Selected Characteristics of Private and
Public Sector Workers
Gerald Mayer
Analyst in Labor Policy
March 14, 2012
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R41897
CRS Report for Congress
Pr
epared for Members and Committees of Congress

Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Summary
An issue for Congress and state and local governments is whether the pay and benefits of public
workers are comparable to those of workers in the private sector. In addition, policymakers are
looking at the pay and benefits of public sector employees as a way to reduce budget deficits.
From 1955 to 2011, employment in the private sector increased by 65.5 million jobs (from 43.7
million to 109.3 million), while the number of jobs in the public sector (including federal, state,
and local governments) grew by 15.1 million (from 7.0 million to 22.1 million). Since 1975,
however, the percentage of all jobs that are in the public sector has fallen from 19.2% to 16.8%.
Union coverage has declined in both the private and public sectors. But, the decline has been
greater in the private sector. In 2009, for the first time, a majority of employees covered by a
collective bargaining agreement were employed in the public sector. Private sector workers who
are covered by a collective bargaining agreement are generally paid higher wages and receive
more or better benefits than workers who are not covered by a union contract. In the federal
government, except for the Postal Service and some smaller agencies, employees do not bargain
over wages.
Differences in the characteristics of full-time workers in the private and public sectors that may
affect their relative pay and benefits include the following:
• Age. Workers in the public sector are older, on average, than private sector
workers. In 2011, 52.1% of full-time public sector workers were between the
ages of 45 and 64, compared to 42.8% of full-time private sector workers.
Federal workers are older than employees of state and local governments. In
2011, 55.8% of federal workers were between the ages of 45 and 64, compared to
51.9% of state employees and 50.8% of employees of local governments.
Workers who have more years of work experience may earn more than workers
with less experience.
• Education. On average, public sector employees have more years of education
than private sector workers. In 2011, 53.7% of workers in the public sector had a
bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree, compared to 34.0% of private
sector workers. Generally, workers with more education earn more than workers
with less education.
• Occupation. A larger share of public sector workers than private sector workers
are employed in “management, professional, and related occupations.” In 2011,
56.3% of public sector workers and 37.1% of private sector workers were
employed in these occupations. Workers in management and professional
occupations generally earn more than workers in other occupations. Comparisons
in the compensation of private and public sector workers that use broad
occupational categories may miss differences between detailed occupations. But,
many detailed occupations are concentrated in either the private or public sectors.
Many detailed occupations may require similar skills, however.
• Union coverage. In almost all major occupational categories, union coverage is
higher in the public sector than in the private sector.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Contents
Trends in Private and Public Sector Employment ........................................................................... 1
Union Coverage......................................................................................................................... 5
Individual, Occupational, and Employer Characteristics of Private and Public Sector
Workers......................................................................................................................................... 7
Age ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Gender ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Education................................................................................................................................. 10
Occupation............................................................................................................................... 13
Major Occupations ............................................................................................................ 13
Union Coverage by Major Occupation ............................................................................. 14
Detailed Occupations ........................................................................................................ 16
Metropolitan Area.................................................................................................................... 16

Figures
Figure 1. Private and Public Sector Employment, 1955 to 2011 ..................................................... 2
Figure 2. Public Sector Employment as a Share of Total Employment, 1955 to 2011.................... 3
Figure 3. Public Sector Employment, by Level of Government, 1955 to 2011............................... 4
Figure 4. Public Sector Employment, by Level of Government, as a Share of
Total Employment, 1955 to 2011.................................................................................................. 4
Figure 5. Percent of Workers Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement, 1983-2011 ........... 6
Figure 6. Percent of Full-Time Workers Who are Between the Ages of 45 and 64, 1976 to
2011 .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 7. Percent of Full-Time Workers Who are Female, 1976 to 2011 ...................................... 10
Figure 8. Percent of Full-Time Workers with a Bachelor’s, Advanced, or
Professional Degree, Private and Public Sectors, 1976 to 2011 ................................................. 11
Figure 9. Percent of Full-Time Workers with a Bachelor’s, Advanced, or Professional
Degree, by Level of Government, 1976 to 2011 ........................................................................ 12
Figure 10. Percent of Full-Time Workers with an Advanced or Professional Degree,
Private and Public Sectors, 1976 to 2011 ................................................................................... 13
Figure 11. Percent of Full-Time Employees Who Live in Metropolitan Areas With
Populations of 1 Million or 5 Million or More, 2011 ................................................................. 17

Tables
Table 1. Percent of Workers Employed by Sector and Major Occupation and Covered by
a Collective Bargaining Agreement, 2011 .................................................................................. 15
Table A-1. Number of Workers Employed by Occupation and Covered by a Collective
Bargaining Agreement, 2011 ...................................................................................................... 19
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Table A-2. Occupations Common to Both the Private and Public Sectors, by Total
Number Employed, 2011............................................................................................................ 21
Table A-3. Occupations More Common in the Private Sector, by
Number Employed in the Private Sector, 2011........................................................................... 23
Table A-4. Occupations More Common in the Public Sector, by the Number Employed in
the Public Sector, 2011 ............................................................................................................... 25
Table A-5. Values for the Education Variable in the Current Population Survey (CPS),
1976 to 2011 ............................................................................................................................... 28

Appendixes
Appendix. Detailed Data and Description of Data Source and Methodology ............................... 18

Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 28

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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

n issue for Congress and state and local governments is whether the pay and benefits of
public workers are comparable to those of workers in the private sector.1 The effect of the
A December 2007-June 2009 recession on government budgets increased the interest of
policymakers in the compensation of public sector employees. For FY2012, the Congressional
Budget Office (CBO) estimates that the federal deficit will be $1.1 trillion.2 Several state and
local governments also face budget shortfalls.3 Many policymakers are looking at the pay and
benefits of government employees as a way to reduce budget deficits.4
This report begins with an analysis of the trends in employment in the private and public sectors.
The public sector is separated into employees of the federal government, state governments, and
local governments. Next, the report analyzes selected characteristics of private and public sector
workers. These characteristics are often used in comparisons of the compensation of different
workers. The report does not, however, compare the actual pay or benefits of private and public
sector workers or compare the characteristics of workers to try to explain any differences in the
pay and benefits of private and public sector workers.5
Trends in Private and Public Sector Employment
This section of the report examines the trends in employment in the private and public sectors.
The data are from the Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey, which is an employer survey
conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Employment includes both full-time and part-
time workers. Data are for 1955 to 2011. The beginning year of 1955 is used because that is the
first year that the CES survey provides data on the number of employees of state and local
governments. In the CES, government employment includes civilian employees only; the military
is not included.

