Trafficking in Persons: International
Dimensions and Foreign Policy Issues for
Congress
Liana Sun Wyler
Analyst in International Crime and Narcotics
April 20, 2012
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R42497
CRS Report for Congress
Pr
epared for Members and Committees of Congress
Trafficking in Persons: International Dimensions and Foreign Policy Issues for Congress
Summary
Trafficking in persons, or human trafficking, refers to the involuntary subjection of men, women,
and children to exploitative conditions that can be tantamount to slavery. Reports suggest that
human trafficking is a global phenomenon, victimizing millions of people each year and
contributing to a multi-billion dollar criminal industry. It is a centuries-old problem that, despite
international and U.S. efforts to eliminate it, continues to occur in virtually every country in the
world. Human trafficking is also an international and cross-cutting policy problem that bears on a
range of major national security, human rights, criminal justice, social, economic, migration,
gender, public health, and labor issues.
The U.S. government and successive Congresses have long played a leading role in international
efforts to combat human trafficking. Key U.S. foreign policy responses include the following:
• Foreign Country Reporting to describe annual progress made by foreign
governments to combat human trafficking, child soldiers, and forced labor.
• Foreign Product Blacklisting to identify goods made with convict, forced, or
indentured labor, including forced or indentured child labor.
• Foreign Aid to support foreign countries’ efforts to combat human trafficking.
• Foreign Aid Restrictions to punish countries that are willfully noncompliant
with anti-trafficking standards.
• Conditions on Trade Preference Program Beneficiaries to offer certain
countries export privileges to the United States, only if they also adhere to
international standards against forced labor and child trafficking.
• Preventing U.S. Government Participation in Trafficking Overseas to punish
and deter trafficking-related violations among U.S. government personnel and
contractors.
Although there is widespread support among policy makers for the continuation of U.S. anti-
trafficking goals, ongoing reports of such trafficking worldwide raise questions regarding whether
sufficient progress has been made to deter and ultimately eliminate the problem, the end goal of
current U.S. anti-trafficking policies. This report explores current foreign policy issues
confronting U.S. efforts to combat human trafficking, the interrelationship among existing
polices, and the historical and current role of Congress in such efforts.
The 112th Congress has introduced and taken action on several bills related to human trafficking,
including bills to reauthorize the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), the cornerstone
legislative vehicle for current U.S. policy to combat human trafficking, beyond FY2011 (S. 1301,
H.R. 2830, and H.R. 2583). Given recent challenges in balancing budget priorities, the 112th
Congress may choose to consider certain aspects of this issue further, including the effectiveness
of international anti-trafficking projects, interagency coordination mechanisms, and the
monitoring and enforcement of anti-trafficking regulations, particularly as they relate to the
activities of U.S. government contractors and subcontractors operating overseas.
For an overview of domestic and international provisions in the TVPA, see CRS Report
RL34317, Trafficking in Persons: U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress, by Alison Siskin and
Liana Sun Wyler.
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Trafficking in Persons: International Dimensions and Foreign Policy Issues for Congress
Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
U.S. Foreign Policy Framework ...................................................................................................... 3
Foreign Policy Issues....................................................................................................................... 7
Foreign Country Reporting........................................................................................................ 8
Foreign Product Blacklisting................................................................................................... 10
Foreign Aid and International Anti-Trafficking Projects......................................................... 12
Foreign Aid Restrictions.......................................................................................................... 16
Conditions on Country Beneficiary Status for Trade Preference Programs ............................ 20
Preventing U.S. Government Participation in Trafficking Overseas....................................... 21
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Figures
Figure 1. International Anti-Trafficking Obligations and Foreign Operations Budget.................. 15
Tables
Table 1. Key International Treaties Addressing Trafficking in Persons Which the United
States Has Ratified or Acceded To................................................................................................ 5
Table 2. Summary of Foreign Country Reporting Requirements .................................................... 9
Table 3. Foreign Product Blacklisting Terms Used in Comparison............................................... 12
Table 4. Assistance to Combat Trafficking in Persons in the State Department’s Foreign
Operations Budget ...................................................................................................................... 14
Table 5. Aid Restrictions and Waivers Pursuant to the TVPA, FY2004-FY2012.......................... 17
Table 6. Aid Restrictions and Waivers Pursuant to the CSPA of 2008, FY2011-FY2012 ............. 18
Appendixes
Appendix. Selected Legislation in the 112th Congress................................................................... 27
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 33
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Trafficking in Persons: International Dimensions and Foreign Policy Issues for Congress
Introduction
Trafficking in persons, or human trafficking, refers to the involuntary subjection of men, women,
and children to exploitative conditions that some equate with slavery. It is a centuries-old problem
that, despite international and U.S. efforts to eliminate it, continues to occur in virtually every
country in the world. Common forms of human trafficking include trafficking for commercial
sexual exploitation and trafficking through forced labor and debt bondage. Other forms of human
trafficking also include trafficking for domestic servitude and the use of children in armed
conflict (e.g., child soldiers).
The modern manifestation of this trafficking problem is driven by the willingness of labor and
service providers to violate anti-trafficking laws and regulations in the face of continued
international demand for cheap labor and services and gaps in the enforcement of such rules.
Ongoing demand is particularly concentrated among industries and economic sectors that are
low-skill and labor-intensive. To address the complex dynamics at issue in human trafficking,
policy responses are cross-cutting and international, bringing together diverse stakeholders in the
fields of foreign policy, human rights, international security, criminal justice, migration, refugees,
public health, child welfare, gender issues, urban planning, international trade, labor recruitment,
and government contracting and procurement.
In the United States, Congress has enacted legislation to address
aspects of the problem, including the Trafficking Victims
Further Reading
Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA, Division A of P.L. 106-386, as
For additional information on
amended); TVPA reauthorizations (TVPRAs of 2003, 2005, and
human trafficking beyond
2008); the Child Soldiers Prevention Act of 2008 (CSPA of 2008,
selected foreign policy issues
Title IV of P.L. 110-457); and the Tariff Act of 1930 (Title III,
covered in this report, see CRS
Report RL34317, Trafficking in
Chapter 497, as amended). Other trafficking-related provisions
Persons: U.S. Policy and Issues for
have also been enacted through the Trade Act of 1974 (Title V of
Congress, by Alison Siskin and
P.L. 93-618, as amended), the Trade and Development Act of 2000
Liana Sun Wyler. RL34317
(TDA, P.L. 106-200, as amended), and several additional trade
provides an expanded overview
preference programs authorized by Congress.
of the human trafficking
phenomenon, both as it exists in
the United States and abroad. It
Although the United States has long supported international efforts
also describes and analyzes both
to eliminate various forms of human trafficking, a new wave of
the domestic and international
contemporary action against international human trafficking
provisions in the TVPA and
galvanized in the late 1990s as news stories drew attention to the
related issues for Congress,
including immigration relief for
discovery of trafficked women and children from the former
trafficking victims discovered in
Soviet Union forced to participate in the commercial sex industries
the United States, aid available to
in Western Europe and North America. Across the international
victims in the United States, and
community, the transnational nature of the phenomenon
domestic investigations of
trafficking offenses.
highlighted the need for improved international coordination and
commitment to halting trafficking flows. To this end, the United
Nations (U.N.) adopted in 2000 the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
Persons, Especially Women and Children (hereinafter U.N. Trafficking Protocol), a supplement to
the U.N. Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime. The U.N. Trafficking Protocol is
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not the first or only multilateral mechanism to address human trafficking; it was, however, the
first to define trafficking in persons and require States Parties to criminalize such activity.1
Since the U.N. Trafficking Protocol entered into force in 2003, the international community has
seen an uptick in the number of countries enacting laws that prohibit and criminally punish
human trafficking. While observers note that continued vigilance is required to encourage the
remaining 46 U.N. members to become States Parties to the U.N. Trafficking Protocol, emphasis
from the U.S. foreign policy perspective has also been placed on improving the implementation
and enforcement of anti-trafficking laws. According to the U.S. State Department’s 2011
Trafficking in Persons Report (hereinafter TIP Report), 62 countries have yet to convict a
trafficker under laws in accordance with the U.N. Trafficking Protocol.2
Continued public attention and academic research suggest that human trafficking remains a
problem—a key rationale for the repeated reauthorization and enactment of further legislative
enhancements to the TVPA, most recently through the TVPRA of 2008 (P.L. 110-457). Data on
the global scope and severity of human trafficking continue to be lacking, due in large part to
uneven enforcement of anti-trafficking laws internationally and related challenges in identifying
victims. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), an estimated 12.3 million
individuals are currently subjected to forced labor worldwide. The sources of victims have
diversified over time, as have the industries in which such trafficking victims are found. Known
flows involve victims originating not only from Eastern and Central Europe, but also from South
and Southeast Asia, North and West Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Observers,
however, debate whether existing anti-trafficking efforts worldwide have resulted in appreciable
and corresponding progress toward the global elimination of human trafficking.
The 112th Congress has remained active on international human trafficking issues, particularly
with appropriations identified for anti-trafficking assistance purposes, pending legislation in both
chambers to reauthorize the TVPA, and an active record of committee hearings. Given current
challenges in balancing budget priorities, Congress may choose to further explore possible gaps
and redundancies in international anti-trafficking projects, whether there is a need for enhanced
interagency coordination mechanisms for funding and programming prioritization, and what
prospects may exist to invigorate the monitoring and enforcement of anti-trafficking laws and
policies, particularly as they relate to U.S. government contractors and subcontractors. See the
Appendix for further discussion of pending legislation in the 112th Congress on international
human trafficking.
1 Other key international treaties addressing human trafficking, which the United States has ratified or acceded to,
include the 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and
Practices Similar to Slavery; the 2000 U.N. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale
of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography; the 2000 U.N. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the
Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict; the 1957 International Labor Organization
(ILO) Convention No. 105 on the Abolition of Forced Labour; and the 1999 ILO Convention No. 182 on the Worst
Forms of Child Labour.
2 U.S. Department of State (DOS), Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons (J/TIP), Trafficking in
Persons Report 2011, June 27, 2011. Hereinafter cited as TIP Report (2011).
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U.S. Foreign Policy Framework
Current U.S. foreign policy approaches for addressing human trafficking are a modern off-shoot
of anti-slavery policies that centered initially on reinforcing international prohibitions on forced
labor during the first half of the 20th century. With time, U.S. and international perspectives on the
global scope of human trafficking have expanded to cover a broader range of victims and
prohibited activities, including sex trafficking and the exploitation of children in labor, armed
conflict, and the commercial sex industry. The ultimate goal of current U.S. anti-trafficking policy
is to eliminate the problem and support international efforts to abolish human trafficking
worldwide.
The U.S. government has long played a leading role in international efforts to combat human
trafficking, with Congress in particular driving contemporary U.S. foreign policy responses.
Several major sources of foreign policy legislation and executive branch guidance frame current
U.S. responses to the problem. They include the following:
• Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000. The cornerstone legislative vehicle
for current U.S. policy on combating international human trafficking is the
Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA), as amended and
reauthorized (TVPRAs).3 Among other provisions, the TVPA formalized the
overall U.S. approach to anti-trafficking through an emphasis on prevention of
severe forms of human trafficking, prosecution of traffickers, and protection of
victims (the three Ps) both domestically and internationally. It establishes
minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and specific criteria to
assess whether such standards have been met. The TVPA also established several
key elements in the U.S. foreign policy response to human trafficking, including
the State Department Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons;
interagency entities to coordinate anti-trafficking policies across U.S. agencies,
such as the Senior Policy Operating Group (SPOG) and President’s Interagency
Task Force (PITF); several reporting requirements to Congress; authorities to
provide anti-trafficking foreign aid; and mechanisms to withhold U.S. aid to
countries that fail to achieve progress in combating human trafficking.
