tiz Pars (cover name for SHIG)
Yazd Metallurgy Industries
The following are Revolutionary Guard affiliated firms, several are subsidiaries of Khatam ol-Anbiya, the main Guard
construction affiliate:
Fater Institute
Garaghe Sazendegi Ghaem
Gorb Karbala
Gorb Nooh
Hara Company
Imensazan Consultant Engineers Institute
Khatam ol-Anbiya
Makin
Omran Sahel
Oriental Oil Kish
Rah Sahel
Rahab Engineering Institute
Sahel Consultant Engineers
Sepanir
Sepasad Engineering Company
The fol owing are entities owned or control ed by Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines (IRISL):
Irano Hind Shipping Company
IRISL Benelux
South Shipping Line Iran
Entities Designated Under U.S. Executive Order 13382
(many designations coincident with designations under U.N. resolutions)
Entity Date
Named
Shahid Hemmat Industrial Group (Iran)
June 2005, September 2007
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Shahid Bakeri Industrial Group (Iran)
June 2005, February 2009
Atomic Energy Organization of Iran
June 2005
Novin Energy Company (Iran)
January 2006
Mesbah Energy Company (Iran)
January 2006
Four Chinese entities: Beijing Alite Technologies, LIMMT Economic and Trading
June 2006
Company, China Great Wall Industry Corp, and China National Precision
Machinery Import/Export Corp.
Sanam Industrial Group (Iran)
July 2006
Ya Mahdi Industries Group (Iran)
July 2006
Bank Sepah (Iran)
January 2007
Defense Industries Organization (Iran)
March 2007
June 2007
Pars Trash (Iran, nuclear program)
Farayand Technique (Iran, nuclear program)
Fajr Industries Group (Iran, missile program)
Mizan Machine Manufacturing Group (Iran, missile prog.)
Aerospace Industries Organization (AIO) (Iran)
September 2007
Korea Mining and Development Corp. (N. Korea)
September 2007
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Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)
October 21, 2007
Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces Logistics
Bank Melli (Iran’s largest bank, widely used by Guard); Bank Melli Iran Zao
(Moscow); Melli Bank PC (U.K.)
Bank Kargoshaee
Arian Bank (joint venture between Melli and Bank Saderat). Based in Afghanistan
Bank Mellat (provides banking services to Iran’s nuclear sector); Mellat Bank SB
CJSC (Armenia). Reportedly has $1.4 billion in assets in UAE
Persia International Bank PLC (U.K.)
Khatam ol Anbiya Gharargah Sazendegi Nooh (main IRGC construction and
contracting arm, with $7 billion in oil, gas deals)
Oriental Oil Kish (Iranian oil exploration firm)
Ghorb Karbala; Ghorb Nooh (synonymous with Khatam ol Anbiya)
Sepasad Engineering Company (Guard construction affiliate)
Omran Sahel (Guard construction affiliate)
Sahel Consultant Engineering (Guard construction affiliate)
Hara Company
Gharargahe Sazandegi Ghaem
Bahmanyar Morteza Bahmanyar (AIO, Iran missile official, see above under
Resolution 1737)
Ahmad Vahid Dastjerdi (AIO head, Iran missile program)
Reza Gholi Esmaeli (AIO, see under Resolution 1737)
Morteza Reza’i (deputy commander, IRGC) See also Resolution 1747
Mohammad Hejazi (Basij commander). Also, Resolution 1747
Ali Akbar Ahmadian (Chief of IRGC Joint Staff). Resolution 1747
Hosein Salimi (IRGC Air Force commander). Resolution 1737
Qasem Soleimani (Qods Force commander). Resolution 1747
Future Bank (Bahrain-based but allegedly control ed by Bank Melli)
March 12, 2008
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Entities sanctioned on July 8, 2008:
Yahya Rahim Safavi (former IRGC Commander in Chief);
Mohsen Fakrizadeh-Mahabadi (senior Defense Ministry scientist)
Dawood Agha-Jani (head of Natanz enrichment site)
Mohsen Hojati (head of Fajr Industries, involved in missile program)
Mehrdada Akhlaghi Ketabachi (heads Shahid Bakeri Industrial Group)
Naser Maliki (heads Shahid Hemmat Industrial Group)
Tamas Company (involved in uranium enrichment)
Shahid Sattari Industries (makes equipment for Shahid Bakeri)
7th of Tir (involved in developing centrifuge technology)
Ammunition and Metal urgy Industries Group (partner of 7th of Tir)
Parchin Chemical Industries (deals in chemicals used in ballistic missile programs)
August 12, 2008:
Karaj Nuclear Research Center
Esfahan Nuclear Fuel Research and Production Center (NFRPC)
Jabber Ibn Hayyan (reports to Atomic Energy Org. of Iran, AEIO)
Safety Equipment Procurement Company
Joza Industrial Company (front company for Shahid Hemmat Industrial Group, SHIG)
September 10, 2008:
Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines (IRISL) and 18 affiliates, including Val Fajr 8; Kazar; Irinvestship; Shipping
Computer Services; Iran o Misr Shipping; Iran o Hind; IRISL Marine Services; Iriatal Shipping; South Shipping; IRISL
Multimodal; Oasis; IRISL Europe; IRISL Benelux; IRISL China; Asia Marine Network; CISCO Shipping; and IRISL Malta
September 17, 2008:
Firms affiliated to the Ministry of Defense, including Armament Industries Group; Farasakht Industries; Iran Aircraft
Manufacturing Industrial Co.; Iran Communications Industries; Iran Electronics Industries; and Shiraz Electronics
Industries
October 22, 2008
Export Development Bank of Iran. Provides financial services to Iran’s Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces
Logistics
Banco Internacional de Desarollo, C.A., Venezuelan-based Iranian bank, sanctioned as an affiliate of the Export
Development Bank.
Assa Corporation (alleged front for Bank Melli involved in managing property in
December 17, 2008
New York City on behalf of Iran)
March 3, 2009
11 Entities Tied to Bank Melli: Bank Melli Iran Investment (BMIIC); Bank Melli Printing and Publishing; Melli Investment
Holding; Mehr Cayman Ltd.; Cement Investment and Development; Mazandaran Cement Co.; Shomal Cement;
Mazandaran Textile; Melli Agrochemical; First Persian Equity Fund; BMIIC Intel. General Trading
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February 10, 2010:
IRGC General Rostam Qasemi, head of Khatem ol-Anbiya Construction Headquarters (key corporate arm of the
IRGC)
Fater Engineering Institute (linked to Khatem ol-Anbiya)
Imensazen Consultant Engineers Institute (linked to Khatem ol-Anbiya)
Makin Institute (linked to Khatem ol-Anbiya)
Rahab Institute (linked to Khatem on-Anbiya)
Entities sanctioned on June 16, 2010
- Post Bank of Iran
- IRGC Air Force
- IRGC Missile Command
- Rah Sahel and Sepanir Oil and Gas Engineering (for ties to Khatem ol-Anibya IRGC construction affiliate)
- Mohammad Ali Jafari—IRGC Commander-in-Chief since September 2007
- Mohammad Reza Naqdi—Head of the IRGC’s Basij militia force that suppresses dissent (since October 2009)
- Ahmad Vahedi—Defense Minister
- Javedan Mehr Toos, Javad Karimi Sabet (procurement brokers or atomic energy managers)
- Naval Defense Missile Industry Group (controlled by the Aircraft Industries Org that manages Iran’s missile
programs)
- Five front companies for IRISL: Hafiz Darya Shipping Co.; Soroush Sarzamin Asatir Ship Management Co.; Safiran
Payam Darya; and Hong Kong-based Seibow Limited and Seibow Logistics.
Also identified on June 16 were 27 vessels linked to IRISKL and 71 new names of already designated IRISL ships.
Several Iranian entities were also designated as owned or control ed by Iran for purposes of the ban on U.S. trade
with Iran.
Entities sanctioned on November 30, 2010
- Pearl Energy Company (formed by First East Export Bank, a subsidiary of Bank Mel at
- Pearl Energy Services, SA
- Ali Afzali (high official of First East Export Bank)
- IRISL front companies: Ashtead Shipping, Byfleet Shipping, Cobham Shipping, Dorking Shipping, Effingham Shipping,
Farnham Shipping, Gomshal Shipping, and Horsham Shipping (al located in the Isle of Man).
- IRISL and affiliate officials: Mohammad Hosein Dajmar, Gholamhossein Golpavar, Hassan Jalil Zadeh, and Mohammad
Haji Pajand.
Entities sanctioned on December 21, 2010:
- Bonyad (foundation) Taavon Sepah, for providing services to the IRGC
- Ansar Bank (for providing financial services to the IRGC)
- Mehr Bank (same justification as above)
- Moallem Insurance Company (for providing marine insurance to IRISL, Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines)
- Bank of Industry and Mine (BIM)
May 17, 2011
- Tidewater Middle East Company
June 23, 2011
- Iran Air
- Mehr-e Eqtesad Iranian Investment Co.