1 Under the Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 (FEPCA), the pay of federal employees should be
comparable to the pay of other employees who do the same type of work in the same local area. FEPCA is Section 529
of the Treasury, Postal Service and General Government Appropriations Act, 1991 (P.L. 101-509).
2 Congressional Budget Office (CBO), The Budget and Economic Outlook: Fiscal Years 2012 to 2022, January 2012,
p. 1, available at http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/01-31-2012_Outlook.pdf.
3 According to a report by the Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, 19 states and the District of Columbia are
projected to have budget deficits in FY2013. Elizabeth McNichol, Phil Oliff, and Nicholas Johnson, States Continue to
Feel Recession’s Impact, Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, February 27, 2012, Table 2, available at
http://www.cbpp.org/files/9-8-08sfp.pdf.
4 In 2010, President Obama proposed, and Congress approved, a two-year pay freeze for federal civilian employees.
The pay freeze applies to calendar years 2011 and 2012. The pay freeze was included in the Continuing Appropriations
and Surface Transportation Extensions Act, 2011 (P.L. 111-322). On February 1, 2012, the U.S. House of
Representatives approved legislation, H.R. 3835, that would extend the pay freeze for federal civilian workers for one
more year (to the end of 2013). For FY2013, President Obama has proposed a 0.5% pay increase for federal civilian
workers. U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Analytical Perspectives, Budget of the United States Government,
FY2013, Chapter 11, p. 114, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/budget/fy2013/assets/
management.pdf.
President Obama’s Fiscal Commission proposed a three-year pay freeze for federal civilian employees and
recommended that federal workers contribute more to their health insurance and retirement plans. The National
Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform, The Moment of Truth: Report of the National Commission on Fiscal
Responsibility and Reform, December 2010, pp. 26, 40, 44-45, available at http://www.fiscalcommission.gov/sites/
fiscalcommission.gov/files/documents/TheMomentofTruth12_1_2010.pdf.
5 For an analysis of the compensation of private and public sector workers, see Congressional Budget Office,
Comparing the Compensation of Federal and Private-Sector Employees, January 2012, available at http://cbo.gov/
sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/01-30-FedPay.pdf.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

From 1955 to 2011, employment grew in both the private and public sectors. Most of the growth
in public sector employment was at the state and local level. However, the number of jobs in the
public sector as a share of total employment has fallen since 1975.
From 1955 to 2011, employment in the private sector increased by 65.5 million jobs (from 43.7
million to 109.3 million after rounding), while employment in the public sector grew by 15.1
million jobs (from 7.0 million to 22.1 million). Despite the larger increase in the number of
private sector jobs, public sector employment grew by 215%, compared to an increase of 150% in
the private sector (see Figure 1).
In 1955, public sector employment accounted for 13.8% of total employment in the United States.
This percentage increased to 19.2% in 1975, but fell to 16.8% in 2011 (see Figure 2). Conversely,
from 1955 to 1975 private sector employment fell from 86.2% to 80.8% of total employment,
before increasing to 83.2% in 2011.
Figure 1. Private and Public Sector Employment, 1955 to 2011
(in millions)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
1
195
196
196
197
197
198
198
199
199
200
200
201
Total private
Total public

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics survey, available at http://stats.bls.gov/ces/.

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Figure 2. Public Sector Employment as a Share of Total Employment, 1955 to 2011
22.0%
20.0%
18.0%
16.0%
14.0%
12.0%
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
1
195
196
196
197
197
198
198
199
199
200
200
201
Total public

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics survey, available at http://stats.bls.gov/ces/.
From 1955 to 2011, the growth in public sector employment occurred mainly among state and
local governments. At the local level, employment rose by an estimated 10.6 million jobs (from
3.6 million to 14.2 million). Employment at the state level rose by about 3.9 million jobs (from
1.2 million to 5.1 million) (see Figure 3).
From 1955 to 2011, employment at the local level increased from 7.0% to 10.8% of total
employment (an increase of 3.8 percentage points). Among state governments, employment
increased from 2.3% to 3.9% of total employment (an increase of 1.6 percentage points) (see
Figure 4).
Including the Postal Service, in 2011 the federal government employed an estimated 563,000
more workers than in 1955 (an increase from 2.3 million to 2.9 million) (see Figure 3). Despite
the increase in the number of federal jobs, federal employment as a share of total employment fell
from 4.5% in 1955 to 2.2% in 2011 (a decline of 2.3 percentage points) (see Figure 4).

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Figure 3. Public Sector Employment, by Level of Government, 1955 to 2011
(in millions)
15
12
9
6
3
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
1
195
196
196
197
197
198
198
199
199
200
200
201
Local
Federal
State

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics survey, available at http://stats.bls.gov/ces/.
Figure 4. Public Sector Employment, by Level of Government, as a Share of
Total Employment, 1955 to 2011
12.0%
10.0%
8.0%
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
1
195
196
196
197
197
198
198
199
199
200
200
201
Local
Federal
State

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics survey, available at http://stats.bls.gov/ces/.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Union Coverage
A worker who is covered by a collective bargaining agreement may or may not be required to pay
union dues. A worker who is covered by a union contract may work in a right-to-work state and is
not required to pay dues.6 Federal workers who are covered by a union contract are not required
to pay dues. Some state and local government employees who are covered by a collective
bargaining agreement are not required to pay dues.
The number of American workers covered by a collective bargaining agreement has declined
since 1979. In 1979, an estimated 23.5 million workers were covered by a union contract. By
2011, the number had fallen to 16.3 million.7 In 2009, for the first time, a majority of workers
covered by a collective bargaining agreement were employed in the public sector. In 2011, an
estimated 8.3 million public sector workers and 8.0 million private sector workers were covered
by a collective bargaining agreement.8
Figure 5 shows the percentage of private and public sector workers who were covered by a
collective bargaining agreement. Because union coverage is higher in the Postal Service than in
the rest of the federal government, Figure 5 shows the Postal Service and the rest of the federal
government separately. The data are for 1983 through 2011. The beginning year of 1983 is used
because that is the year when the CPS began collecting monthly data on union coverage.
In 2011, an estimated 51.1% of workers covered by a collective bargaining agreement were
employed in the public sector. Most public sector workers covered by a collective bargaining
agreement were employed by local governments (30.4% of all covered workers). An estimated
13.4% of covered workers were employed by state governments and 7.3% were employed by the
federal government.
From 1983 to 2011, the percentage of workers covered by a collective bargaining agreement fell
from 23.6% to 13.1% (a decline of 10.5 percentage points). Since 1983, the percentage of
workers represented by a union has fallen in both the private and public sectors. In the private
sector, union coverage fell from 18.8% to 7.7% of all wage and salary workers (a decline of 11.1
percentage points). In the public sector, union coverage fell from 45.5% to 40.7% (a decline of
4.8 percentage points).
In the public sector, the largest decrease in union coverage was in the Postal Service, where
coverage fell from 83.5% of workers in 1983 to 73.3% of workers in 2011 (a decline of 10.2

6 Section 14(b) of the Taft-Hartley Act (i.e., the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, P.L. 80-101) allows states
to enact right-to-work laws, which do not allow collective bargaining agreements to include union security agreements.
A union security agreement may require employees to pay union dues after being hired. An employee who objects to
the use of his or her dues for political purposes may pay a reduced agency fee (which covers the cost of collective
bargaining and contract administration and enforcement).
7 Barry T. Hirsch and David A. Macpherson, Union Membership and Coverage Database from the Current Population
Survey, available at http://www.unionstats.com.
8 The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) governs labor-management relations in most of the private sector. Labor-
management relations in the railroad and airlines industries are governed by the Railway Labor Act (RLA) of 1926. In
the federal sector, labor management relations are governed by the Federal Service Labor-Management Relations
Statute (FSLMRS, Title VII of the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978, P.L. 95-454). Labor-management relations for
state and local workers are governed by state and local law. For an explanation of collective bargaining rights in the
public sector, see CRS Report R41732, Collective Bargaining and Employees in the Public Sector, by Jon O.
Shimabukuro.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

percentage points). In the rest of the federal government, coverage fell from 29.4% to 23.4% (a
decline of 6.0 percentage points). Coverage fell from 51.0% to 46.6% in local governments (a
decline of 4.5 percentage points after rounding) and from 35.9% to 34.9% in state governments (a
decline of 1.0 percentage point).
Figure 5. Percent of Workers Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement,
1983-2011
100.0%
90.0%
80.0%
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
3
5
0
5
0
5
1
198
198
199
199
200
200
201
Postal Service
Local
State
Federal (excluding Postal)
Private