• National Security Presidential Directive 22. Highlighting the impact of human
trafficking on U.S. national security, President George W. Bush in December
2002 issued National Security Presidential Directive 22 on Combating
Trafficking in Persons (NSPD-22).4 NSPD-22 is “based on an abolitionist
3 The TVPA has been amended and reauthorized through the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of
2003 (TVPRA of 2003), P.L. 109-162; the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005 (TVPRA of
2005), P.L. 109-164; and the William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008
(TVPRA of 2008), P.L. 110-457. Additional provisions, amending the TVPA are also located at Section 682 of
Division A (Department of State Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 2003), Title VI, Subtitle G of the Foreign Relations
Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 2003 (P.L. 107-228); and Section 804 of Title VIII, Subtitle A of the Violence Against
Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-162). The TVPA is codified at 22 U.S.C.
7101-7112. Unless otherwise noted, all subsequent references to the TVPA are assumed to refer to the TVPA, as
amended.
4 President George W. Bush, National Security Presidential Directive 22 (NSPD-22), Combating Trafficking in
Persons, December 16, 2002, partially declassified for publication as “Appendix C” in U.S. Department of Defense
(DOD), Office of the Inspector General (OIG), Inspections and Evaluations: Evaluation of DOD Efforts to Combat
Trafficking in Persons, Report No. IE-2007-002, November 21, 2006.
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approach to trafficking in persons,” establishing as a U.S. government-wide goal
the eradication of international trafficking in persons, including a zero tolerance
policy among U.S. government employees and contractors.5 NSPD-22 also
notably identifies prostitution and several related activities as “contributing to the
phenomenon of trafficking in persons”—and thus to be opposed as a matter of
U.S. government policy.
• Tariff Act of 1930. Section 307 of the Tariff Act of 1930, as amended, prohibits
the import of all foreign “goods, wares, articles, and merchandise mined,
produced, or manufactured wholly or in part” by convict or forced or indentured
labor.6 The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) implements the
provisions of Section 307 by maintaining a public list of such prohibited goods
and barring entry of such products into the United States.7
• Executive Order 13126. On June 12, 1999, President William J. Clinton issued
Executive Order 13126, the Prohibition of Acquisition of Products Produced by
Forced or Indentured Child Labor (EO 13126). This executive order prohibits
U.S. government contractors from using or procuring “goods, wares, articles, and
merchandise mined, produced, or manufactured wholly or in part by forced or
indentured child labor.” The U.S. Department of Labor, with consultation from
DHS and the State Department, implements the provisions of EO 13126 by
maintaining a public list of offending products, as well as a list of the countries
from which such products originate.8
• Trade Preference Program Eligibility. Select countries receive temporary, non-
reciprocal, duty-free U.S. market access for certain exports on condition that they
adhere to “internationally recognized worker rights,” including prohibitions on
forced labor, as well as eliminate the “worst forms of child labor,” including child
trafficking.9 Such congressionally authorized preference programs include the
Generalized System of Preferences (GSP);10 Caribbean Basin Economic
Recovery Act (CBERA), as amended and extended through the U.S. Caribbean
Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA);11 Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA),
as amended and extended through the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug
5 Ibid.
6 Section 307 of Title III, Chapter 497 (46 Stat. 689); 19 U.S.C. 1307. Unless otherwise noted, all subsequent reference
to the Tariff Act of 1930 are assumed to refer to the Act, as amended.
7 U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Customs and Border Protection (CBP), Convict, Forced, or
Indentured Labor Product Importations, December 10, 2009, http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/trade/trade_outreach/
convict_importations.xml.
8 U.S. Department of Labor, International Labor Affairs Bureau (ILAB), Executive Order 13126, http://www.dol.gov/
ILAB/regs/eo13126/main.htm.
9 The definition for “internationally recognized worker rights” was first incorporated into U.S. statutes through Section
507, Title V (Trade Act of 1974), of the Trade Reform Act (P.L. 93-618), as added by Section 1952(a), Title I (GSP
Renewal Act of 1996) of the Small Business Job Protection Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-188). The definition for “worst
forms of child labor” was first incorporated into U.S. statutes through Section 412(b), Title IV of the Trade and
Development Act of 2000 (TDA, P.L. 106-200). Both terms are codified at 19 U.S.C. 2467.
10 Title V (Trade Act of 1974) of the Trade Reform Act (P.L. 93-618), as amended; 19 U.S.C. 2462-2467.
11 CBERA was first enacted through the Title II of P.L. 98-67 (“An act to promote economic revitalization and
facilitate expansion of economic opportunities in the Caribbean Basin region, to provide for backup withholding of tax
from interest and dividends, and for other purposes”), and subsequently amended. CBTPA was first enacted through
Title II of the TDA (P.L. 106-200), and subsequently amended. Both provisions are codified at 19 U.S.C. 2701-2707.
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Eradication Act (ATPDEA);12 and African Growth and Opportunity Act
(AGOA).13
• Child Soldiers Prevention Act of 2008. Addressing the specific issue of
children in armed conflict, the Child Soldiers Prevention Act of 2008 (CSPA of
2008) mandates the U.S. Department of State to annually publish a list of
countries in violation of international standards to condemn the conscription,
recruitment, and use of children in armed conflict and punish such countries by
prohibiting the provision of certain types of U.S. military assistance.
Key U.S. entities involved in combating international trafficking in persons include the
Department of State, Department of Labor, Agency for International Development (USAID),
Department of Defense (DOD), and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). These
departments and agencies are among the participants in interagency coordination mechanisms to
combat international human trafficking through the SPOG and the PITF and may also issue
agency-specific guidelines against human trafficking that implement enacted laws, federal
regulations, and presidential determinations, directives, and executive orders.
The U.S. government also participates in multilateral and regional anti-trafficking efforts
conducted by the international community, including through organizations such as the United
Nations, the International Labor Organization (ILO), the International Organization for Migration
(IOM), and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), among many
others. See Table 1 for a list of multilateral treaties related to human trafficking in which the U.S.
government participates.
Table 1. Key International Treaties Addressing Trafficking in Persons Which the
United States Has Ratified or Acceded To
Date of U.S.
Accession, Signing, or
Entry into
Ratification
Name of Convention or Protocol
Force
December 6, 1967
1956 U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the
April 30,
(accession)
Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery
1957
December 13, 2000
2000 U.N. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
December
(signed)
Persons, Especial y Women and Children, Supplementing the U.N.
25, 2003
November 3, 2005
Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime
(ratified)
July 5, 2000 (signed)
2000 U.N. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the
January 18,
December 23, 2002
Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child
2002
(ratified)
Pornography
July 5, 2000 (signed)
2000 U.N. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the
February 12,
December 23, 2002
Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict
2002
(ratified)
12 ATPA was first enacted through Title II (Trade Preference for the Andean Region) of the Andean Trade Preference
Act (P.L. 102-182) and subsequently amended. ATPDEA was first enacted through Division C, Title XXXI of the
Trade Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-210), and subsequently amended. Both provisions are codified at 19 U.S.C. 3201-3206.
13 Title I (Extension of Certain Trade Benefits to Sub-Saharan Africa) of the TDA (P.L. 106-200); 19 U.S.C. 3701-
3706 and 19 U.S.C. 2466a-b.
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Date of U.S.
Accession, Signing, or
Entry into
Ratification
Name of Convention or Protocol
Force
September 25, 1991
1957 ILO Convention No. 105 on the Abolition of Force Labor
January 17,
(ratified)
1959
February 12, 1999
1999 ILO Convention No. 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labor
November
(ratified)
19, 2000
Sources: CRS presentation of data contained in the U.N. Treaty Col ection, Status of Treaties,
http://treaties.un.org/Home.aspx?lang=en, and ILO Database of International Labor Standards, http://www.ilo.org/
ilolex/english/newratframeE.htm.
Key Trafficking Terms in U.S. Foreign Policy Context
As various terms are defined and used in international treaties as well as domestic statutes, choice in the application
of these terms may trigger different policy consequences. The fol owing section identifies and compares several terms
frequently used in the context of foreign policy discussions related to human trafficking.
Human Trafficking
“Human Trafficking” is a generic term to describe what the U.N. Trafficking Protocol defines as “trafficking in
persons” and the TVPA in U.S. statute defines as “severe forms of trafficking in persons.” The U.N. and U.S. terms
share similarities, but are applied in different policy contexts. They are both precedent-setting, as two of the earliest
official definitions broadly conceived to describe human trafficking as a combination of prohibited acts (e.g.,
recruitment, harboring, or transportation of victims) and prohibited methods or means of procuring commercial sex
and other labor or services (e.g., force, fraud, or coercion). Both afford enhanced protections for children against
victimization in the commercial sex industry, as well as protections against their subjection to work under conditions
of involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery. Neither the U.S. nor the U.N. definition requires
trafficking victims to be physically moved across international borders.
In general, the U.S. term defined in the TVPA is considered more restrictive than the U.N. definition, resulting in a
less expansive basis for the concept of human trafficking and a more narrowly defined scope for U.S. foreign policy
activities to combat human trafficking. The intended foreign policy purposes of the definitions also differ. The U.N.
term was created to facilitate international cooperation for legal and technical assistance. The U.S. term is used to
measure and rank foreign countries’ progress in combating trafficking. It can trigger unilateral U.S. government
restrictions on foreign aid to countries with a record of poor performance to combat severe forms of human
trafficking. Additionally, it can also affect federal contracting and procurement policies. Domestical y, the U.S. term
also has implications for the criminal justice system and immigration status categories.
Forced Labor
The U.N. Trafficking Protocol does not define forced labor. Instead, the primary international definition of forced
labor can be found in ILO Convention No. 29, the Forced Labour Convention of 1930, which defines “forced or
compulsory labour” as “al work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty and
for which the said person has not offered himself voluntarily.” The TVPRA of 2008 (P.L. 110-457) amends the U.S.
Criminal Code and indirectly defines “forced labor” by describing the circumstances under which an individual could be
punished for knowingly providing or obtaining the labor or services of a person.14
The ILO term for forced labor is broader than both the U.N. and U.S. definitions of human trafficking. The ILO term
is relevant in the U.S. anti-trafficking policy context, as it is the governing definition for the U.S. import ban on foreign
goods produced with convict, forced, or indentured labor (§307 of the Tariff Act of 1930). The ILO definition also
applies to U.S. decisions to apply or revoke trade preference beneficiary status to select foreign countries (e.g., GSP,
CBERA/CBTPA, ATPA/ATPDEA, and AGOA). The U.S. Department of Labor also applies the international definition
in its preparation of two additional mandates: (1) a list of foreign goods produced with exploitative child labor that
may not be used in federal contractor supply chains (EO 13126), and (2) a list of foreign goods produced by forced
14 18 U.S.C. 1589.
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labor or child labor (TVPRA of 2005; P.L. 109-164).
Worst Forms of Child Labor
ILO Convention No. 182, the Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention of 1999, defines “the worst forms of child
labour” to include child slavery and prostitution, as well as use of children in illicit activities, such as drug trafficking,
and other work, which by its nature, is likely to harm the health, safety, or morals of children. This term is used in the
U.S. foreign policy context in decisions to apply or revoke trade preference beneficiary status to foreign countries. It
is also the governing definition used by the Labor Department for its annual report on Findings of the Worst Forms of
Child Labor (hereinafter Worst Forms of Child Labor Report). However, not all of the ILO-specified worst forms of child
labor necessarily constitute human trafficking, as defined by either the U.N. or the TVPA. This term is to be
distinguished from other terms used in U.S. foreign policy contexts, including “forced and indentured child labor” (as
is used by EO 13126) and “child labor” (as is used to develop a list of foreign goods produced by forced or child
labor, pursuant to the TVPRA of 2005).
Foreign Policy Issues
Overall, U.S. foreign policy to address and eliminate international human trafficking includes
several dimensions that are not mutually exclusive. They are summarized below, and key issues
associated with each line of activity are discussed in the subsequent sections.
• Foreign Country Reporting. Congress requires the U.S. Departments of State
and Labor to report annually on foreign country efforts against human
trafficking, child soldiers, and the worst forms of child labor, as well as country
efforts to support human rights, including prohibitions on forced and compulsory
labor and child trafficking.