- Bank Tejarat
January 23, 2012
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- Trade Capital Bank (Belarus-based but control ed by Tejarat)
March 28, 2012:
Iran Maritime Industrial Company SADRA (owned by IRGC engineering firm Khatem-ol-Anbiya, has offices in
Venezuela)
Deep Offshore Technology PJS (subsidiary of the above)
Malship Shipping Agency and Modality Ltd (both Malta-based affiliates of IRISL)
Seyed Alaeddin Sadat Rasool (IRISL legal adviser)
Ali Ezati (IRISL strategic planning and public affairs manager)
July 12, 2012:
- Electronic Components Industries Co. (ECI) and Information Systems Iran (ISIRAN)
- Advanced Information and Communication Technology Center (AICTC) and Hamid Reza Rabiee (software engineer
for AICTC)
- Digital Medial Lab (DML) and Value Laboratory (owned or control ed by Rabiee or AICTC)
- Ministry of Defense Logistics Export (MODLEX)
Daniel Frosh (Austria) and International General Resourcing FZE)—person and his UAE-based firm al egedly supply
Iran’s missile industry.
November 8, 2012:
- National Iranian Oil Company
-Tehran Gostaresh, company owned by Bonyad Taavon Sepah
- Imam Hossein University, owned by IRGC
-Baghyatollah Medical Sciences University, owned by IRGC or providing services to it.
Iran-Related Entities Sanctioned Under Executive Order 13224 (Terrorism Entities)
Martyr’s Foundation (Bonyad Shahid), a major Iranian foundation (bonyad)—for
July 25, 2007
providing financial support to Hezbollah and PIJ
Goodwil Charitable Organization, a Martyr’s Foundation office in Dearborn,
Michigan
Al Qard Al Hassan—part of Hezbol ah’s financial infrastructure (and associated
with previously designated Hezbollah entities Husayn al-Shami, Bayt al-Mal, and
Yousser Company for Finance and Investment.
Qasem Aliq—Hezbol ah official, director of Martyr’s Foundation Lebanon branch,
and head of Jihad al-Bina, a previously designated Lebanese construction company
run by Hezbol ah.
Ahmad al-Shami—financial liaison between Hezbollah in Lebanon and Martyf’s
Foundation chapter in Michigan
Qods Force
October 21, 2007
Bank Saderat (al egedly used to funnel Iranian money to Hezbol ah, Hamas, PIJ, and October 21, 2007
other Iranian supported terrorist groups)
Al Qaeda Operatives in Iran: Saad bin Laden; Mustafa Hamid; Muhammad Rab’a al-
January 16, 2009
Bahtiyti; Alis Saleh Husain
Qods Force senior officers: Hushang Allahdad, Hossein Musavi,Hasan Mortezavi,
August 3, 2010
and Mohammad Reza Zahedi
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Iranian Committee for the Reconstruction of Lebanon, and its director Hesam
August 3, 2010
Khoshnevis, for supporting Lebanese Hizbal ah
Imam Khomeini Relief Committee Lebanon branch, and its director Ali Zuraik, for
August 3, 2010
providing support to Hizballah
Razi Musavi, a Syrian based Iranian official al egedly providing support to Hizbal ah
August 3, 2010
Liner Transport Kish (for providing shipping services to transport weapons to
December 21, 2010
Lebanese Hizbal ah)
For alleged plot against Saudi Ambassador to the U.S.:
October 11, 2011
Qasem Soleimani (Qods Force commander)
Hamid Abdollahi (Qods force)
Abdul Reza Shahlai (Qods Force)
Ali Gholam Shakuri (Qods Force)
Manssor Arbabsiar (al eged plotter)
Mahan Air (for transportation services to Qods Force)
October 12, 2011
Ministry of Intelligence and Security of Iran (MOIS)
February 16, 2012
Yas Air (successor to Pars Air)
March 27, 2012
Behineh Air (Iranian trading company)
Ali Abbas Usman Jega (Nigerian shipping agent)
Qods Force officers: Esmail Ghani, Sayyid Ali Tabatabaei, and Hosein Aghajani
Entities and persons sanctioned for weapons shipments to Syria and an October
2011 shipment bound for Gambia, intercepted in Nigeria.