Source: Barry T. Hirsch and David A. Macpherson, Union Membership and Coverage Database from the CPS,
available at http://www.unionstats.com.
Union coverage can affect the relative pay of union and nonunion workers. Workers who are
represented by a union generally receive higher wages and more or better benefits than workers
who are not represented by a union.9 Union coverage is higher in the public sector than in the
private sector. To the extent that public sector workers can bargain over pay and benefits, greater
unionization in the public sector could raise the pay of public sector workers compared to the pay
of private sector workers.
In the federal government, most employees do not bargain over wages. Salaried employees
generally receive an annual pay adjustment and a locality pay adjustment, effective each January.
Federal employees who are paid by the hour usually receive pay adjustments equal to those
received by salaried workers in the same locality.10

9 Several studies have attempted to measure the difference in earnings between union and nonunion workers. The
results vary. In general, however, most studies conclude that, after controlling for individual, occupational, and labor
market characteristics, the wages of union workers may be 10% to 30% higher than the wages of nonunion workers.
See CRS Report RL32553, Union Membership Trends in the United States, by Gerald Mayer.
10 Although the law has never been implemented as enacted, adjustments to federal white-collar pay are based on the
Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 (FEPCA). See CRS Report RL34463, Federal White-Collar Pay:
FY2009 and FY2010 Salary Adjustments, by Barbara L. Schwemle. Also see CRS Report RL33245, Legislative,
(continued...)
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Nevertheless, some federal workers can bargain over wages. The Postal Reorganization Act of
1970 (P.L. 91-375) gave postal workers the right to bargain over wages and benefits (excluding
retirement benefits).11 Air traffic controllers can bargain over wages because the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) is required to recognize a union chosen by a majority of employees, but is
allowed to develop its own pay system.12 The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) has a long-
standing policy that allows employees to bargain over wages.13
Individual, Occupational, and Employer
Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
This section of the report examines selected characteristics that may affect the relative pay of
private and public sector workers.14 These characteristics include age, gender, educational
attainment, and the distribution of employees by occupation. The data are from the monthly
Current Population Survey (CPS) and the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement to
the CPS. The CPS is a household survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for BLS. The
monthly CPS does not include persons on active duty in the military. The ASEC Supplement
includes military personnel living in civilian households.
The analysis in this section covers the period from 1976 to 2011 and includes both wage and
salary workers and self-employed workers. The analysis is for workers ages 18 to 64 who worked
full-time. Full-time workers are persons who usually work 35 hours or more a week. In 2011,
81.3% of workers ages 18 to 64 had full-time jobs. More workers in the public sector than in the
private sector worked full-time (87.0% and 80.3%, respectively).15
Age
Employees in the public sector are older than private sector workers. In 2011, 52.1% of full-time
public sector workers were between the ages of 45 and 64, compared to 42.8% of full-time
private sector workers (see Figure 6). Federal workers are older than employees of state and local

(...continued)
Executive, and Judicial Officials: Process for Adjusting Pay and Current Salaries, by Barbara L. Schwemle.
11 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Comparison of Collectively Bargained and Administratively Set Pay
Rates for Federal Employees, GAO/FPCD-82-49, July 2, 1982, p. 10, available at http://archive.gao.gov/d41t14/
118922.pdf.
12 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Human Capital: Selected Agencies’ Statutory Authorities Could
Offer Options in Developing a Framework for Governmentwide Reform, GAO-05-398R, April 21, 2005, pp. 8, 31-32,
available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05398r.pdf.
13 The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Act of 1933 does not give TVA employees the right to engage in collective
bargaining. However, a policy adopted by the TVA in 1935 allows employees to organize and bargain collectively.
U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Labor-Management Relations: Tennessee Valley Authority Situation
Needs to Improve, GAO/GGD-91-129, September 1991, p. 13, available at http://archive.gao.gov/d18t9/145065.pdf.
14 For different views on the pay of federal workers, see U.S. Congress, House Committee on Oversight and
Government Reform, Subcommittee on Federal Workforce, U.S. Postal Service and Labor Policy, Are Federal
Workers Overpaid?, 112th Cong. 1st sess., March 9, 2011, available at http://oversight.house.gov/.
15 CRS analysis of data from the monthly Current Population Survey (CPS).
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governments. In 2011, 55.8% of federal workers were between the ages of 45 and 64, compared
to 51.9% of state employees and 50.8% of employees of local governments.
Although the difference has narrowed since 2001, the age gap between public and private sector
workers was greater in 2011 than in 1976. In 1976, 35.5% of public sector workers and 34.1% of
private sector workers were between the ages of 45 and 64, a difference of 1.4 percentage points.
In 2011, the difference was 9.4 percentage points (after rounding): 52.1% of public sector
workers were between the ages of 45 and 64, compared to 42.8% of private sector workers (see
Figure 6).
Figure 6. Percent of Full-Time Workers Who are Between the Ages of 45 and 64,
1976 to 2011
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
197
198
198
199
199
200
200
201
Public
Private

Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Older workers typically have more years of work experience than younger workers. Employees
with more work experience generally earn more than workers with less experience.16 Thus, the
age difference between private and public sector workers may indicate that public sector workers
have more years of experience than private sector workers. In turn, a difference in work
experience may be reflected in differences in earnings between private and public sector workers.

16 Within occupations, earnings generally increase with years of experience. Ronald G. Ehrenberg and Robert S. Smith,
Modern Labor Economics: Theory and Public Policy, 7th ed. (Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley, 2000), p. 418.
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Gender
Women hold a higher share of jobs in the public sector than in the private sector, and this
difference has increased over time. The higher share of jobs held by women in the public sector is
due to the higher percentage of jobs held by women in state and local governments.
In 2011, women held almost three-fifths of full-time jobs in state and local governments (58.8%
for both state and local governments), but approximately two-fifths of full-time jobs in the federal
government and in the private sector (40.4% and 41.5%, respectively).
The greatest increase in the percentage of jobs held by women has been in state governments.
From 1976 to 2011, the share of state jobs held by women increased by 14.8 percentage points
(from 44.0% to 58.8%). By contrast, over the same period the share of jobs held by women in
local governments increased by 9.9 points (from 48.9% to 58.8%), in the federal government by
8.9 points (from 31.5% to 40.4%), and in the private sector by 9.4 points (from 32.0% to 41.5%,
after rounding) (see Figure 7).
The effect of the increased employment of women on the difference in pay between private and
public sector workers may be an empirical question. The share of jobs held by women in the
public sector has increased more than the share of jobs held by women in the private sector.17 On
average, women earn less than men. But, evidence indicates that the pay gap between men and
women is narrower in the public sector than in the private sector.18 Thus, the greater increase in
employment of women in the public sector, where the pay gap between men and women is
narrower than in the private sector, should narrow any differences in pay between the private and
public sectors. On the other hand, the pay gap between men and women has narrowed, which
may affect the relative pay of private and public sector workers.19

17 In 1976, 32.4% of full-time private sector jobs were held by women ages 18 to 64. In the public sector, 43.9% of full-
time jobs were held by women. By 2011, these percentages had increased to 41.5% and 55.2%, respectively—a 9.1-
point increase in the private sector and a 11.4-point increase (after rounding) in the public sector. CRS analysis of data
from the Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) to the Current Population Survey (CPS).
18 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Women’s Pay: Gender Pay Gap in the Federal Workforce Narrows
as Differences in Occupation, Education, and Experience Diminish, GAO-09-279, March 2009, p. 9, available at
http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d09279.pdf. Robert G. Gregory and Jeff Borland, “Recent Developments in Public
Sector Labor Markets,” Handbook of Labor Economics, vol. 3C, ed. by Orley Ashenfelter and David Card
(Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1999), p. 3611.
19 In 2010, the median earnings of women employed full-time, year-round were 77.4% of the median earnings of men
who worked full-time, year-round ($36,931 for women and $47,715 for men). This percentage was up from 60.2% in
1976 ($28,219 for women and $46,880 for men). U.S. Census Bureau, Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance
Coverage in the United States: 2010, P60-239, September 2011, Table A-5, available at http://www.census.gov/prod/
2011pubs/p60-239.pdf. For a discussion of explanations of the differences in earnings by gender, see CRS Report 98-
278, The Gender Wage Gap and Pay Equity: Is Comparable Worth the Next Step?, by Linda Levine.
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Figure 7. Percent of Full-Time Workers Who are Female, 1976 to 2011
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
6
0
5
0
5
0
5
1
197
198
198
199
199
200
200
201
Local
State
Federal
Private

Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Education
On average, public sector employees have more years of education than private sector workers. In
2011, 53.7% of workers in the public sector had a bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree,
compared to 34.0% of private sector workers20 (see Figure 8).
State and local government employees are more likely than federal workers to have a bachelor’s,
advanced, or professional degree. In 2011, 56.3% of state government workers and 54.5% of local
government workers had at least a bachelor’s degree, compared to 47.5% of workers in the
federal government (see Figure 9).