• Foreign Product Blacklisting. Congress mandates the U.S. Departments of
Labor and Homeland Security to maintain, respectively, a list of foreign goods
produced with child or forced labor and a list of foreign products made with
convict, forced, or indentured labor to be barred entry at U.S. ports. Additionally,
the President, through EO 13126, requires the Department of Labor to maintain a
list of foreign goods made with forced or indentured child labor prohibited from
use in federal procurement supply chains.
• Foreign Assistance and Related Projects to Support Anti-Trafficking Efforts
Abroad. Congress authorizes and appropriates to the U.S. Department of State,
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and the U.S. Department
of Labor funds to support foreign countries’ efforts to combat human trafficking.
Between FY2005 and FY2010, these departments and agencies obligated a total
of $493 million for international anti-trafficking activities, including assistance to
foreign governments, NGOs, and civil society organizations, as well as
researchers.
• Restrictions on Foreign Assistance to Poor-Performing Countries. Congress
requires that non-humanitarian, nontrade-related foreign aid be denied to
countries that are willfully noncompliant with anti-trafficking standards.
Separately, Congress also requires that certain types of U.S. military assistance
be denied to countries that harbor or recruit child soldiers.
• Conditions on Foreign Country Trade Preference Beneficiary Status for
Anti-Trafficking Purposes. Through several legislative vehicles, Congress
authorizes certain countries to export to the United States specified products
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duty-free. Eligibility for this privilege, however, is conditioned on whether such
countries are committed to certain foreign policy goals, including internationally
recognized worker rights, such as prohibiting forced labor, and the elimination of
the worst forms of child labor, such as child trafficking.
• Prevention of Trafficking in U.S. Operations Overseas. Congress and the
White House have issued several policies and regulations emphasizing
prohibitions on trafficking-related activities among U.S. military personnel,
contractors, peacekeepers, and post-conflict and humanitarian aid workers. For
U.S. contractors operating overseas, for example, anti-trafficking laws and
regulations bar not only “severe forms of human trafficking,” as defined by the
TVPA, but also procurement of commercial sex (e.g., prostitution) while
contracted with the U.S. government and use of forced labor in the performance
of the contract.
These lines of activity reflect a long-standing and broad-based set of U.S. policy commitments to
eliminate international human trafficking. The problem of human trafficking, however, continues
to persist—challenging policy makers to modify and improve existing U.S. foreign policy
responses to the problem. Persistent reports of human trafficking worldwide may also challenge
policy makers to evaluate whether anti-trafficking programs can achieve current U.S. foreign
policy goals within a realistic time frame.
Foreign Country Reporting
One line of U.S. foreign policy activity to combat human trafficking is through foreign country
reporting. Congress has mandated that the Departments of State and Labor regularly report on
foreign countries’ policy responses to human trafficking and forced labor, identify countries that
recruit and harbor child soldiers, and evaluate efforts made by foreign countries to eliminate the
worst forms of child labor, including child trafficking.
The most targeted of these reports is the State Department’s TIP Report, which reviews the status
of foreign countries in achieving the TVPA’s minimum standards to eliminate severe forms of
trafficking in persons.15 In the TIP Report, countries ultimately receive one of four possible
ranking designations: Tier 1 (best), Tier 2, Tier 2 Watch List, and Tier 3 (worst). Only Tier 1
countries are fully compliant with the TVPA’s minimum standards, while the rest are non-
compliant and vary in terms of the level of effort to improve. Other congressionally mandated
foreign country reporting includes two reports, the Findings of the Worst Forms of Child Labor
(hereinafter Worst Forms of Child Labor Report) and the Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices (hereinafter Human Rights Report), as well as an additional list, published in
conjunction with the TIP Report, of countries involved in recruiting and using child soldiers (see
Table 2 below). For two of these reporting requirements—the TIP Report and the list of countries
involved in recruiting and using child soldiers—the worst-performing countries may, in turn, be
subject to restrictions on certain types of U.S. foreign assistance (see section below on “Foreign
Aid Restrictions”).
15 Section 108(a) of the TVPA, as amended; 22 U.S.C. 7106(a).
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Table 2. Summary of Foreign Country Reporting Requirements
Reporting
Requirement Legislative
Source
Description
TIP Report
Section 110(b) of the
Due each June and issued annual y since 2001, the centerpiece of
TVPA, as amended; 22
the TIP Report is a country-by-country analysis and ranking, based
U.S.C. 7107(b).
on progress countries have made in their efforts to prosecute,
protect, and prevent human trafficking.
List of Countries
Section 404(b) of the
Beginning in 2010, the State Department annually publishes a list
Involved in
CSPA; 22 U.S.C.
of countries that recruit or use child soldiers in their armed
Recruiting and Using
2370c-1(b)
forces, or that harbor non-government armed forces that recruit
Child Soldiers
or use child soldiers. Following these guidelines, the State
Department identified six such countries in both 2010 and 2011:
Burma, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Somalia,
Sudan, and Yemen.
Worst Forms of Child
Section 412(d) of the
Since 2002, the Labor Department has issued an annual report on
Labor Report
TDA, as amended; 19
the progress made by certain specified countries to eliminate the
U.S.C. 2464
worst forms of child labor. The most recent report, released in
September 2011, covers 144 countries and territories designated
as current or previous beneficiaries of trade preference programs.
Human Rights Report
Section 504 of the
Congress also requires the State Department to include in its
Trade Act of 1974 (19
annual Human Rights Report sections for each country on the
U.S.C. 2464) and
status of the “prohibition of forced or compulsory labor” as wel
Section 104 of the
as on trafficking in persons. In the 2011 edition, the State
TVPA (22 U.S.C.
Department reported on 196 countries. The 2011 edition cross-
2151n)
referenced the TIP Report for details on human trafficking and
also stated that most countries faced challenges associated with
implementing and enforcing prohibitions against forced or
compulsory labor.
Sources: CRS presentation of data from the Legislative Information System (LIS); DOS, J/TIP, 2011 TIP Report;
DOL, 2011 Worst Forms of Child Labor Report; and DOS, 2011 Human Rights Report.
These annually updated analyses provide regular reporting and country-level detail that are not
otherwise published. As public documents, the information contained in them has created
diplomatic opportunities for engagement with foreign counterparts, as well as for increased public
awareness of human trafficking as an international problem. Some officials and outside observers
value these reports as an effective means through which to praise countries that have
implemented best practices, criticize those that have balked at reform, and offer support to those
that could benefit from foreign donor assistance.
In contrast, the State Department’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) describes several of these
reports as resource-intensive, unnecessarily “encyclopedic in detail and length,” largely
redundant, and at times the cause of more diplomatic harm than good.16 Although the actual
number of pages devoted to each individual country narrative tends to be relatively few, OIG
criticized the length of the State Department’s TIP Report, which in 2011 totaled 413 pages, and
the Department of Labor’s Worst Forms of Child Labor Report, which in 2011 totaled 855 pages.
The State Department’s OIG described the TIP Report as among the most cost-intensive in terms
16 DOS and Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG), Office of Inspector General (OIG), Inspection of Department-
Required and Congressionally Mandated Reports: Assessment of Resource Implications, Report of Inspection, Report
Number ISP-I-11-11, October 2010.
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of personnel resources both at U.S. diplomatic posts abroad and at headquarters in Washington,
DC.
To illustrate such criticisms, the OIG highlighted the experience of U.S. Embassy Bridgetown,
located in Barbados. In addition to Barbados, Embassy Bridgetown is responsible for diplomatic
relations with six additional governments in the Eastern Caribbean, including Antigua and
Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines.
All are covered by either the TIP Report or the Worst Forms of Child Labor Report, or both.
Embassy Bridgetown reportedly estimated that approximately 200 person-hours were required to
resolve questions and differences in its submission to Washington for the 2009 TIP Report and an
additional 200 person-hours for “dealing with negative political, media, and public reactions.”17
Some, however, may consider such time and personnel resources committed to human trafficking
issues appropriate, given the perceived magnitude and seriousness of the problem.
Other concerns have centered on the lack of consistent reporting quality across countries, as well
as questions regarding discrepancies in data collection and the reliability of report findings. For
example, the Labor Department’s Worst Forms of Child Labor Report identifies a substantially
larger number of countries associated with child soldiers, compared to the State Department’s list.
A rationale for this discrepancy may be that, in most cases, reports of child soldiers are often
associated with unsanctioned rebel groups beyond the control of state policies. However, in the
case of Afghanistan, the Department of Labor reports that children have joined its national
military and police forces.
Foreign Product Blacklisting
A second line of foreign policy activity to combat human trafficking is through foreign product
blacklisting. Through two acts (the Tariff Act of 1930 and the TVPRA of 2005) and an executive
order (EO 13126), the Departments of Labor, State, and Homeland Security are required to
maintain lists of foreign products that have been produced by forced labor, child labor, indentured
labor, forced or indentured child labor, and convict labor.
• Pursuant to the Tariff Act of 193018 and implementing regulations, DHS may
prohibit certain types of goods from import into the United States when it is
determined that (1) the goods are produced, mined, or manufactured with the use
of convict, forced, or indentured labor; and (2) such goods had been or are likely
to be imported into the United States. According to DHS’s Customs and Border
Protection (CBP), currently banned products include specified furniture, clothes
hampers, and palm leaf bags from a state penitentiary in Tamaulipas, Mexico, as
well as specified diesel engines, machine presses, sheepskin and leather products,
and malleable iron pipe fittings from a combination of factories and prisons in
Yunnan, Xuzhou, Qinghai, and Tianjin, China.19
• Pursuant to EO 13126, issued by President Clinton on June 12, 1999, the
Department of Labor, in consultation with the State Department and DHS, is
17 Ibid.
18 Section 307 of the Tariff Act of 1930 (Title III, Chapter 497, as amended; 19 U.S.C. 1307).
19 DHS, CBP, Convict, Forced, or Indentured Labor Product Importations, December 10, 2009, http://www.cbp.gov/
xp/cgov/trade/trade_outreach/convict_importations.xml.
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required to jointly publish and maintain a list of countries and products that are
likely to have been mined, produced, or manufactured by forced or indentured
child labor. The appearance on the list triggers an additional requirement for U.S.
federal contractors to certify that they have made good faith efforts to ensure that
their products and services to the U.S. government do not involve forced or
indentured child labor. The most recent version of the list identifies 46 products
from 21 countries.20
• The TVPRA of 2005 mandates the Department of Labor to “develop and make
available to the public a list of goods from countries that the Bureau of
International Labor Affairs has reason to believe are produced by forced labor or
child labor in violation of international standards.”21 Pursuant to this mandate, the
Department of Labor initially published a list in 2009 and subsequently updated
the list in 2010 and 2011. There are currently 130 goods from 71 countries
identified by the Department of Labor as likely produced by child labor or forced
labor.22
Although not all of the blacklisted products pursuant to these provisions are necessarily indicative
of human trafficking, they are often included today as a dimension of U.S. policy to combat
international human trafficking and described in recent State Department TIP Reports as a
component of the overall U.S. anti-trafficking policy regime.23 The consequences of being
identified as a blacklisted product vary, depending on which list a product is placed.
These lists can be viewed as innovative policy responses to prevent labor-related human
trafficking, often considered an under-emphasized and under-prioritized dimension of the
trafficking in persons problem. They may, however, be criticized by some as duplicative, while
also not sufficiently tailored or utilized as a tool to combat human trafficking, given variations in
the standards, definitions, and criteria used for each blacklist. The direct correlation between
blacklisted products and human trafficking is therefore imprecise, as none of the three lists
specify whether blacklisted products are indicative of human trafficking as defined by either the
U.N. or the TVPA (see Table 3 below).
20 U.S. Department of Labor, ILAB, EO 13126, Current List of Products and Countries on EO 13126, current as of
May 31, 2011, http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/regs/eo13126/.
21 Section 105(b)(2)(C) of the TVPRA of 2005 (P.L. 109-164; 22 U.S.C. 7112(b)(2)(C)). Section 110 of the TVPRA of
2008 (P.L. 110-457) reiterates this reporting requirement (no corresponding U.S. Code citation).
22 U.S. Department of Labor, ILAB, List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor, 2011.
23 The original purpose of enacting these provisions was not necessarily designed to serve specifically as a policy
response to trafficking in persons, but rather to condemn foreign labor practices in contravention to international labor
standards.