Entities Sanctioned Under the Iran North Korea Syria Non-Proliferation Act or Executive Order
12938
The designations are under the Iran, North Korea, Syria Non-Proliferation Act (INKSNA) unless specified. These
designations expire after two years, unless re-designated
Baltic State Technical University and Glavkosmos, both of Russia
July 30, 1998 (E.O. 12938).
Both removed in 2010—Baltic
on January 29, 2010, and
Glavkosmos on March 4, 2010
D. Mendeleyev University of Chemical Technology of Russia and Moscow Aviation
January 8, 1999 (E.O. 12938).
Institute
Both removed on May 21, 2010
Norinco (China). For alleged missile technology sale to Iran.
May 2003
Taiwan Foreign Trade General Corporation (Taiwan)
July 4, 2003
Tula Instrument Design Bureau (Russia). For alleged sales of laser-guided artillery
September 17, 2003 (also
shells to Iran.
designated under Executive
Order 12938), removed May
21, 2010
13 entities sanctioned including companies from Russia, China, Belarus, Macedonia, April 7, 2004
North Korea, UAE, and Taiwan.
14 entities from China, North Korea, Belarus, India (two nuclear scientists, Dr.
September 29, 2004
Surendar and Dr. Y.S.R. Prasad), Russia, Spain, and Ukraine.
14 entities, mostly from China, for al eged supplying of Iran’s missile program.
December 2004 and January
Many, such as North Korea’s Changgwang Sinyong and China’s Norinco and Great 2005
Wall Industry Corp, have been sanctioned several times previously. Newly
sanctioned entities included North Korea’s Paeksan Associated Corporation, and
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Taiwan’s Ecoma Enterprise Co.
9 entities, including those from China (Norinco yet again), India (two chemical
December 26, 2005
companies), and Austria. Sanctions against Dr. Surendar of India (see September
29, 2004) were ended, presumably because of information exonerating him.
7 entities. Two Indian chemical companies (Balaji Amines and Prachi Poly
August 4, 2006 (see below for
Products); two Russian firms (Rosobornexport and aircraft manufacturer Sukhoi);
Rosobornexport removal)
two North Korean entities (Korean Mining and Industrial Development, and Korea
Pugang Trading); and one Cuban entity (Center for Genetic Engineering and
Biotechnology).
9 entities. Rosobornexport, Tula Design, and Komna Design Office of Machine
January 2007 (see below for
Building, and Alexei Safonov (Russia); Zibo Chemical, China National
Tula and Rosoboronexport
Aerotechnology, and China National Electrical (China). Korean Mining and
removal)
Industrial Development (North Korea) for WMD or advanced weapons sales to
Iran (and Syria).
14 entities, including Lebanese Hezbol ah. Some were penalized for transactions
April 23, 2007
with Syria. Among the new entities sanctioned for assisting Iran were Shanghai
Non-Ferrous Metals Pudong Development Trade Company (China); Iran’s Defense
Industries Organization; Sokkia Company (Singapore); Challenger Corporation
(Malaysia); Target Airfreight (Malaysia); Aerospace Logistics Services (Mexico); and
Arif Durrani (Pakistani national).
13 entities: China Xinshidai Co.; China Shipbuilding and Offshore International
October 23, 2008.
Corp.; Huazhong CNC (China); IRGC; Korea Mining Development Corp. (North
Rosoboronexport removed
Korea); Korea Taesong Trading Co. (NK); Yolin/Yullin Tech, Inc. (South Korea);
May 21, 2010.
Rosoboronexport (Russia sate arms export agency); Sudan Master Technology;
Sudan Technical Center Co; Army Supply Bureau (Syria); R and M International
FZCO (UAE); Venezuelan Military Industries Co. (CAVIM);
16 entities: Belarus: Belarusian Optical Mechanical Association; Beltech Export;
May 23, 2011
China: Karl Lee; Dalian Sunny Industries; Dalian Zhongbang Chemical Industries
Co.; Xian Junyun Electronic; Iran: Milad Jafari; DIO; IRISL; Qods Force; SAD
Import-Export; SBIG; North Korea: Tangun Trading; Syria: Industrial Establishment
of Defense; Scientific Studies and Research Center; Venezuela: CAVIM.