20 Advanced degrees include master’s and doctorate degrees. Professional degrees include degrees in law, medicine,
and business administration.
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Figure 8. Percent of Full-Time Workers with a Bachelor’s, Advanced, or
Professional Degree, Private and Public Sectors, 1976 to 2011
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
76
80
85
90
95
00
05
11
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
Public
Private

Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Notes: Because of changes in 1992 in the way educational attainment is coded in the CPS, data for the years
1992 and later are not comparable to earlier years. The data for the years 1976 to 1991 are for persons who
completed 16 or more years of education. The data for the years 1992 to 2011 are for persons who received a
bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree. See the discussion of “CPS Values for Educational Attainment” in
the Appendix.
Beginning in 1992, the CPS changed the way educational attainment is coded. For years before
1992, the CPS reported the number of years of education that a person completed. In 1992, the
CPS began to report whether a person received a degree. Therefore, data for the years 1992 and
later are not totally comparable to earlier years. (See the discussion of “CPS Values for
Educational Attainment” in the Appendix.) Because of the change in the education variable in the
CPS, the percentage point changes in educational attainment discussed in this section are the sum
of the percentage point changes over two periods: 1976 to 1991, and 1992 to 2011.
From 1976 to 2011, educational attainment improved more in the private sector than in the public
sector. From 1976 to 2011, the percentage of private sector workers who completed 16 or more
years of education increased by18.8 percentage points. This increase compares to a 15.2-point
increase for public workers. The largest gains among public workers were among federal
workers, a 25.8-point increase, compared to a 16.1-point increase for state workers and a 10.4-
point increase for local government workers (see Figure 9).
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Figure 9. Percent of Full-Time Workers with a Bachelor’s, Advanced, or Professional
Degree, by Level of Government, 1976 to 2011
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
6
0
5
0
5
0
5
1
197
198
198
199
199
200
200
201
Local
State
Federal

Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Notes: Because of changes in 1992 in the way educational attainment is coded in the CPS, data for the years
1992 and later are not comparable to earlier years. The data for the years 1976 to 1991 are for persons who
completed 16 or more years of education. The data for the years 1992 to 2011 are for persons who received a
bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree. See the discussion of “CPS Values for Educational Attainment” in
the Appendix.
On the other hand, from 1976 to 2011 the percentage of workers with post-graduate education
increased more in the public sector than in the private sector. During the period, the percentage of
public sector workers with post-graduate education (i.e., who completed more than 16 years of
education from 1976 to 1991 or who received an advanced or professional degree from 1992 to
2011) increased by 9.9 points, compared to a 6.3-point increase for private sector workers (see
Figure 10).
Workers with more education generally earn more than workers with less education.21 Other
things being equal, the higher educational attainment of public sector workers, especially workers
with an advanced or professional degree, likely affects the relative pay of private and public
sector workers.

21 CRS Report R41329, The Rise in Wage Inequality by Level of Education, 1975 to 2008, by Gerald Mayer.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Figure 10. Percent of Full-Time Workers with an Advanced or Professional Degree,
Private and Public Sectors, 1976 to 2011
30.0%
25.0%
20.0%
15.0%
10.0%
5.0%
0.0%
6
0
5
0
5
0
5
1
197
198
198
199
199
200
200
201
Public
Private

Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Notes: Because of changes in 1992 in the way educational attainment is coded in the CPS, data for the years
1992 and later are not comparable to earlier years. The data for the years 1976 to 1991 are for persons who
completed more than 16 years of education. The data for the years 1992 to 2011 are for persons who received
an advanced or professional degree. See the discussion of “CPS Values for Educational Attainment” in the
Appendix.
Occupation
The CPS has data on both major and detailed occupational categories. A comparison of private
and public sector employment using major occupational categories shows that all major
occupations are common in both the private and public sectors. An analysis of detailed
occupations, however, shows that many occupations are concentrated in either the private or
public sectors.
Major Occupations
Table 1 shows the distribution of employment in the private and public sectors by five broad
occupational categories. These five categories are subdivided into 22 major occupations. The data
are for a worker’s occupation at the time of the monthly CPS. The estimates are averages for the
12 months of calendar year 2011. A worker’s occupation at the time of the CPS survey is used in
order to identify whether a worker’s job is covered by a collective bargaining agreement.
All of the occupations in Table 1 are common in both the private and public sectors. However, a
larger share of public sector than private sector workers were employed in “management,
professional, and related occupations” (56.3% of public sector workers, compared to 37.1% of
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

private sector workers).22 More public sector workers are employed in these occupations because
25.5% of all public sector workers were employed in “education, training, and library”
occupations, compared to 2.3% of all private sector workers. Public sector employees in these
occupations worked mainly for state and local governments (25.0% of employees in state
governments and 34.5% of employees in local governments). In general, the median weekly
earnings of full-time workers employed in management, professional, and related occupations are
greater than the earnings of workers in other occupations.23
A larger percentage of workers in the public sector than the private sector were employed in
“protective service” occupations (11.5% and 0.9%, respectively). On the other hand, more
workers in the private sector were employed in “sales and related” occupations (11.5% in the
private sector and 0.8% in the public sector).
Union Coverage by Major Occupation
Table 1 also shows the percentage of private and public sector workers in each major occupation
who were covered by a collective bargaining agreement. In all major occupations for which data
are available (21 of 22 occupations), union coverage was higher in the public sector than in the
private sector.
In the private sector, 7.5% of all full-time employees were covered by a collective bargaining
agreement. But, only 2.5% of management employees and 1.4% of employees in legal
occupations were represented by a union. By contrast, 17.6% of workers in education, training,
and library occupations; 15.9% of workers in transportation and material moving occupations;
15.7% of workers in construction and extraction occupations; 15.3% of workers in installation,
maintenance, and repair occupations; and 14.5% of production workers were represented by a
union.
In the public sector, 43.3% of full-time employees were covered by a collective bargaining
agreement. In management occupations, 25.1% of employees were represented by a union. But,
58.5% of employees in education, training, and library occupations were covered, as were 54.6%
of employees in protective service occupations. A majority of employees in the latter two
occupations are employed by local governments (see Table A-1).