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Table 3. Foreign Product Blacklisting Terms Used in Comparison
Factors that Trigger Inclusion on a Foreign Product Blacklist
Forced
Indentured
Consequence
Legislative Implementing Convict
Child
Forced
Child
Indentured
Child
Human
of
Source
Agency
Labor
Labora Laborb Laborc
Labor
Laborc
Trafficking
Blacklisting
Tariff Act of DHS X
X
X
X
X
N/A
Import
Ban
1930
EO 13126
DOL, in
X X N/A
Procurement
consultation
Ban
with DOS and
DHS
TVPRA of
DOL
X
X
X
N/A
N/A
2005
Sources: Section 307 of the Tariff Act of 1930 (Title III, Chapter 497, as amended; 19 U.S.C. 1307), EO 13126
(June 12, 1999), Section 105 of the TVPRA of 2005 (P.L. 109-164; 22 U.S.C. 7112), and U.S. Department of
Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB), Frequently Asked Questions, Trafficking Victims Protection
Reauthorization Act (TVPRA), “What Definitions of Child Labor and Forced Labor are Used in Developing the List?”
http://www.dol.gov/ilab/faqs2.htm#tvpra3. N/A=not applicable; DHS=Department of Homeland Security,
DOS=Department of State, DOL=Department of Labor.
a. Child labor is undefined in the TVPRA of 2005, but the Department of Labor defines “child labor” as “al
work performed by a person below the age of 15” and includes al work performed by a person below the
age of 18 under circumstances that fit the ILO’s definition of the “worst forms of child labor” (ILO
Convention No. 182). ILO Convention No. 182 defines the “worst forms of child labor” as “(a) al forms of
slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom
and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed
conflict; (b) the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography or
for pornographic performances; (c) the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular
for the production and trafficking of drugs as defined in the relevant international treaties; (d) work which,
by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of
children.”
b. Section 307 of the Tariff Act of 1930 defines “forced labor” consistent with ILO Convention No. 29. ILO
Convention No. 29 defines forced labor as “al work or service which is exacted from any person under the
menace of any penalty for its nonperformance and for which the worker does not offer himself voluntarily.”
c. EO 13126 defines “forced or indentured child labor” as all work or service (1) exacted from any person
under the age of 18 involving forced labor as defined by ILO Convention No. 29; or (2) performed by any
person under the age of 18 pursuant to a contract the enforcement of which can be accomplished by
process or penalties.
Foreign Aid and International Anti-Trafficking Projects
A third line of foreign policy activity to combat human trafficking is through provisions of aid to
foreign countries. For more than a decade, Congress has authorized and appropriated foreign
assistance and international grants to combat human trafficking. From FY2005 through FY2010,
the U.S. government obligated a total of $493 million for international anti-trafficking projects
outside the United States. Given the transnational nature of human trafficking, these anti-
trafficking programs are viewed by proponents as crucial tools to build the capacity and
capability of other countries to prevent trafficking, protect victims, and prosecute traffickers
(commonly referred to as the three Ps). Improved foreign efforts to eliminate trafficking could, in
turn, translate into fewer legal, political, and physical safe havens for international traffickers to
exploit.
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Such international projects, however, are also challenged by limitations in measuring
effectiveness and developing meaningful measures of progress. Given the general absence of data
to formulate a baseline estimate for the scope of the human trafficking problem, it is often
difficult to specify how anti-trafficking aid programs have improved the situation. For example,
the U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) stated in a 2009 report that “without a sense of
the magnitude of the problem, it is impossible to prioritize human trafficking as an issue relative
to other local or transnational threats, and it is difficult to assess whether any particular
intervention is having effect.”24 In lieu of specifics, anti-trafficking assistance programs are often
described as providing diffuse capacity-building benefits for governance, civil society, and
general public awareness. Such factors, however, are difficult to measure and, even if they were
to be measured, may claim only tenuous links to any specific anti-trafficking program. In the past,
the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) has reported on problems with coordinating,
evaluating, and monitoring the effectiveness of U.S. foreign aid projects to combat human
trafficking.25
Accounting for the annual amount of U.S. funding for international projects to combat human
trafficking can also present difficulties. Executive branch agencies receive anti-trafficking
funding through several appropriations accounts that are not necessarily linked to TVPA
authorities. State Department aid for anti-trafficking is broken down on a country and regional
basis, rather than allocated according to the TVPA’s specified authorities. For each fiscal year
from FY2008 through FY2011, the TVPRA of 2008 authorized a total of $63.8 million in foreign
assistance to the State Department and to the President for combating trafficking in persons.26 Yet,
differing sources provide a varied portrait of how much the U.S. government spent on anti-
trafficking aid projects in that period. The State Department, for example, reported that it
budgeted a total of $34.63 million in anti-trafficking foreign aid for FY2010 (see Table 4).
Separately, the State Department also reported that, in FY2010, the U.S. government obligated
$85.27 million for approximately 175 international anti-trafficking projects benefitting more than
80 countries (see Figure 1).27 The latter figure for obligated funds in FY2010 includes funding
for projects that are allocated to agencies and for purposes beyond those referenced in the TVPA,
such as Department of Labor funds for combating the worst forms of child labor.
24 U.N. Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UNGIFT) and U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),
Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, February 2009.
25 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to
Enhance U.S. Anti-Trafficking Efforts Abroad, GAO-06-825, July 18, 2006. In 2007, GAO followed up with a second
report with similar conclusions, but indicated that progress in addressing GAO’s recommendation, though mixed, was
generally positive. According to GAO, the executive branch continues to remain in the process of responding to several
of its recommendations to improve anti-trafficking program monitoring, effectiveness, and coordination. GAO, Human
Trafficking: A Strategy Framework Could Help Enhance the Interagency Collaboration Needed to Effectively Combat
Trafficking Crimes, GAO-07-915, July 26, 2007.
26 P.L. 110-457; not included in this total are additional funds authorized to the President for research ($2 million,
pursuant to Section 113(e)(3) of the TVPA) and to the State Department for the interagency task force, additional
personnel, and official reception and representation expenses (approximately $7 million, pursuant to Section 113(a) of
the TVPA).
27 DOS, J/TIP, U.S. Government Anti-Trafficking in Persons Program Funding, June 27, 2011. This document warns,
however, that the total figure for international anti-trafficking projects “may be overstated” because funds through the
Department of Labor to address the worst forms of child labor, including but not limited to child trafficking, cannot be
disaggregated. Obligated totals for international anti-trafficking projects include funding budgeted separate from the
foreign operations appropriations process, including some Educational and Cultural Exchange (ECE) programs funded
by the State Department as well as some international, bilateral, and multilateral technical assistance to combat
exploitative child labor internationally provided by the Department of Labor’s Bureau for International Labor Affairs
(ILAB).
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Table 4. Assistance to Combat Trafficking in Persons in the State Department’s
Foreign Operations Budget
(in current U.S. $ thousands)
FY2009
FY2010
FY2011
FY2012
FY2013
Actual
Actual
Actual
Estimate
Request
Africa 900
435
750
1,500
1,550
East Asia and Pacific
4,505
2,818
4,180
5,150
4,302
Europe
and
Eurasia
5,894 2,136 4,556 5,943 4,450
Near
East 300
2,000
South and Central
3,834 4,930 5,404 5,338 4,260
Asia
Western
1,565 1,150 1,396
700
Hemisphere
DOS/J-TIP
19,380 21,262 16,233 18,720 18,720
DOS/INL
425
USAID/DCHA
1,600
1,500
1,800
USAID/EGAT 1,567 900
TOTAL
38,445 34,631 34,119 38,151 38,207
Sources: DOS, responses to CRS request, December 21, 2011 and April 4, 2012; DOS, CBJ, Volume 2: Foreign
Operations, Fiscal Year 2012-2013 (revised).
Notes: USAID=U.S. Agency for International Development; DCHA=USAID Bureau for Democracy, Conflict,
and Humanitarian Assistance, DOS=U.S. Department of State, EGAT=USAID Bureau for Economic Growth,
Agriculture and Trade; J-TIP=DOS Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons; INL=DOS International
Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs Bureau, Estimates are rounded up to the nearest thousand. Foreign
assistance spigots included in this chart encompass Assistance for Europe, Eurasia, and Central Asia (AEECA),
Development Assistance (DA), Economic Support Fund (ESF), and International Narcotics Control and Law
Enforcement (INCLE) funds. U.S. Department of Labor and DOS Educational and Cultural Exchange (ECE)
assistance funds are listed separately. The State Department has in the past reported that some non-quantified
amount of Migration and Refugee Assistance (MRA) is obligated in support of projects related to anti-trafficking.
but the anti-trafficking component of such projects could not be disaggregated.
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Figure 1. International Anti-Trafficking Obligations and Foreign Operations Budget
(in current U.S. $ millions)
Source: CRS presentation of data from DOS, J/TIP, and DOS, F.
Note: Numbers are rounded to the nearest decimal.
Further, it is not clear from annual budget request documents why certain countries are selected
for aid projects and what role the TIP Report’s country rankings play in such selections.
According to the State Department’s FY2013 congressional budget justification (CBJ) for anti-
trafficking foreign assistance, priority countries to receive such assistance include those that have
not achieved the TVPA’s minimum standards for eliminating severe forms of trafficking in
persons (i.e., countries designated as Tier 3, Tier 2 Watch List, and Tier 2 in the State
Department’s annual TIP Report) provided that such countries have a demonstrable need for
external assistance and that they show the political will to address deficiencies in their anti-
trafficking policies. It is difficult to determine, based on the CBJ, why the State Department chose
not to provide aid to the other 70 Tier 2 countries, 33 Tier 2 Watch List countries, and 21 Tier 3
countries. For a comparison of the State Department’s budget request for FY2013 anti-trafficking
aid and the most recent TIP Report ranking for those countries selected to receive such aid, see
the text box below.
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FY2013 Foreign Aid Request Compared to Country Rankings in the 2011 TIP Report
For FY2013, the State Department is requesting a total of $38.2 mil ion in anti-trafficking foreign aid funding to at
least 28 countries. Of these, 3 were designated as Tier 1 in the 2011 TIP Report, 15 were Tier 2, 8 Tier 2 Watch List,
and 2 Tier 3. This represents less than 16% of all countries ranked in the TIP Report.
•
Tier 1 (3 of a total of 32 Tier 1 countries in the 2011 TIP Report): Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia,
and Macedonia
•
Tier 2 (15 of 85 total Tier 2 countries): Albania, Armenia, Cambodia, Egypt, Guatemala, Indonesia,
Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Mozambique, Nepal, Philippines, Tajikistan, and Ukraine
•
Tier 2 Watch List (8 of 41 total Tier 2 Watch List countries): Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Belarus,
Malaysia, Russia, Thailand, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam
•
Tier 3 (2 of 23 total Tier 3 countries): DRC and Lebanon.
Foreign Aid Restrictions
Restrictions on foreign assistance are also used to combat human trafficking. Congress has
enacted two provisions through which to deny certain types of foreign aid to countries that are not
advancing U.S. and international community anti-trafficking goals. One of these provisions,
pursuant to the TVPA, seeks to restrict non-humanitarian, nontrade-related foreign aid from
certain governments that do not show progress in eliminating human trafficking.28 Under this
provision, countries that receive a Tier 3 ranking in the TIP Report are ineligible to receive non-
humanitarian, nontrade-related aid in the following fiscal year. The second provision, which first
went into effect in 2010 pursuant to the CSPA of 2008, seeks to restrict certain U.S. military
assistance from countries known to recruit or use child soldiers in their armed forces, or that host
non-government armed forces that recruit or use child soldiers.29 For both provisions, the
President may reserve the option of waiving aid sanctions in cases where the continuation of aid
would promote U.S. national interests that supersede anti-trafficking policy goals.