4 entities: Mohammad Minai, senior Qods Force member involved in Iraq; Karim
November 8, 2012
Muhsin al-Ghanimi, leader of Kata’ib Hezbollah militia in Iraq; Sayi d Salah Hantush
al-Maksusi, senior Kata’ib Hezbollah member; and Riyad Jasim al-Hamidawi, Iran
based Kata’ib Hezbollah member
Entities Designated as Threats to Iraqi Stability under Executive Order 13438
Ahmad Forouzandeh. Commander of the Qods Force Ramazan Headquarters,
January 9, 2008
accused of fomenting sectarian violence in Iraq and of organizing training in Iran for
Iraqi Shiite militia fighters
Abu Mustafa al-Sheibani. Iran based leader of network that funnels Iranian arms to
January 9, 2008
Shiite militias in Iraq.
Isma’il al-Lami (Abu Dura). Shiite militia leader, breakaway from Sadr Mahdi Army,
January 9, 2008
alleged to have committed mass kidnapings and planned assassination attempts
against Iraqi Sunni politicians
Mishan al-Jabburi. Financier of Sunni insurgents, owner of pro-insurgent Al-Zawra
January 9, 2008
television, now banned
Al Zawra Television Station
January 9, 2008
Khata’ib Hezbollah (pro-Iranian Mahdi splinter group)
July 2, 2009
Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis
July 2, 2009
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Iranians Sanctioned Under September 29, 2010, Executive Order 13553 on Human Rights Abusers
1. IRGC Commander Mohammad Ali Jafari
Al sanctioned on September
29, 2010
2. Minister of Interior at time of June 2009 elections Sadeq Mahsouli
3. Minister of Intelligence at time of elections Qolam Hossein Mohseni-Ejei
4. Tehran Prosecutor General at time of elections Saeed Mortazavi
5. Minister of Intelligence Heydar Moslehi
6. Former Defense Minister Mostafa Mohammad Naj ar
7. Deputy National Police Chief Ahmad Reza Radan
8. Basij (security militia) Commander at time of elections Hossein Taeb
9. Tehran Prosecutor General Abbas Dowlatabadi (appointed August 2009). Has
Sanctioned on February 23,
indicted large numbers of Green movement protesters.
2011
10. Basij forces commander (since October 2009) Mohammad Reza Naqdi (was
head of Basij intel igence during post 2009 election crackdown)
11. Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)
June 9, 2011.
12. Basij Resistance Force
13. Law Enforcement Forces (LEF)
14. LEF Commander Ismail Ahmad Moghadam
15. Ministry of Intelligence and Security of Iran (MOIS)
February 16, 2012
Iranians Sanctioned Under Executive Order 13572 (April 29, 2011) for Repression of the Syrian People
Revolutionary Guard—Qods Force
April 29, 2011
Qasem Soleimani (Qods Force Commander)
May 18, 2011
Mohsen Chizari (Commander of Qods Force operations and training)
Same as above
Iranian Entities Sanctioned Under Executive Order 13606 Targeting Human Rights Abuses Via
Information Technology (April 23, 2012)
- Ministry of Intelligence and Security (MOIS)
- The IRGC (Guard Cyber Defense Command)
- Law Enforcement Forces
- Datak Telecom
Entities Names as Iranian Government Entities Under Executive Order 13599
Designations made July 12, 2012:
- Petro Suisse Intertrade Company (Switzerland)
-Hong Kong Intertrade Company (Hong Kong)
- Noor Energy (Malaysia)
- Petro Energy Intertrade (Dubai, UAE)
(all four of the above were name as front companies for NIOV, Naftiran Intertrade Company, Ltd (NICO), or NICO
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Sarl)
- 20 Iranian financial institutions (names not released but available from Treasury Dept.)
- 58 vessels of National Iranian Tanker Company (NITC)
Entities Designated as Human Rights Abusers or Limiting Free Expression Under Executive Order
13628
Designations made on November 8, 2012:
- Ali Fazli, deputy commander of the Basij
- Reza Taghipour, Minister of Communications and Information Technology
- LEF Commander Moghaddam (see above)
- Center to Investigate Organized Crime (established by the IRGC to protect the government from cyber attacks
- Press Supervisory Board, established in 1986 to issue licenses to publications and oversee news agencies
- Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance
- Rasool Jalili, active in assisting the government’s Internet censorship activities.
- Anm Afzar Goster-e-Sharif, company owned by Jalili, above, to provide web monitoring and censorship gear.
- PekyAsa, another company owned by Jalili, to develop telecom software.
Author Contact Information
Kenneth Katzman
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
kkatzman@crs.loc.gov, 7-7612
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