22 In the CPS, management occupations include executives, managers, and administrators. Supervisors are not covered
by the NLRA (29 U.S.C. §152(11)). The FSLMRS does not cover supervisors or managers (5 U.S.C. §7103(a)(2)).
These two statutes cover employees who are not supervisors, but who may be classified as managers in the CPS.
23 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Median Weekly Earnings of Full-Time Wage and Salary
Workers by Detailed Occupation and Sex, available at http://stats.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat39.pdf.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Table 1. Percent of Workers Employed by Sector and Major Occupation and
Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement, 2011
Percent of Workers Employed by Sector and
Percent of Workers Covered by a Collective
Major Occupation
Bargaining Agreement
Occupation
Total
Private
Public
Federal
State
Local Total
Private
Public
Federal
State
Local
Total 100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
13.2%
7.5%
43.3%
34.0%
37.3%
50.3%
Management, professional, and related
40.2%
37.1%
56.3%
48.5%
61.9%
56.0%
13.5%
5.1%
42.9%
21.6%
36.3%
54.2%
Management
12.1%
12.9%
7.9%
10.8%
8.4%
6.5%
4.8%
2.5%
25.1%
19.6%
26.2%
27.6%

Business and financial operations
5.1%
5.2%
4.8%
9.9%
5.6%
2.3%
6.3%
2.6%
27.9%
25.5%
30.4%
28.1%
Computer and mathematical science
3.1%
3.2%
2.7%
6.1%
2.8%
1.3%
4.7%
1.9%
23.0%
15.4%
27.2%
30.9%

Architecture and engineering
2.4%
2.4%
2.0%
5.3%
1.7%
1.0%
8.2%
5.2%
27.4%
24.3%
28.4%
32.5%
Life,
physical, and social science
1.0%
0.8%
2.2%
3.7%
3.1%
1.1%
13.5%
3.6%
32.1%
15.1%
38.2%
42.9%
Community and social service
1.8%
1.3%
4.2%
1.6%
6.2%
3.9%
20.3%
6.2%
43.7%
16.4%
38.5%
52.9%
Legal
1.4%
1.3%
1.7%
2.9%
1.9%
1.1%
5.7%
1.4%
23.5%
20.9%
25.0%
24.5%
Education,
training, and library
5.9%
2.3%
25.5%
2.5%
25.0%
34.5%
45.4%
17.6%
58.5%
17.6%
45.5%
65.2%
Arts,
design, entertainment, sports, and media
1.8%
1.9%
0.8%
0.8%
1.2%
0.5%
6.0%
4.5%
25.7%
n.a
22.6%
34.7%
Healthcare
practitioner and technical
5.6%
5.8%
4.6%
5.0%
5.7%
3.8%
14.1%
10.8%
35.8%
32.1%
26.9%
45.6%
Service
14.2%
13.4%
18.9%
11.6%
17.2%
22.6%
14.4%
6.0%
46.4%
28.2%
42.7%
51.5%
Healthcare
support
2.1%
2.2%
1.2%
1.1%
1.8%
0.8%
10.3%
8.1%
32.2%
27.9%
28.4%
39.3%

Protective service
2.5%
0.9%
11.5%
7.3%
9.4%
14.3%
41.2%
8.1%
54.6%
28.8%
48.7%
61.7%
Food
preparation and serving related
3.7%
4.1%
1.1%
0.7%
1.1%
1.3%
5.5%
4.5%
24.7%
n.a
27.1%
25.7%
Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance
3.4%
3.4%
3.7%
2.0%
2.9%
4.8%
12.5%
7.1%
38.8%
32.2%
38.1%
40.1%

Personal care and service
2.6%
2.8%
1.4%
0.5%
2.0%
1.3%
6.4%
4.4%
28.3%
n.a
42.2%
16.1%
Sales and office
22.4%
23.6%
15.6%
28.6%
14.1%
11.6%
8.2%
4.2%
41.1%
54.1%
34.7%
33.8%

Sales and related
9.8%
11.5%
0.8%
1.3%
0.7%
0.6%
3.1%
2.9%
20.6%
10.4%
41.6%
14.5%

Office and administrative support
12.6%
12.2%
14.8%
27.2%
13.4%
11.0%
12.2%
5.4%
42.2%
56.3%
34.3%
34.8%
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance
10.5%
11.6%
5.0%
6.0%
3.9%
5.2%
16.6%
14.6%
41.2%
39.2%
41.4%
42.1%
Farming, fishing, and forestry
0.7%
0.8%
0.2%
0.5%
0.2%
0.0%
3.6%
2.6%
n.a.
n.a
n.a
n.a

Construction and extraction
5.7%
6.3%
2.5%
1.9%
2.1%
2.9%
17.5%
15.7%
41.7%
41.7%
44.1%
40.6%

Installation, maintenance, and repair
4.1%
4.4%
2.3%
3.6%
1.6%
2.3%
17.6%
15.3%
41.5%
38.3%
38.7%
44.7%
Production, transportation, and material moving
12.7%
14.3%
4.2%
5.3%
2.9%
4.6%
16.7%
15.2%
44.7%
45.5%
35.5%
47.7%
Production

6.7%
7.6%
1.5%
1.8%
1.1%
1.6% 15.3%
14.5%
37.3%
40.0%
30.6%
38.8%
Transportation and material moving
6.0%
6.6%
2.7%
3.5%
1.8%
3.0%
18.2%
15.9%
48.7%
48.4%
38.5%
52.5%
Source: CRS analysis of monthly data from the Current Population Survey (CPS). Estimates are monthly averages for 2011.
Notes: Table A-1 in the Appendix shows the numbers used to calculate the percentages in Table 1. Following BLS practice, in Table 1 percentages are not shown if the
denominator is 35,000 workers or less. These cells are marked as “n.a.,” which means that estimates are not available. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding.
CRS-15

Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Detailed Occupations
Broad occupational categories may not fully distinguish between detailed occupations that are
concentrated in either the private or public sectors. The Appendix shows the top 100 occupations,
by the number of persons employed full-time, in the private and public sectors. In 2011, the top
100 occupations in the private and public sectors accounted for 75.1% of total full-time
employment. In the private sector, the top 100 occupations accounted for 73.3% of all full-time
workers. In the public sector, the top 100 occupations accounted for 84.5% of full-time
employment.
Pay comparisons between the private and public sectors that rely on broad occupational
categories may not capture differences in detailed occupations. On the other hand, pay
comparisons that use detailed occupations may be difficult if employment in the occupation is
concentrated in either the private or public sectors. For example, in 2011 12.9% of full-time jobs
in the private sector and 7.9% of full-time jobs in the public sector were in management (see
Table 1). But, 96.7% of chief executives worked in the private sector (see Table A-2). Similarly,
99.5% of first-line supervisors of retail sales workers and 96.9% of first-line supervisors of
nonretail sales workers were employed in the private sector (see Table A-3). On the other hand,
virtually all first-line supervisors of police officers and detectives were employed in the public
sector (see Table A-4).
On average, chief executives probably earn more, and first-line supervisors probably earn less,
than mid-level managers. Whether employed in the private or public sectors, management
occupations may require similar skills.
Metropolitan Area
Figure 11 shows the percentage of private and public sector workers who live in metropolitan
areas with populations of 1 million or 5 million or more. The estimates are for a worker’s place of
residence at the time of the 2011 ASEC Supplement survey.
The cost of living is generally higher in metropolitan than nonmetropolitan areas.24 Thus,
earnings across areas may vary because of differences in the cost of living.25 In 2011, private and
federal employees were as likely to live in metropolitan areas of 1 million or more (57.5% for
private sector workers and 58.6% for federal workers). By contrast, state employees were less
likely (40.9%) than private or federal workers to live in areas with 1 million people or more.