The goal of these aid restriction mechanisms is to induce foreign governments to enhance their
commitments to combat human trafficking. Withholding or denying U.S. aid, it is argued, can be
an effective point of leverage for countries that would like to continue receiving such aid. Some,
however, perceive aid sanctions as a potentially blunt policy tool that can interfere with or
undermine other U.S. interests in such countries. With the discretion to partially or fully waive
sanctioned countries from experiencing the full effect of the aid restrictions, Presidents have
sought to balance the impact of the aid restrictions with consideration of other U.S. foreign policy
interests that may be at play (see Table 5 and Table 6). An issue for debate is the extent to which
the waiver option should be exercised and whether extensive use of the waiver option can have a
negative effect on international commitments against human trafficking.
28 Section 110(a) of the TVPA, as amended, 22 U.S.C. 7107(a).
29 Title IV of the TVPRA of 2008 (P.L. 110-457); 22 U.S.C. 2151 note, and 2370c through 2370c-2. Prohibited aid,
pursuant to the CSPA of 2008 include international military education and training (IMET); foreign military financing
(FMF); excess defense articles; other DOD-funded aid, including aid provided pursuant to Section 1206 of the National
Defense Authorization Act of FY2006 (P.L. 109-163), as amended and extended; and the issuance of direct commercial
sales of military equipment.
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Table 5. Aid Restrictions and Waivers Pursuant to the TVPA, FY2004-FY2012
In the
Absence of
Aid to
Non-
Restrict,
Partial
humanitarian,
Exchange
National
Waivers Due to
Non-Trade Aid
Programs
Full National
Interest
Subsequent
Restricted
Restricted
Interest Waivers
Waivers
Compliance
FY2004 none Burma,
Cuba,
none
Liberia, Sudan
Belize, Bosnia and
North Korea
Herzegovina,
Dominican Republic,
Georgia, Greece,
Haiti, Kazakhstan,
Suriname, Turkey,
Uzbekistan
FY2005 none Burma,
Cuba,
none Equatorial
Bangladesh, Ecuador,
North Korea
Guinea,
Guyana, Sierra
Sudan,
Leone
Venezuela
FY2006 none Burma,
Cuba,
Ecuador, Kuwait, Saudi Cambodia,
Bolivia, Jamaica,
North Korea
Arabia
Venezuela
Qatar, Sudan, Togo,
UAE
FY2007 Burma Cuba,
North
Saudi Arabia, Sudan,
Iran, Syria,
Belize, Laos
Korea
Uzbekistan
Venezuela,
Zimbabwe
FY2008 Burma Cuba Algeria,
Bahrain,
Iran, North
Equatorial Guinea,
Malaysia, Oman,
Korea, Syria,
Kuwait
Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Venezuela
Sudan, Uzbekistan
FY2009 Burma, Syria
Cuba
Algeria, Fiji, Kuwait,
Iran, North
Moldova, Oman
Papua New Guinea,
Korea
Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Sudan
FY2010 North Korea
Cuba
Chad, Kuwait,
Burma,
Swaziland
Malaysia, Mauritania,
Eritrea, Fiji,
Niger, Papua New
Iran, Syria,
Guinea, Saudi Arabia,
Zimbabwe
Sudan
FY2011 none North
Korea,
DRC, Dominican
Burma, Cuba,
none
Eritrea
Republic, Kuwait,
Iran,
Mauritania, Papua New Zimbabwe
Guinea, Saudi Arabia,
Sudan
FY2012 none North
Korea,
Algeria, CAR, Guinea-
Burma, Cuba,
none
Eritrea,
Bissau, Kuwait,
DRC,
Madagascar
Lebanon, Libya,
Equatorial
Mauritania, Micronesia, Guinea, Iran,
Papua New Guinea,
Venezuela,
Saudi Arabia, Sudan,
Zimbabwe
Turkmenistan, Yemen
Source: Presidential Determination (PD) with Respect to Foreign Governments’ Efforts Regarding Trafficking in Persons,
PD nos. 2003-35, 2004-46, 2005-37, 2006-25, 2008-4, 2009-5, 2009-29, 2010-15, and 2011-18.
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Table 6. Aid Restrictions and Waivers Pursuant to the CSPA of 2008, FY2011-FY2012
Waivers Due to
Partial National
Full National
Subsequent
Aid
Restricted
Interest Waivers
Interest Waivers
Compliance
FY2011
Burma and Somalia
none
Chad, DRC, Sudan,
none
and Yemen
FY2012
Burma, Somalia, and
DRC Yemen Chad
Sudan
Source: Presidential Determination (PD) with Respect to Section 404(c) of the Child Soldiers Prevention Act of
2008, PD 2011-4, PD 2012-01.
Observers have questioned whether the aid restrictions are effective in prompting countries to
improve their efforts to combat human trafficking. It may be too soon to assess the impact of the
child soldiers-related aid restriction. With regard to the aid sanctions program pursuant to the
TVPA, however, only two countries—South Korea and Bosnia and Herzegovina—have improved
from Tier 3, the worst-performing category, to Tier 1, the highest-performing category, since the
aid restriction program first went into effect almost a decade ago. Many more countries have
either maintained the same tier ranking over the years, or are middling in their performance
ratings without clear trends toward significant improvement. To this end, some commentators
have questioned whether the existing aid restrictions are sufficient. See text box below on “TIP
Report Ranking Trends: Measurable Signs of Improvement?”
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TIP Report Ranking Trends: Measurable Signs of Improvement?
Since 2001, the State Department’s TIP Report has been ranking countries on the basis of their efforts to combat
human trafficking. In the 2011 report, a total of 181 countries were ranked. Only Tier 1 countries are compliant with
achieving the TVPA’s minimum standards for eliminating trafficking. The rest, totaling approximately 82% of all
countries ranked in the 2011 TIP Report, are listed as non-compliant—variously receiving designations as Tier 2, Tier 2
Watch List, or Tier 3, depending on their level of effort in achieving the minimum standards. Following are trends in
country rankings over the course of the TIP Report’s existence:
•
Consistent top performers, having always received a Tier 1 designation in annual TIP Reports, include
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Colombia, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States of
America (first ranked in 2010).30
•
Most improved countries, having started as Tier 3 countries and eventually attaining Tier 1 status, include
South Korea (from Tier 3 in 2001 to Tier 1 since 2002) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (from Tier 3 in
2001, 2002, and 2003 to Tier 1 since 2010).
•
Middling countries, having always received a Tier 2 designation, include Antigua and Barbuda,
Botswana, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Chile, El Salvador, Iceland, Kosovo, Mongolia, Namibia,
Palau, Timor-Leste, Uganda, and Uruguay.
•
Consistent worst performers, having always received a Tier 3 designation, include Burma, Cuba, Eritrea,
North Korea, and Sudan.
•
Countries that have backslid, having previously attained Tier 2 status but are now listed in the current TIP
Report as a Tier 3 countries, include Algeria, DRC, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Iran, Kuwait,
Lebanon, Libya, Madagascar, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Yemen, and Zimbabwe.
Congress sought to increase the consequences associated with consistent poor performance in the
TIP Report through the TVPRA of 2008, which included a new provision to automatically
downgrade to Tier 3 those countries that have stayed on the “Tier 2 Watch List” for two
consecutive years (unless the President issues a waiver to block the auto-downgrade).31 FY2012
is the first year in which this provision resulted in auto-downgrades to Tier 3 and posed a
subsequent risk of aid denial. Of the 22 countries that were at risk of an auto-downgrade to Tier 3
in the 2011 TIP Report, all received waivers to avoid full sanctions on aid in FY2012.32 Even if
aid restrictions were fully applied to all poor-performing countries, however, such an action
would not necessarily indicate that U.S. aid to those countries has stopped because the existing
aid denial provision exempts several categories of foreign aid. The 112th Congress has introduced
several bills33 that seek to shut one such perceived loophole in the aid sanctions relating to child
30 The TVPA does not require the TIP Report to include and rank the United States in its country-by-country
evaluations. The State Department, however, has voluntarily chosen to do so. Separately, the TVPA requires the
Attorney General to submit a report each year to Congress on specified actions by the U.S. government to combat
human trafficking, pursuant to Section 105(d)(7) of the TVPA, as amended (22 U.S.C. 7103(d)(7)).
31 Section 107 of the TVPRA of 2008 (P.L. 110-457); 22 U.S.C. 7105a. This provision allows the President to waive
the Tier 3 downgrade for up to two years.
32 The 10 countries auto-downgraded in the 2011 TIP Report to Tier 3 include Algeria, Central African Republic
(CAR), Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Lebanon, Libya, Micronesia, Turkmenistan, Venezuela, and Yemen.
Twelve other countries remained listed as Tier 2 Watch List after the Obama Administration issued a waiver to prevent
these countries from receiving the automatic downgrade to Tier 3, including Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Cameroon,
China, Guinea, Iraq, Mali, Qatar, Republic of Congo, Russia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Uzbekistan.
According to the 2011 TIP Report, such waivers were issued in cases in which the government in question has a written
plan that “would constitute making significant efforts to comply with the TVPA’s minimum standards for the
elimination of trafficking,” if implemented, and that there is credible evidence that the government in question is
“devoting sufficient resources to implement the plan.”
33 See for example H.R. 2519, “To amend the Child Soldiers Prevention Act of 2008 to prohibit peacekeeping
(continued...)
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soldiers, which does not bar Peacekeeping Operations (PKO) assistance to countries identified as
recruiting or harboring child soldiers. For further discussion of trafficking-related legislation in
the 112th Congress, see the Appendix.
Conditions on Country Beneficiary Status for Trade
Preference Programs
A further line of foreign policy activity to combat human trafficking is the designation of foreign
countries as U.S. trade preference program beneficiaries, provided they adhere to international
anti-trafficking commitments. For decades, the U.S. government has implemented a variety of
unilateral trade preference programs designed to promote exports among selected developing
countries.34 Through such trade preference programs, designated beneficiary countries are
provided duty-free entry for specified products into the United States. The first such program, in
existence since 1976, is the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP).35
Beneficiary countries may be designated (or removed) based on eligibility criteria specified in the
relevant authorizing legislation. Such eligibility criteria include commitments to “internationally
recognized worker rights,” such as prohibiting the “use of any form of forced or compulsory
labor,” as well as commitments to eliminate the “worst forms of child labor,” such as child
trafficking.36
In theory, conditioning preferential trade status on foreign policy goals, including prohibiting
forced labor and the worst forms of child labor, may serve to encourage country compliance with
international efforts to combat human trafficking. According to GAO, government officials as
well as representatives from non-governmental organizations and the private sector consider the
process of conditioning beneficiary status for trade preference programs valuable in raising
awareness about problems in foreign countries related to workers’ rights.37 Some, however,
question whether U.S. trade policies may nevertheless at times work at cross-purposes with U.S.
anti-trafficking policies, offering trade benefits to countries that have not effectively enforced
national policies to combat forced labor and the worst forms of child labor, including child
trafficking. The U.S. Trade Representative is not a member of interagency coordination
mechanisms on human trafficking, such as the SPOG and the PITF.
(...continued)
operations assistance to countries that recruit and use child soldiers,” S. 1259, the “Trafficking Victims Enhanced
Protection Act of 2011, S. 1301, the “Trafficking Victims Enhanced Protection Act of 2011,” and H.R. 3589 and H.R.
2830, both entitled the “Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2011.”
34 For an overview of trade preference programs, see CRS Report R41429, Trade Preferences: Economic Issues and
Policy Options, coordinated by Vivian C. Jones.
35 Title V (Trade Act of 1974) of the Trade Reform Act (P.L. 93-618), as amended; 19 U.S.C. 2462-2467.
36 Countries may be removed from beneficiary status on the basis of periodic administrative reviews for each trade
preference program, either initiated by the executive branch or as a result of external petitions from outside, non-
governmental organizations. In the past, countries have been petitioned by such groups for removal and ultimately
removed from beneficiary status due to worker rights issues, although it is unclear how many of such removals were
specifically due to poor government commitments to combat forced labor or the worst forms of child labor.
37GAO, U.S. Trade Preference Programs Provide Important Benefits, but a More Integrated Approach Would Better
Ensure Programs Meet Shared Goals, GAO-08-443, March 2008. Hereinafter cited as GAO-08-443.
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In the past, GAO has criticized the trade preference programs’ country beneficiary review
processes as disconnected with U.S. anti-trafficking policy.38 Further, the criteria used to
determine whether countries have committed to prohibiting forced labor and eliminating the
worst forms of child labor appear to be set at a different threshold or standard than the ranking
process established by either the State Department’s annual TIP Report to measure country
performance in combating severe forms of trafficking in persons or the Department of Labor’s
annual report listing countries and goods associated with child or forced labor. According to a
GAO report, U.S. Trade Representative officials stated that “there is not a specific link” between
eligibility criteria for trade preference programs and the State Department’s TIP Report.39 The
GAO report further states that “while following statutory requirements, agencies’ approaches to
monitoring compliance with program criteria nevertheless result in disconnected review processes
that are separate from ongoing U.S. efforts to [among other purposes] ... combat trafficking in
persons.”40
Among those countries eligible for trade preference programs in 2012, 12 were designated by the
State Department’s 2011 TIP Report as Tier 3, the worst-performing category of countries,
described as not having achieved the minimum standards for eliminating severe forms of human
trafficking and not making significant efforts to do so.41 Similar disconnects appear between the
trade preference program beneficiary countries and those listed by the Department of Labor as
producing goods with either child labor, forced labor, or both. A total of 24 beneficiary countries
are reported by the Department of Labor as producing goods with both forced and child labor.42
Such discrepancies may raise questions regarding both the credibility and impact of the State
Department’s TIP Report ranking process and the Department of Labor’s annual list of goods
produced by child or forced labor, as well as the effectiveness of the administrative reviews for
beneficiary status for trade preference programs.
Preventing U.S. Government Participation in Trafficking Overseas
A final dimension of foreign policy activity to combat human trafficking addressed in this report
is efforts to prevent U.S.-facilitated trafficking from occurring abroad. U.S. government
personnel, diplomats, peacekeepers, and contractors operate overseas and represent U.S. interests
abroad at U.S. embassies, consulates, military bases, and other posts located in foreign countries
where domestic anti-trafficking laws and the enforcement of such laws may vary significantly.
38 Based on a review of trade preference programs from 2001 through 2007. GAO, An Overview of Use of U.S. Trade
Preference Programs by Beneficiaries and U.S. Administrative Reviews, GAO-07-1209, September 27, 2007.
39 GAO-08-443.
40 Ibid.
41 These countries include Algeria, CAR, DRC, Eritrea, Guinea-Bissau, Lebanon, Madagascar, Mauritania, Papua New
Guinea, Venezuela, Yemen, and Zimbabwe.
42 These countries include Afghanistan (bricks), Angola (diamonds), Argentina (garments), Benin (cotton), Bolivia
(brazil nuts/chestnuts and sugarcane), Brazil (cattle and charcoal), Burkina Faso (cotton and gold), Colombia
(coca/stimulant plant), DRC (cassiterite and coltan), Cote d’Ivoire (cocoa and coffee), Ethiopia (hand-woven textiles),
Ghana (tilapia/fish), India (bricks, carpets, cottonseed/hybrid, embroidered textiles/zari, garments, rice, and stones),
Kazakhstan (cotton and tobacco), Malawi (tobacco), Mali (rice), Nepal (bricks, carpets, embroidered textiles/zari, and
stones), Nigeria (cocoa, granite, and gravel/crushed stones), Pakistan (bricks, carpets, and coal), Peru (gold), Russia
(pornography), Sierra Leone (diamonds), Thailand (garments and shrimp), and Uzbekistan (cotton). Paraguay
reportedly produces goods with both child and forced labor, but not in combination to make a single item.
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In recent decades, news reports have unearthed a range of international sex and labor trafficking
schemes that have allegedly involved U.S. representatives overseas as the traffickers and
exploiters and the end-user consumers of services provided by trafficking victims. Current focus
has centered on allegations at U.S. installations in Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as at U.S.
embassy missions, where third-country nationals (TCNs) are hired by subcontractors to perform
low-skill, labor-intensive jobs.43 Such schemes involving U.S. personnel apparently occur despite
NSPD-22, discussed above, which established a “zero tolerance” policy toward all U.S.
government employees and contractor personnel overseas who engage in human trafficking
violations.
TVPA: Contractor Prohibitions and Reporting Requirements
The TVPA requires the President to authorize federal agencies and departments to terminate, without penalty, grants,
contracts, and cooperative agreements if the grantee, subgrantee, contractor, or subcontractor (1) engages in severe
forms of trafficking in persons while the grant, contract, or cooperative agreement is in effect; (2) procures a
commercial sex act while the grant, contract, or cooperative agreement is in effect; or (3) uses forced labor in the
performance of the grant, contract, or cooperative agreement.44
Also pursuant to the TVPA, actions to enforce the U.S. government’s zero-tolerance policy against human trafficking
in contracts are reported in an annual report to Congress prepared by the Attorney General.45
Subsequently, the TVPRA of 2008 mandated additional reporting requirements for the OIGs for the Departments of
State and Defense and USAID.46 This provision directed the OIGs to investigate, over the course of three years from
FY2010 through FY2012, a series of contracts and subcontracts at any tier under which contractors and
subcontractors are at heightened risk of engaging in acts related to human trafficking. Specified high-risk activities
include confiscation of employee passports, restriction on an employee’s mobility, abrupt or evasive repatriation of an
employee, and deception of an employee regarding the work destination.
Although the OIG reports submitted to Congress pursuant to the TVPRA of 2008 col ectively documented few
instances of likely contractor involvement in severe forms of human trafficking, solicitation of commercial sex acts,
sex trafficking, or involuntary servitude,47 several of them identified contractor management practices that increased
the risk of human trafficking and related violations. The State Department’s OIG, for example, found instances of
contractor coercion at recruitment and destination points and exploitative conditions at work, including frequent
instances in which workers paid recruiters brokerage fees and employers regularly confiscated employee passports,
withheld wages, used confusing calculations to determine earnings, provided unsafe or unsanitary living conditions for
workers, and participated in deceptive recruitment practices that exploited workers’ lack of language, education, and
information.48 The DOD’s OIG evaluated selected contracts in the U.S. Pacific Command and U.S. Central Command
areas of responsibility and revealed problems with ensuring that contracts had the appropriate anti-trafficking
clauses.49
43 Third-country nationals (TCNs) include non-local, non-U.S. citizen workers temporarily hired to work by federal
contractors for the U.S. government overseas. There is concern that they are particularly susceptible to trafficking
schemes, according to recent news and U.S. inspector general reports. As neither U.S. citizens nor citizens of the host
nation where they are working, such TCNs are vulnerable due to distance and isolation from their home communities,
the possibility of language barriers, and dependence on their employers to procure and maintain current visas and work
permits. The U.S. government is often heavily reliant on such contractors for support in providing services at its
overseas posts related to facilities maintenance, gardening, construction, cleaning, food, and local guard forces. Often,
such TCNs are hired to perform labor for significantly lower cost than would be required to hire local staff. See for
example DOS and BBG, OIG, Middle East Regional Office (MERO), Performance Evaluation of Department of State
Contracts to Assess the Risk of Trafficking in Persons Violations in Four States in the Cooperation Council for the
Arab States of the Gulf, Report No. MERO-I-11-06, January 2011.
44 Section 106(g) of the TVPA, as amended; 22 U.S.C. 7104(g).
45 Section 105(d)(7) of the TVPA, as amended; 22 U.S.C. 7103(d)(7). Although not congressionally mandated to report
on anti-trafficking progress made by the U.S. government in the TIP Report, the 2011 edition reports that allegations of
U.S. defense contractor violations were investigated and ultimately resulted in the dismissal of one employee by a
(continued...)
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Although the U.S. government reports that it continues to investigate alleged cases of trafficking
involving U.S. officials and contractors, many experts have questioned why such cases rarely
result in criminal prosecution or other enforcement measures. Regarding federal contractors,
allegations are generally corrected internally by the contractor before more severe contracting
penalties are imposed by the U.S. government, such as contract termination, or contractor
disqualifications, suspensions, and debarments. Though there are anti-trafficking laws,
regulations, and zero-tolerance policies in place, some question whether they are effectively
enforced.50 In war zones and overseas contingency operations, enforcement capacity is
particularly challenged by factors such as the unreliability of host nation capacity to enforce its
domestic rule of law, the need for low-cost and quickly recruited government contractors in large
volumes, the prioritization of investigating human trafficking violations relative to other possible
national security priorities in such operations, and the general absence of security, such that
investigators and contracting officer representatives (CORs) are unable to travel to sites for
inspection and audit. The 112th Congress has introduced several bills that seek to improve the
enforcement of anti-trafficking regulations among federal contractors.51 For further discussion of
trafficking-related legislation in the 112th Congress, see the Appendix.
Conclusion
Human trafficking is an inherently transnational and multi-dimensional issue that touches on a
broad combination of foreign policy, human rights, criminal justice, and national security
priorities. Despite U.S. and international efforts, perpetrators continue to persist in victimizing
men, women, and children worldwide through commercial sexual exploitation, forced labor, debt
bondage, domestic servitude, and the use of children in armed conflict. Although there remains
widespread support among policy makers and outside observers for the continuation of U.S. and
international anti-trafficking goals, reports of ongoing exploitation of trafficking victims
worldwide appear to fundamentally question the effectiveness and prioritization of current
responses to the trafficking problem. In the face of persistent reports of human trafficking
(...continued)
DOD contractor. TIP Report (2011), “Country Narrative for the United States.”
46 Section 232 of the TVPRA of 2008 (P.L. 110-457).
47 DOS and BBG, OIG, Performance Evaluation of Department of State Contracts to Assess the Risk of Trafficking in
Persons Violations in the Levant, Report No. MERO-I-11-07, March 2011; Report to the House Committee on Foreign
Relations, January 15, 2010; and Report of Inspection, Embassy Riyadh and Constituent Posts, Saudi Arabia, Report
No. ISP-I-10-19A, March 2010.
48 DOS and BBG, OIG, Performance Evaluation of Department of State Contracts to Assess the Risk of Trafficking in
Persons Violations in Four States in the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, Report No. MERO-I-11-
06, January 2011; Report to the House Committee on Foreign Relations, January 15, 2010; and Performance Audit, The
Bureau of Diplomatic Security Baghdad Embassy Security Force, Report No. MERO-A-10-05, March 2010.
49 DOD, OIG, Evaluation of DOD Contracts Regarding Combating Trafficking in Persons, Report No. IE-2010-001,
January 2010; and Evaluation of DOD Contracts Regarding Combating Trafficking in Persons: U.S. Central
Command, Report No. IE-SPO-2011-002, January 18, 2011.
50 See for example U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, Subcommittee
on Technology, Information Policy, Intergovernmental Relations, and Procurement Reform, Hearing, Are Government
Contractors Exploiting Workers Overseas? Examining Enforcement of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act,
November 2, 2011.
51 See for example S. 2234 and H.R. 4259, the End Trafficking in Government Contracting Act of 2012 and S. 2139,
the Comprehensive Contingency Contracting Reform Act of 2012.
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worldwide, policy makers remain challenged to evaluate whether U.S. goals to eradicate human
trafficking worldwide are achievable and whether current international anti-trafficking programs
are measured against realistic expectations.
This report has explored issues related to several U.S. foreign policy responses to human
trafficking, including (1) foreign country reporting, (2) foreign product blacklisting, (3) foreign
aid, (4) foreign aid restrictions, (5) conditions on trade preference program beneficiaries, and (6)
preventing U.S. government participation in trafficking overseas. These U.S. approaches to
international human trafficking highlight a series of initiatives, often implemented unilaterally,
that exceed the international commitments set forth in treaties such as the U.N. Trafficking
Protocol. Issues discussed in this report have centered on challenges associated with how well
these policy mandates connect with and reinforce each other, and whether resources devoted to
combating human trafficking are allocated effectively and efficiently. Several generations of
legislative activity address aspects of human trafficking as currently conceptualized by the U.N.