24 A metropolitan statistical area (MSA) consists of at least one urban area with a population of 50,000 or more and
adjacent communities that have a high degree of economic and social integration. Executive Office of the President,
Office of Management and Budget, Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Metropolitan Divisions, Micropolitan Statistical
Areas, Combined Statistical Areas, New England City and Town Areas, and Combined New England City and Town
Areas, OMB Bulletin No. 10-02, December 1, 2009, Appendix, p. 2, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/
default/files/omb/assets/bulletins/b10-02.pdf.
25 Evidence suggests that when wages across areas are adjusted for differences in the cost of living, part of the
difference in observed wages across areas is due to differences in the cost of living. J. Michael DuMond, Barry T.
Hirsch, and David A Macpherson, “Wage Differentials Across Labor Markets and Workers: Does Cost of Living
Matter?” Economic Inquiry, vol. 37, October 1999, pp. 580, 588.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

However, private sector workers were more likely than federal workers to live in areas with 5
million or more people. In 2011, 20.8% of private sector workers lived in the largest metropolitan
areas, compared to 12.5% of federal workers. On the other hand, employees of local governments
were as likely (20.0%) as private sector workers to live in metropolitan areas of 5 million or more
people.
Figure 11. Percent of Full-Time Employees Who Live in Metropolitan Areas
With Populations of 1 Million or 5 Million or More, 2011
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Private
Federal
State
Local
1 Million or more
5 million or more

Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Note: Workers who do not live in metropolitan areas of a million or more live in metropolitan areas of less
than a million or in nonmetropolitan areas.

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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Appendix. Detailed Data and Description of Data
Source and Methodology
This appendix provides detailed information on employment and union coverage by occupation in
the private and public sectors. It also describes the survey data and methodology used in the
report.
Table A-1 shows the data used to calculate the percentages shown in Table 1.

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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Table A-1. Number of Workers Employed by Occupation and Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement, 2011
(in 1,000s)
Number of Workers Employed by Occupation
Number of Workers Covered by a Collective
and Sector
Bargaining Agreement
Occupation
Total Private Public Federal State Local Total Private
Public
Federal
State Local
Total
106,903 89,999 16,904 3,205 5,115 8,583 14,077 6,761 7,316 1,089 1,910 4,318
Management, professional, and related
42,929 33,405 9,524 1,556 3,164 4,804 5,782 1,693 4,088 336 1,148 2,604
Management
12,933
11,598
1,335 345 431 559 623 288 335 68 113 154

Business and financial operations
5,466 4,660 806 318 287 201 346 121 225 81 87 57
Computer and mathematical science
3,348 2,898 449 196 144 109 158 55 103 30 39 34

Architecture and engineering
2,542
2,203 340 169 88 83 208 115 93 41 25 27
Life,
physical, and social science
1,066 693 373 118 159 96 144 25 120 18 61 41
Community and social service
1,880 1,174 706
53 320 333 381 73 308 9 123 176
Legal
1,472
1,184 288 93 99 95 85 17 68 19 25 23
Education,
training, and library
6,346 2,027 4,318
80 1,281 2,957 2,881 357 2,525 14 583 1,928
Arts,
design, entertainment, sports, and media
1,879
1,750 129 25 62 42 112 79 33 5 14 14
Healthcare
practitioner and technical
5,997 5,217 780 160 293 328 844 564 280 51 79 149
Service
15,232
12,042
3,191 371 880
1,940
2,197 717
1,480 104 375
1,000
Healthcare
support
2,193
1,993 199 36 92 71 225 161 64 10 26 28

Protective service
2,725 784
1,940 233 480
1,228
1,123 64
1,059 67 234 758
Food
preparation and serving related
3,905
3,714 191 22 56 113 214 167 47 3 15 29
Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance
3,659 3,029 629
65 148 416 458 214 244 21 57 167

Personal care and service
2,752
2,521 231 15 104 112 177 111 65 3 44 18
Sales and office
23,918
21,284
2,634 915 723 997
1,967 885
1,082 495 251 336

Sales and related
10,459
10,328 131 43 36 53 325 298 27 4 15 8

Office and administrative support
13,459
10,956
2,503 873 687 944
1,642 586
1,056 491 236 329
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance
11,247
10,406 841 192 201 447
1,863
1,516 347 75 83 188
Farming, fishing, and forestry
779 750 28 15 10 4 28 20 9
5 3 0

Construction and extraction
6,102 5,680 422
62 110 250
1,066 890 176 26 48 102

Installation, maintenance, and repair
4,366
3,976 390 116 81 193 769 607 162 44 31 86
Production, transportation, and material moving
13,576
12,863 714 171 147 395
2,269
1,950 319 78 52 189
Production

7,135
6,883 252 59 55 138
1,095
1,001 94 23 17 54
Transportation and material moving
6,442
5,980 462 112 92 257
1,174 949 225 54 35 135
Source: CRS analysis of monthly data from the Current Population Survey (CPS). Estimates are monthly averages for 2011.
Note: Details may not sum to totals because of rounding.
CRS-19

Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Table A-2, Table A-3, and Table A-4 show the largest 100 occupations in 2011 in the private and
public sectors. The tables show the total number of persons employed, the number of workers
employed in the private and public sectors, the percentage of total employment that was in the
private sector, and the percentage of workers in the private and public sectors who were covered
by a collective bargaining agreement.
Table A-2 shows the 56 occupations, among the top 100 in the private and public sectors, that
were common in both sectors in 2011. The occupations are listed in descending order of the total
number of workers employed. To illustrate, of the 2,690,000 workers employed as “managers, all
other,” 2,302,000 were employed in the private sector and 388,000 were employed in the public
sector. Of the total number of workers employed as “managers, all other,” 85.6% worked in the
private sector. Of the 2,302,000 “managers, all other” employed in the private sector, 2.2% were
covered by a collective bargaining agreement, while 20.9% of public sector workers in this
occupation were represented by a union.
Occupations that are generally common to both the private and public sectors include managers;
elementary and middle school teachers; registered nurses; secretaries and administrative
assistants; janitors and building cleaners; accountants and auditors; nursing, psychiatric, and
home health aides; and managers of office and administrative support workers.
A disproportionate share of workers in some occupations are employed in either the private or
public sectors. For example, in 18 of the 56 occupations in Table A-2, at least 90.0% of workers
were employed in the private sector. These occupations include drivers/sales workers and truck
drivers, customer service representatives, cashiers, chief executives, laborers and material
movers, cooks, carpenters, financial managers, construction laborers, software developers, stock
clerks, and maids and housekeeping cleaners.
For other occupations in Table A-2, a disproportionate share of workers were employed in the
public sector. For 8 of the 56 occupations, over 25.0% of workers were employed in the public
sector. These occupations were mainly in education, but also include social workers, office clerks,
and janitors.
Table A-3 shows the 44 occupations, among the top 100 occupations in the private sector, that
were not present among the top 100 occupations in the public sector. These occupations are listed
by the number of workers employed in the private sector. Of the workers employed in these 44
occupations, 97.7% worked in the private sector. These occupations were mainly in sales, food
preparation and serving, construction, production, automotive service, real estate, and farming.
Table A-4 shows the 44 occupations, among the top 100 occupations in the public sector, that
were not present among the top 100 private sector occupations. The occupations are listed by the
number employed in the public sector. Of the workers employed in these 44 occupations, 64.4%
worked in the public sector. These occupations were mainly in education; public safety (e.g.,
police officers, correctional officers, fire fighters, and detectives and criminal investigators); the
Postal Service; highway maintenance; eligibility interviewers for government programs; and legal
occupations (e.g., court, municipal, and license clerks and legal support occupations).
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Table A-2. Occupations Common to Both the Private and Public Sectors,
by Total Number Employed, 2011
Percent Covered
Percentage by a Collective
Number Employeda
of Total
Bargaining
(in 1,000s)
Employed in
Agreement
the Private
Occupation
Total Private Public Sector
Private Public
1 Managers, all other
2,690
2,302
388
85.6%
2.2%
20.9%
2 Driver/sales workers and truck drivers
2,586
2,494
93
96.4%
12.1%
38.9%
3 Elementary and middle school teachers
2,384
439
1,945
18.4%
31.9%
65.2%
4 Registered nurses
2,110
1,807
303
85.6%
16.9%
36.8%
5 Secretaries and administrative assistants
2,082
1,603
479
77.0%
3.4%
33.9%
6 Customer service representatives
1,482
1,398
84
94.3%
6.0%
32.8%
7 Janitors and building cleaners
1,461
1,040
421
71.2%
11.3%
42.0%
8 Accountants and auditors
1,439
1,261
178
87.6%
1.6%
25.5%
9 Cashiers
1,316
1,276
40
97.0%
6.1% 29.0%
10 Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides
1,287
1,147
140
89.1%
10.4%
33.8%
11 Chief executives
1,270
1,227
42
96.7%
1.4%
7.1%
12 First-line supervisors/managers of office and
1,253 1,043 209 83.3% 2.9%
28.6%
administrative support workers
13 Laborers and freight, stock, and material
1,249 1,198 51 95.9% 15.7%
44.5%
movers, hand
14 Cooks
1,204
1,127
77
93.6%
4.0%
20.9%
15 Carpenters
1,108
1,074
35
96.9%
9.1%
46.3%
16 Financial managers
1,050
969
81
92.3%
2.2%
18.8%
17 Construction laborers
1,016
979
37
96.4%
10.3%
33.9%
18 Software developers, applications and
1,010 944 65 93.5% 1.4%
17.6%
systems software
19 Stock clerks and order fillers
975 939 37 96.2% 8.1%
33.9%
20 Lawyers, judges, magistrates, and other
973 776 197 79.8% 1.6%
19.2%
judicial workers
21 General and operations managers
935
837
98
89.5%
3.1%
16.7%
22 Grounds maintenance workers
908
792
116
87.2%
2.6%
35.3%
23 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks
883
788
95
89.2%
2.2%
30.1%
24 Postsecondary teachers
855
414
441
48.4%
14.6%
32.4%
25 Receptionists and information clerks
838
750
88
89.5%
3.0%
26.4%
26 Maids and housekeeping cleaners
781
731
50
93.6%
8.3%
22.9%
27 Office clerks, general
772
531
241
68.8%
5.0%
36.4%
28 Education administrators
737
362
375
49.1%
10.0%
34.3%
29 Security guards and gaming surveillance
728 605 124 83.0% 8.8%
32.1%
officers
30 Physicians and surgeons
704
622
82
88.3%
5.9%
23.9%
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Percent Covered
Percentage by a Collective
Number Employeda
of Total
Bargaining
(in 1,000s)
Employed in
Agreement
the Private
Occupation
Total Private Public Sector
Private Public
31 First-line supervisors/managers of production
671 633 38 94.3% 9.1%
32.1%
and operating workers
32 Social workers
670
356
315
53.0%
8.5%
37.0%
33 Child care workers
618
564
54
91.2%
2.4%
24.9%
34 Electricians
605
563
42
93.0%
31.8%
48.4%
35 Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and
601 563 39 93.6% 8.8%
34.9%
weighers
36 First-line supervisors/managers of
576 528 48 91.7%
13.5%
36.1%
construction trades and extraction workers
37 Counselors
575
340
235
59.2%
8.1%
53.5%
38 Personal and home care aides
555
453
102
81.6%
6.1%
35.0%
39 Computer and information systems
537 474 62 88.4% 2.1%
22.0%
managers
40 Human resources workers
528
417
111
78.9%
8.1%
20.0%
41 Preschool and kindergarten teachers
524
342
182
65.3%
8.5%
54.2%
42 Medical and health services managers
465
422
44
90.6%
5.0%
19.6%
43 Computer support specialists
430
358
73
83.1%
2.8%
27.7%
44 Licensed practical and licensed vocational
416 363 54 87.1% 9.1%
25.0%
nurses
45 Computer programmers
415
358
57
86.3%
1.7%
16.9%
46 Other teachers and instructors
403
325
77
80.8%
4.6%
29.1%
47 First-line supervisors/managers of food
396 347 49 87.7% 1.8%
23.8%
preparation and serving workers
48 Computer systems analysts
391
343
49
87.6%
2.0%
38.0%
49 Office and administrative support workers,
386 310 76 80.2% 4.5%
27.7%
all other
50 Operating engineers and other construction
354 275 79 77.6%
32.3%
44.1%
equipment operators
51 Maintenance and repair workers, general
353
278
76
78.6%
11.1%
42.3%
52 Civil engineers
351
265
86
75.6%
2.8%
24.5%
53 Engineering technicians, except drafters
335
277
58
82.6%
11.0%
56.0%
54 Paralegals and legal assistants
331
290
41
87.6%
1.6%
22.8%
55 First-line supervisors/managers of mechanics,
317 262 56 82.5%
10.3%
27.0%
installers, and repairers
56 Engineers, all other
315
258
57
81.9%
3.2%
20.5%
Source: CRS analysis of data from the monthly Current Population Survey (CPS) for 2011.
a. Occupations are listed in descending order by the sum of persons employed in the private and
public sectors.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Table A-3. Occupations More Common in the Private Sector, by
Number Employed in the Private Sector, 2011
Number Employeda
Percentage
Percent
(in 1,000s)
of Total
Covered by
Employed in a Collective
the Private Bargaining
Occupation
Total Private Public Sector
Agreement
1 First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales
workers
2,740
2,727
13
99.5%
3.5%
2 Retail salespersons
1,827
1,814
13
99.3%
2.0%
3 Sales representatives, wholesale and
manufacturing
1,131
1,129
2
99.8%
2.2%
4 First-line supervisors/managers of non-retail
sales workers
952
923
29
96.9%
1.5%
5 Marketing and sales managers
902
887
15
98.3%
0.9%
6 Food service managers
899
878
21
97.7%
1.3%
7 Waiters and waitresses
861
857
5
99.5%
2.6%
8 Construction managers
803
782
21
97.4%
4.4%
9 Miscellaneous assemblers and fabricators
756
750
6
99.2%
17.7%
10 Automotive service technicians and
mechanics
732
717
15
97.9%
4.5%
11 Production workers, all other
639
618
21
96.7%
15.6%
12 Designers
583
568
15
97.5%
3.1%
13 Real estate brokers and sales agents
568
556
12
97.9%
2.3%
14 Farmers, ranchers, and other agricultural
managers
549
547
2
99.6%
0.0%
15 Management analysts
571
539
32
94.5%
1.1%
16 Miscellaneous agricultural workers
539
534
5
99.1%
1.4%
17 Industrial truck and tractor operators
482
474
9
98.2%
17.6%
18 Welding, soldering, and brazing workers
475
468
8
98.4%
18.1%
19 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks
469
461
8
98.2%
9.6%
20 Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and
steamfitters
483
457
26
94.6%
24.8%
21 Insurance sales agents
460
456
4
99.1%
1.1%
22 Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists
429
427
2
99.6%
1.7%
23 Sales representatives, services, all other
412
407
4
98.9%
1.5%
24 Industrial and refractory machinery
mechanics
421
402
19
95.5%
20.1%
25 Machinists 390
379
11
97.2%
16.2%
26 Property, real estate, and community
association managers
397
377
20
95.0%
2.4%
27 Painters, construction and maintenance
388
377
11
97.1%
6.9%
28 Billing and posting clerks and machine
operators
394
370
25
93.7%
3.5%
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Table A-4. Occupations More Common in the Public Sector, by the Number
Employed in the Public Sector, 2011
Number Employeda
Percentage
Percent
(in 1,000s)
of Total
Covered by
Employed in a Collective
the Public Bargaining
Occupation
Total Private Public Sector
Agreement
1 Secondary school teachers
978
172
807
82.5%
69.6%
2 Police and sheriff’s patrol officers
644
0
644
100.0%
65.0%
3 Bailiffs, correctional officers, and jailers
429
0
429
100.0%
44.4%
4 Teacher assistants
579
179
400
69.1%
40.6%
5 Special education teachers
354
58
296
83.6%
69.7%
6 Postal service mail carriers
294
0
294
100.0%
81.2%
7 Fire fighters
290
1
289
99.7%
70.5%
8 Bus drivers
288
140
148
51.4%
54.8%
9 Detectives and criminal investigators
142
5
137
96.7%
55.3%
10 Postal service clerks
123
0
123
100.0%
80.3%
11 First-line supervisors/managers of police and
detectives
99
0
99
100.0%
52.3%
12 Librarians 127
37
90
70.5%
33.0%
13 Compliance officers
172
85
86
50.2%
32.7%
14 Dispatchers
202
119
83
41.3%
37.4%
15 Probation officers and correctional treatment
specialists
84
1
83
98.7%
48.6%
16 File Clerks
237
155
82
34.5%
42.6%
17 Highway maintenance workers
94
19
74
79.5%
39.7%
18 Court, municipal, and license clerks
74
5
69
92.8%
35.1%
19 Eligibility interviewers, government programs
77
11
66
85.8%
38.3%
20 Psychologists
125
61
65
51.6%
48.4%
21 Computer occupations, all other
281
218
63
22.3%
27.3%
22 Business operations specialists, all other
229
167
63
27.3%
26.8%
23 Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue
agents
65
4
62
94.1%
53.4%
24 Water and liquid waste treatment plant and
system operators
75
18
58
76.6%
32.3%
25 Other education, training, and library
workers 92
35
56
61.4%
45.1%
26 Purchasing agents, except wholesale, retail,
and farm products
226
170
56
24.9%
34.8%
27 Postal service mail sorters, processors, and
processing machine operators
55
0
55
100.0%
79.2%
28 Biological scientists
103
53
50
48.4%
33.7%
29 Social and human service assistants
101
51
50
49.1%
30.8%
30 Data entry keyers
275
225
50
18.1%
24.5%
31 Bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine
specialists
293
244
49
16.7%
44.5%
32 Speech-language pathologists
92
43
49
52.8%
64.9%
33 Miscellaneous legal support workers
164
117
47
28.7%
42.4%
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Number Employeda
Percentage
Percent
(in 1,000s)
of Total
Covered by
Employed in a Collective
the Public Bargaining
Occupation
Total Private Public Sector
Agreement
34 Operations research analysts
116
71
45
38.7%
19.7%
35 Emergency medical technicians and
paramedics
167
123
44
26.3%
46.2%
36 Word processors and typists
101
59
43
42.2%
49.1%
37 Payroll and timekeeping clerks
136
95
42
30.4%
37.3%
38 First-line supervisors/managers of
correctional officers
40
0
40
100.0%
28.5%
39 Construction and building inspectors
63
24
39
61.4%
22.7%
40 Environmental scientists and geoscientists
86
48
39
44.8%
45.7%
41 Miscellaneous life, physical, and social science
technicians 115
77
38
33.3%
31.1%
42 First-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting
and prevention workers
40
2
38
94.8%
66.0%
43 Private detectives and investigators
92
56
36
38.9%
29.5%
44 Physical scientists, all other
135
100
35
26.0%
17.8%
Source: CRS analysis of data from the monthly Current Population Survey (CPS) for 2011.
a. Occupations are listed in descending order by the number employed in the public sector.
Data and Methodology
This report analyzes data from the Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey and the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
The CES is an employer survey conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). The CES
survey counts the number of persons on employer payrolls for any part of the pay period that
includes the 12th day of the month. Persons who are on the payroll of more than one establishment
are counted in each establishment. Government employment includes civilian employees only;
persons in the military are not included. Also excluded are employees of the Central Intelligence
Agency, the National Security Agency, the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, and the
Defense Intelligence Agency.26
The CPS is a household survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for BLS. The monthly CPS
is the source of the national unemployment rate and other labor market information. The survey is
representative of the civilian noninstitutional population. The sample does not include persons
living in institutions (such as psychiatric hospitals, nursing homes, or correctional facilities). The
monthly survey does not include individuals who are on active duty in the military.27
Approximately 50,000 households are interviewed each month.28 The data for occupations and
union coverage (Table 1 in the text and the tables in the Appendix) are from the monthly CPS.