Trafficking Protocol and TVPA, but they are neither necessarily or easily integrated in current
anti-trafficking policy nor implemented smoothly across federal agencies. Given recent reports
suggesting that U.S. government personnel and contractors have been implicated in trafficking
schemes overseas, some may also question the credibility of the United States as an international
leader against trafficking in persons.
As the 112th Congress considers action on international human trafficking issues related to
pending legislation in both chambers to reauthorize the TVPA, the FY2013 budget and
appropriations cycle, and upcoming executive branch report submissions to Congress, illustrative
questions of congressional interest may include the following:
• Congressionally Mandated Reports: Redundancies and Resource Costs. In
October 2010, the State Department’s OIG released a report that singled out the
TIP Report as among the most cost-intensive in terms of personnel resources
both at U.S. diplomatic posts abroad and at headquarters in Washington, DC. It
also pointed to redundancies among other congressionally mandated reports that
reference human trafficking-related concerns, including the Labor Department’s
annual Worst Forms of Child Labor Report. Is there value in requiring the
executive branch to submit multiple reports to Congress with similar
information? To what extent have these reports provided Congress with relevant
information needed to make policy decisions?
• U.S. Military and Peacekeeping Aid to Countries with Child Soldiers. In
2011, the State Department identified six countries that recruit or harbor child
soldiers: Burma, Chad, DRC, Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen. Yet, half of these
continue to receive U.S. military assistance (Chad, DRC, and Yemen), pursuant
to presidential national interest waivers, and all continue to receive Peacekeeping
Operations (PKO) assistance, a category of U.S. foreign aid intended to reform
foreign military establishments and professionalize military forces in
peacekeeping and stability operations, among other purposes. Others, such as
Afghanistan and South Sudan, which are variously reported by the Department of
Labor and non-governmental reports to recruit and harbor minors in their armed
forces, also continue to receive U.S. military assistance. Are current U.S.
restrictions on military aid effective in preventing and deterring countries from
recruiting child soldiers? What policy options might exist to further induce
foreign countries to halt such practices?
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• Effectiveness of U.S. Aid Restrictions to “Tier 3” Countries. For FY2012,
President Obama authorized the full force of anti-human trafficking aid
restrictions to be applied to 3 of 23 Tier 3 countries: Eritrea, Madagascar, and
North Korea. None of these countries, however, were anticipated to receive U.S.
assistance that could have been sanctioned in FY2012. Have congressionally
authorized anti-trafficking aid restrictions been effectively used by the executive
branch? What additional policy options might exist to reach poor-performing
countries that do not receive much U.S. foreign aid?
• Interagency Consistency in the Implementation of Anti-Trafficking Policy.
Through the TVPA, Congress mandated the creation of two senior-level
interagency coordinating bodies, including the SPOG and the PITF, to de-conflict
and ensure consistency among international anti-trafficking initiatives. Yet, some
interagency inconsistencies persist. For example, U.S. trade preference programs
in 2012 continue to list as among its beneficiaries 12 Tier 3 countries.
Additionally, 24 trade preference program beneficiary countries are listed by the
Department of Labor as producing goods with a combination of both forced and
child labor. Although there are no specific requirements to ensure consistency
among U.S. trade policies and anti-trafficking policies, how do such disconnects
affect the effectiveness of efforts to combat human trafficking?
• Enforcement of Anti-Trafficking Policies Among U.S. Contractors Overseas.
Recent OIG reports submitted to Congress by the Departments of State and
Defense and USAID identified several contractor management practices that
increased the risk that human trafficking and related violations might occur,
including instances of contractor coercion at recruitment and destination points
and potentially exploitative conditions at work, such as unregulated recruitment
fees, regular confiscation of employee passports, withheld wages, confusing
calculations of earnings, unsafe or unsanitary living conditions, and deceptive
recruitment practices that exploit workers’ lack of language, education, and
information.52 What policy options should Congress consider in reducing the
possibility of U.S. government funds and representatives from facilitating severe
forms of trafficking in persons?
• Multilateral Policy Options: Potential for Redundancy or Efficiency Gains?
As discussed in this report, the U.S. government implements a series of unilateral
policy responses to combat international human trafficking. The United States is
also an active participant in multilateral anti-trafficking initiatives. To what
extent do such multilateral initiatives enhance or render redundant existing U.S.
efforts? Do other countries and international organizations consider U.S. foreign
policy responses to combat human trafficking an effective model? Given the
common goal of eliminating trafficking in persons, what can or should the U.S.
government do, if anything, to enhance its support of multilateral anti-trafficking
initiatives?
52 U.S. Department of State and the BBG, OIG, Performance Evaluation of Department of State Contracts to Assess the
Risk of Trafficking in Persons Violations in Four States in the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf,
Report No. MERO-I-11-06, January 2011; Report to the House Committee on Foreign Relations, January 15, 2010; and
Performance Audit, The Bureau of Diplomatic Security Baghdad Embassy Security Force, Report No. MERO-A-10-
05, March 2010.
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See the Appendix for further discussion of pending legislation in the 112th Congress on
international human trafficking.
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Appendix. Selected Legislation in the 112th Congress
The 112th Congress has considered issues related to international trafficking in persons in the
form of hearings and authorization and appropriations bills, as well as other oversight actions.
This appendix identifies pending bills in the 112th Congress that would have an impact on U.S.
foreign policy responses against human trafficking. Overall, key provisions have centered on
themes related to funding levels for anti-trafficking initiatives, country and region-specific human
rights issues, adjustments to existing trafficking-related reporting requirements and aid sanctions
programs, prevention of labor trafficking in U.S. supply chains, and allegations associated with
U.S. contractors operating overseas.
Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2011
The 112th Congress has introduced three bills to reauthorize the
Further Reading
TVPA beyond FY2011: two House bills, the Trafficking Victims
For an overview of both
Protection Reauthorization Act of 2011 (H.R. 2830 and H.R.
domestic and international
3589), and one Senate bill, the Trafficking Victims Enhanced
legislative proposals for the
Protection Act of 2011 (S. 1301). For a comparison of funding
TVPA’s reauthorization in the
112th Congress, see CRS Report
provisions, see text box below on “House and Senate
RL34317, Trafficking in Persons:
Authorization of Appropriations in Comparison.”
U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress,
by Alison Siskin and Liana Sun
Wyler.
H.R. 2830, H.R. 3589, and Related Provisions
Representative Smith introduced H.R. 2830 on August 30, 2011, as well as H.R. 3589 on
December 7, 2011. Both bills would reauthorize appropriations for the TPVA for an additional
two fiscal years: FY2012 and FY2013. The House Committee on Foreign Affairs marked up H.R.
2830 on October 5, 2011, and amended the bill as introduced in the nature of a substitute.
Included in the marked-up version of H.R. 2830 were four amendments agreed upon en bloc,
including amendments offered by Representatives Murphy, Fortenberry, Royce, and Bass. One
notable omission in the marked-up version of H.R. 2830 included the removal of a provision to
authorize the establishment of a DOD Director of Anti-Trafficking Policies.
H.R. 3589 includes the text of H.R. 2830 as amended in the October 5, 2011, following
committee markup (at Sections 106, 108, 109, and 110). It also includes an additional provision at
Section 303 related to the eligibility of faith-based organizations to receive assistance pursuant to
the TVPA. H.R. 3589 was referred on December 14, 2011, to the House Subcommittee on Crime,
Terrorism, and Homeland Security.
Notable provisions in H.R. 2830, as marked up, and H.R. 3589, as introduced, addressing foreign
policy issues to combat international trafficking in persons include the following (as applicable,
similarities among other bills introduced in the 112th Congress, including S. 1301, are also
described below):
• Section 102. Office to Monitor and Combat Modern Slavery and Other
Forms of Human Trafficking. This provision would rename the State
Department’s Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons the “Office to
Monitor and Combat Modern Slavery and Other Forms of Trafficking in
Persons.”
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• Section 103. Prevention of Trafficking. This provision would incorporate
human trafficking-related elements of H.R. 2524, Microenterprise Empowerment
and Job Creation Act of 2011.53 It would also prioritize assistance to particularly
vulnerable categories of persons, including stateless, marginalized, and internally
displaced, as well as assistance to address post-conflict and humanitarian
emergencies.
• Section 104. Reports to Congress. This provision would require, among other
provisions, two additional sections in the annual TIP Report issued by the State
Department pursuant to Section 110 of the TVPA. One new section would be
entitled “Best Practices in Slavery Eradication” and a second section would be
entitled “Refugee-Trafficking Connection.” Section 106 of S. 1301 as reported
out of the Senate Judiciary Committee also includes a similar provision “Best
Practices in Trafficking in Persons Eradication,” which would mandate the State
Department to include in its annual TIP Report a new section on “exemplary
governments and practices in the eradication of trafficking in persons.”54
• Section 106. Additional Activities to Monitor and Combat Forced Labor and
Child Labor. This provision incorporates the amendment offered by
Representative Murphy to the marked-up version of H.R. 2830. The provision,
dubbed the Business Transparency on Trafficking and Slavery Act, would
encourage publicly traded or private entities with business operations in the
United States and having annual global receipts in excess of $100 million to
voluntarily disclose on their websites measures to identify and address
“conditions of forced labor, slavery, human trafficking and the worst forms of
child labor” within their supply chains.
• Section 108. Sense of Congress on Human Trafficking. This provision
incorporates the amendment offered by Representative Royce to the marked-up
version of H.R. 2830, which would provide a Sense of Congress that Cambodia
should be designated a Tier 3 country in the State Department’s annual TIP
Report.
• Section 109. Prohibition on Peacekeeping Operations Assistance to
Countries that Recruit and Use Child Soldiers and Revision to National
Interest Waiver Under the Child Soldiers Prevention Act of 2008. This
provision incorporates the amendment offered by Representative Fortenberry to
the marked-up version of H.R. 2830 to bar assistance through the Peacekeeping
Operations (PKO) foreign aid account from countries designated by the State
Department as recruiting and using child soldiers. This provision would
incorporate similar provisions in H.R. 2519, introduced by Representative
Fortenberry on July 13, 2011, and the companion bill S. 1259, introduced by
53 H.R. 2524, Microenterprise Empowerment and Job Creation Act of 2011, introduced by Representative Smith on
July 13, 2011. It was referred to the House Foreign Affairs Committee on July 13, 2011. The bill would authorize
foreign assistance, pursuant to Section 252(a) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended, to include
“sustainable poverty-focused programs” whose beneficiaries would include “victims or potential victims of severe
forms of trafficking in persons or women who are victims of or susceptible to other forms of exploitation and
violence.”
54 Note that S. 1301 incorporates the provision in S. 1362, Trafficking in Persons Report Improvement Act of 2011,
introduced by Senator Webb on July 13, 2011, that would mandate the State Department to include in its annual TIP
Report a new section on “exemplary governments and practices in the eradication of trafficking in persons.”
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Senator Durbin on June 22, 2011. Section 109 of S. 1301 as reported out of the
Senate Judiciary Committee also includes a similar provision to bar PKO funds
from states designated as recruiting and using child soldiers. In contrast to the
House bill, S. 1301 exempts from restriction PKO programs that “support
military professionalization, security sector reform, heightened respect for human
rights, peacekeeping preparation, or the demobilization and reintegration of child
soldiers.”
• Section 201 of H.R. 2830 and Section 202 H.R. 3589. Interagency Task Force
to Monitor and Combat Trafficking. Among other purposes, this provision
would require the annual report prepared for Congress by the Attorney General
on U.S. anti-trafficking programs, pursuant to Section 105(d)(7) of the TVPA,55
to include additional information on federal agencies’ enforcement of the U.S.
government zero-tolerance policy, pursuant to NSPD-22, against trafficking in
persons, including termination, discipline, and prosecution of government
contractors and subcontractors. Section 112 of S. 1301 as reported out of the
Senate Judiciary Committee includes related amendments to Section 105(d)(7) of
the TVPA to require additional information on Defense Department reporting of
trafficking cases, including those by defense contractors.