26 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics, available at
http://stats.bls.gov/ces/home.htm.
27 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Labor Force Data Derived from the Current Population Survey,” Handbook of Methods,
pp. 1-2, available at http://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/pdf/homch1.pdf.
28 U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), available at http://www.census.gov/cps/.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Each year, the CPS conducts the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement to the
monthly CPS. The sample for the ASEC Supplement is representative of the civilian
noninstitutional population of the United States. The sample for the supplement includes
members of the Armed Forces living in civilian housing units on a military base or in a household
not on a military base. For the 2011 supplement, 75,900 households were interviewed.29
In this report, data on the characteristics of private and public sector workers are from the ASEC
Supplement. The supplement collects information on the longest job a worker held during the
previous year. This report uses information on the longest job a worker held during the previous
year because, for their current job, the monthly CPS did not begin to separate public sector
employees into federal, state, and local government workers until 1988.
Changes in the Reporting of Educational Attainment in the Current
Population Survey (CPS)
In 1992, the CPS changed the way educational attainment is recorded. Table A-3 shows the
values for educational attainment for the years 1975 to 1991 and the values for 1992 to 2011. For
1976 to 1991, the CPS recorded the number of years of school that a person attended. Another
variable recorded whether the person finished that year of school. Since 1992, the CPS has
reported whether a person graduated from high school or college.
Because of the change in the way the CPS records educational attainment, estimates of the
number of high school and college graduates for the years 1992 to 2011 are not comparable to
estimates for earlier years. For the earlier period, persons who completed 12 years of high school
may or may not have graduated from high school. Similarly, persons who finished 16 or more
years of education may or may not have received a bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree.
Because of the change in coding for educational attainment, changes in educational attainment
discussed in this report are the sum of changes over two periods: 1976 to 1991 and 1992 to 2011.

29 U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2011 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement, pp. 1-1, 9-
3, G-3, available at http://www.census.gov/apsd/techdoc/cps/cpsmar11.pdf.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers

Table A-5. Values for the Education Variable in the Current Population Survey (CPS),
1976 to 2011
1976 to 1991
1992 to 2011
Elementary school, 1 year
1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th grade
Elementary school, 2 year
5th or 6th grade
Elementary school, 3 year
7th and 8th grade
Elementary school, 4 year
9th grade
Elementary school, 5 year
10th grade
Elementary school, 6 year
11th grade
Elementary school, 7 year
12th grade no diploma
Elementary school, 8 year
High school graduate (high school diploma or equivalent)
High school, 1 year
Some college but no degree
High school, 2 year
Associate degree in college (occupation or vocation program)
High school, 3 year
Associate degree in college (academic program)
High school, 4 year
Bachelor’s degree (e.g., BA or BS)
College, 1 year
Master’s degree (e.g., MA, MS, MSW, or MBA)
College, 2 year
Professional school degree (e.g., MD, DDS, DVM, JD)
College, 3 year
Doctorate degree
College, 4 year

College, 5 year

College, 6 years or more

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey, March 1992, Technical
Documentation CPS-92-3, September 1992, p. 5-1.

Author Contact Information

Gerald Mayer

Analyst in Labor Policy
gmayer@crs.loc.gov, 7-7815

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