S. 1301 and Related Provisions
S. 1301, the Trafficking Victims Enhanced Protection Act of 2011, was introduced on June 29,
2011, by Senator Leahy. On November 17, 2011, the bill was reported favorably in the nature of a
substitute out of the Senate Judiciary Committee (S.Rept. 112-96). Notable provisions include the
following:
• Section 101. Regional Strategies for Combating Trafficking in Persons. This
provision would require each regional bureau to compile a list of anti-trafficking
goals and objectives for each country in its area of responsibility.
• Section 102. Regional Anti-Trafficking Officers. This provision would
authorize the Secretary of State to appoint at U.S. embassies overseas officers
with specific responsibility to coordinate anti-trafficking diplomacy, initiatives,
and programs.
• Section 103. Partnerships Against Significant Trafficking in Persons. This
provision would amend the TVPA and insert a new section, Section 105A,
intended to promote collaboration and cooperation among U.S. government,
foreign government, civil society actors, and private sector entities to combat
human trafficking. This section would also introduce a new mechanism, Child
Protection Compacts, through which foreign countries may receive assistance to
combat child trafficking. Initially introduced under S. 185, Child Protection
Compact Act of 2011, by Senator Boxer on January 25, 2011, prospective
country recipients would be required to meet certain eligibility criteria and
assistance would be provided in the form of grants, cooperative agreements, or
55 22 U.S.C. 7103(d)(7).
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contracts with recipient country governments or relevant NGOs or private entities
with expertise in combating child trafficking.56
• Section 105. Minimum Standards for the Elimination of Trafficking. This
provision would amend Section 108(b) of the TVPA to include additional criteria
for determining whether a country has achieved the minimum anti-trafficking
standards, such as effective bilateral, regional, and multilateral coordination and
cooperation on trafficking route information and effective policies and laws
regulating foreign labor recruiters.
• Section 106. Best Practices in Trafficking in Persons Eradication. This
provision would amend Section 110(b) of the TVPA to, among other purposes,
require that the State Department, in its annual TIP Report, include a new section
on “Exemplary Governments and Practices in the Eradication of Trafficking in
Persons.” As discussed above, this provision incorporates aspects of S. 1362,
Trafficking in Persons Report Improvement Act of 2011, introduced by Senator
Webb on July 13, 2011.57 Additionally, a similar provision is incorporated into
Section 104 of H.R. 3589.
• Section 108. Prevention of Child Trafficking Through Child Marriage. This
provision would require the Secretary of State to prepare a strategy to prevent
child marriage and incorporate information on the status of child marriage in the
State Department’s annual Human Rights Report.
• Section 109. Child Soldiers. As discussed above under Section 109 of H.R.
3589, this provision would bar certain PKO funds from states designated as
recruiting and using child soldiers.
• Section 110. Presidential Award for Technological Innovations to Combat
Trafficking in Persons. This provision would amend Section 112B(a) of the
TVPA to include as possible recipients of the Presidential Award for
Extraordinary Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons private sector entities and
units of national, regional, and local governments. Such recipients may qualify
for the award not only for having contributed extraordinary effort in combating
trafficking, but also for contributing to technological innovation.
• Section 111. Contracting Requirements. This provision would elaborate on
existing authorities for the federal government to terminate grants, contracts, and
cooperative agreements if human trafficking-related acts take place during or in
the performance of the grant, contract, or agreement. This provision would also
mandate that a contract compliance plan be in place for grants, contracts, and
56 S. 185, the Child Protection Compact Act of 2011, was referred to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations on
January 25, 2011. This bill specified that a country may receive up to $15 million in assistance through a Compact.
57 S. 1362, the Trafficking in Persons Report Improvement Act of 2011,was referred on July 13, 2011, to the Senate
Committee on Foreign Relations. In addition to mandating a new section in the TIP Report on “exemplary governments
and practices in the eradication of trafficking in persons,” S. 1362 would amend Section 110 of the TVPA, relating to
the country designations as Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 2 Watch List, or Tier 3, to implement a new ranking scheme. One
category of countries would be identified as fully compliant with the minimum standards to eliminate severe forms of
trafficking in persons and the countries in this category would be sorted and ranked according to their relative
adherence to the minimum standards. A second category of countries would be identified as non-complaint with the
minimum standards and similarly sorted and ranked relative to other countries in this second category.
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cooperative agreements valued at more than $1 million and that take place
mainly overseas in support of contingency operations.
• Section 112. Department of Defense Reporting of Trafficking in Persons
Claims and Violations. As discussed above under Section 201 of H.R. 2830 and
Section 202 of H.R. 3589, this provision would require in the annual report
prepared for Congress by the Attorney General on U.S. anti-trafficking programs,
pursuant to Section 105(d)(7) of the TVPA,58 additional information on Defense
Department reporting of trafficking cases, including those by defense contractors.
• Section 222. Reporting Requirements for the Secretary of Labor. This
provision would amend Section 105(b) of the TVPRA of 200559 to require that
the list of goods from countries that are reasonably believed to have been
produced by forced or child labor in violation of international standards be
updated no later than December 2, 2012, and every two years thereafter.
Although the Department of Labor has updated the list three times since the
TVPRA of 2005 first mandated the list, there is no provision in current law that
specifies whether and how frequently the list should be updated.
• Section 223. Information Sharing to Combat Child Labor and Slave Labor.
This provision would require the Secretary of State to share on a regular basis
with the Department of Labor information related to child labor and forced labor
used to produce goods in violation of international standards.
• Section 225. GAO Report on the Use of Foreign Labor Contractors. This
provisions would require the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) to
submit a report, within two years of enactment of the act, on the use of foreign
labor contractors both domestically and overseas.
House and Senate Authorization of Appropriations in Comparison
Title III of H.R. 2830, as marked up; H.R. 3589, as introduced; and S. 1301, as reported, address authorization of
appropriations for anti-trafficking initiatives and programs.
For the most part, Title III of H.R. 2830 and H.R. 3589 authorize appropriations for FY2012 and FY2013 for
international programs at the same levels as in the previous TVPRA ending FY2011.60 One notable change is to the
authorization of appropriations for the Presidential Award for Extraordinary Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons
pursuant to Section 112B of the TVPA.61 In current law, for each of the fiscal years 2008 through 2011, “such sums as
may be necessary to carry out this section” are authorized to be appropriated. Section 301 of H.R. 2830 and H.R.
3589 would amend this to specify that $500,000 may be appropriated for each of the fiscal years 2012 and 2013.
In contrast, Title III of S. 1301 authorizes appropriations for four fiscal years: FY2012 through FY2015. S. 1301 zeros
or reduces authorized funding several programs and initiatives previously authorized for appropriations. S. 1301 also
omits reference to some other programs and initiatives authorized for appropriations in the TVPRA of 2008. For
example:
•
Programs zeroed out include a USAID pilot program for victim rehabilitation facilities.62 This program
was previously authorized under P.L. 110-457 at $2.5 million for FY2011. H.R. 2830 and H.R. 3589
authorize $1.5 million for each fiscal year 2012 and 2013 for such purposes. Also zeroed out are authorized
58 22 U.S.C. 7103(d)(7).
59 22 U.S.C. 7112(b).
60 The previous TVPRA was the TVPRA of 2008, P.L. 110-457.
61 22 U.S.C. 7109B.
62 22 U.S.C. 7105 note.
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expenses for Interagency Task Force receptions, previously authorized for appropriations at $3,000 for
FY2011.63 H.R. 2830 and H.R. 3589 maintain authorized appropriations at the previously authorized level.
•
Programs for which authorized funding levels are reduced by S. 1301 include funding in support of
the Interagency Task Force,64 from $5.5 million in FY2011 to $2 million in each fiscal year 2012 through
2015; funding for foreign victim assistance,65 from $15 million in FY2011 to $7.5 million in each fiscal year
2012 through 2015; and funding for foreign assistance to meet the minimum standards to eliminate
trafficking in persons,66 from $15 mil ion in FY2011 to $7.5 million in each fiscal year 2012 through 2015.
•
Programs omitted from reference in S. 1301, which in current law are authorized only through
FY2011, include funding for additional personnel to staff the Interagency Task Force (for which $1.5 million
is authorized in current law);67 funding for foreign law enforcement training assistance (for which $250,000
is authorized in current law);68 research on human trafficking (for which $2 million is authorized in current
law);69 and the Presidential Award for Extraordinary Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons (for which
“such sums as may be necessary” is authorized in current law).70
For additional detail on proposed changes to the authorization of appropriations, including domestic proposals, see
CRS Report RL34317, Trafficking in Persons: U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress, by Alison Siskin and Liana Sun Wyler.
Other Anti-Trafficking Bills
Other bills in the 112th Congress that address foreign policy issues to combat international
trafficking in persons include the following:
• H.R. 1410, the Vietnam Human Rights Act of 2011. H.R. 1410 was introduced
on April 7, 2011, by Representative Smith. Referred on May 13, 2011, to the
House Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health, and Human Rights. Would
prohibit an increase in non-humanitarian foreign aid to Vietnam over FY2011
levels unless, among other provisions, the President determines and certifies to
Congress that “[n]either any official of the Government of Vietnam nor any
agency or entity wholly or partly owned by the Government of Vietnam was
complicit in a severe form of trafficking in persons, or the Government of
Vietnam took all appropriate steps to end any such complicity and hold such
official, agency, or entity fully accountable for its conduct.”
• H.R. 2583, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 2012. H.R.
2583 was introduced on July 19, 2011, by Representative Ros-Lehtinen.
Reported favorably by the House Committee on Foreign Affairs on September
23, 2011 (H.Rept. 112-223). Includes human trafficking related provisions of
H.R. 1410, the Vietnam Human Rights Act of 2011, and also would mandate the
U.S. Department of State to establish a code of conduct to prevent trafficking in
persons, which among other provisions, would “outline necessary steps to ensure
(...continued)
63 22 U.S.C. 7110(a).
64 22 U.S.C. 7105 note.
65 22 U.S.C. 7110(e)(1).
66 22 U.S.C. 7110(e)(2).
67 22 U.S.C. 7105 note.
68 22 U.S.C. 7110(d)(B).
69 22 U.S.C. 7110(e)(3).
70 22 U.S.C. 7109(d).
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that Department of State contractors and subcontractors do not engage in
trafficking in persons.”
• H.R. 3253, the International Megan’s Law of 2011. H.R. 3253 was introduced
by Representative Smith on October 24, 2011. Referred on November 2, 2011, to
the House Subcommittee on Immigration Policy and Enforcement. Would amend
the criteria for determining whether countries have achieved the minimum
standards for eliminating severe forms of human trafficking to specify that
government-to-government cooperation on trafficking investigations and
prosecutions include cooperation in the reporting of its own citizens who are
suspected of engaging in severe forms of human trafficking in another country.
Among other provisions, H.R. 3253 would establish an International Sex
Offender Travel Center and encourage the use of anti-trafficking assistance
authorized by Section 134 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 to support
foreign governments in the establishment of systems to identify sex offenders and
share and receive information related to such individuals’ travel plans abroad.
The bill would also mandate additional reporting requirements related to the
plans and status of international mechanisms to track and monitor traveling child
sex offenders.
• S. 2234 and H.R. 4259, the End Trafficking in Government Contracting Act
of 2012. S. 2234 and H.R. 4259 were both introduced on March 26, 2012, by
Senator Blumenthal and Representative Lankford, respectively. Among other
provisions, the bills would enhance the existing authority provided in Section
106(g) of the TVPA to terminate or take other remedial action against contractors
and subcontractors who are found destroying, concealing, removing, or
confiscating an employee’s immigrations documents without consent; failing to
repatriate an employee upon the end of employment in certain circumstances;
offering employment by means of materially false or fraudulent pretenses;
charging recruited employees exorbitant placement fees; and providing inhuman
living conditions. The bills would also amend 18 U.S.C. 1351 to expand the
penalties for fraud in foreign labor contracting to include work outside the United
States. This latter provision also appears in S. 2139, the Comprehensive
Contingency Contracting Reform Act of 2012, introduced on February 29, 2012,
by Senator McCaskill.
Author Contact Information
Liana Sun Wyler
Analyst in International Crime and Narcotics
lwyler@crs.loc.gov, 7-6177
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