European Union Enlargement
Kristin Archick
Specialist in European Affairs
January 26, 2012
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RS21344
CRS Report for Congress
Pr
epared for Members and Committees of Congress
European Union Enlargement
Summary
The European Union (EU) has long viewed the enlargement process as an extraordinary
opportunity to promote political stability and economic prosperity in Europe. Since 2004, EU
membership has grown from 15 to 27 countries, bringing in most states of central and eastern
Europe and fulfilling an historic pledge to further the integration of the continent by peaceful
means. Analysts contend that the carefully managed process of enlargement is one of the EU’s
most powerful policy tools, and that, over the years, it has helped transform many European states
into functioning democracies and more affluent countries.
The EU maintains that the enlargement door remains open to any European country that fulfills
the EU’s political and economic criteria for membership. At the same time, EU enlargement is
also very much a political process; most all significant steps on the path to accession require the
unanimous agreement of the existing 27 member states. As such, a prospective EU candidate’s
relationship or conflicts with individual member states may also influence a country’s EU
accession prospects and timeline.
Five countries are currently recognized by the EU as official candidates for membership: Croatia,
Iceland, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Turkey. All are at different stages of the accession process.
For example, while Croatia completed its accession negotiations with the EU in December 2011
and is expected to become the EU’s 28th member in July 2013, Turkey’s accession talks have
largely stalled, in part because of Turkish-EU disputes over the divided island of Cyprus.
Similarly, Macedonia’s membership bid has been complicated by a long-standing disagreement
with Greece over the country’s official name. The remaining western Balkan states of Albania,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Serbia are considered to be potential EU candidates in the
longer term, but most experts assess that it will likely be many years before any of these countries
are ready to join the EU.
Despite the EU’s professed commitment to enlargement, some EU policymakers and many EU
citizens are cautious about additional EU expansion, especially to Turkey or countries to the east,
such as Georgia or Ukraine in the longer term. Worries about continued EU enlargement range
from fears of unwanted migrant labor to the implications of an ever-expanding Union on the EU’s
institutions, finances, and overall identity. Some commentators also suggest that the EU’s current
sovereign debt crisis, which has hit the countries that use the EU’s common currency (the euro)
particularly hard, could potentially slow future rounds of EU enlargement as EU leaders focus on
remedying Europe’s financial troubles.
Successive U.S. Administrations and many Members of Congress have long backed EU
enlargement, believing that it serves U.S. interests by advancing democracy and economic
prosperity throughout the European continent. Over the years, the only significant U.S. criticism
of the EU’s enlargement process has been that the Union was moving too slowly, especially with
respect to Turkey, which Washington believes should be anchored firmly to Europe. Some U.S.
officials are concerned that “enlargement fatigue” as well as the EU’s ongoing financial crisis
could hinder EU expansion. The status of EU enlargement and its implications for both the EU
itself and U.S.-EU relations may be of interest to the second session of the 112th Congress. For
additional information, see also CRS Report RS21372, The European Union: Questions and
Answers, by Kristin Archick and Derek E. Mix, and CRS Report RS22517, European Union
Enlargement: A Status Report on Turkey’s Accession Negotiations, by Vincent Morelli.
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European Union Enlargement
Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Evolution of the European Union .................................................................................................... 1
Origins ....................................................................................................................................... 1
Birth of the EU .......................................................................................................................... 2
The Big Bang: From 15 to 27.................................................................................................... 2
Further EU Institutional Reforms and Enlargement.................................................................. 3
Process of Enlargement ................................................................................................................... 4
Current EU Candidates .................................................................................................................... 5
Croatia ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Iceland ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Macedonia ................................................................................................................................. 7
Montenegro................................................................................................................................ 8
Turkey........................................................................................................................................ 8
Prospects for Future Rounds of EU Enlargement.......................................................................... 10
U.S. Perspectives ........................................................................................................................... 13
Figures
Figure 1. Map of the European Union ........................................................................................... 14
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 14
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European Union Enlargement
Introduction
The European Union (EU) is an economic and political partnership that represents a unique form
of cooperation among 27 member states today. The EU has long viewed the enlargement process
as an historic opportunity to further the integration of the continent by peaceful means and to
encourage the transition of the countries involved to democratic societies and free market
economies. Analysts contend that the carefully managed process of enlargement is one of the
EU’s most powerful policy tools that has helped transform former dictatorships such as Spain and
many of the former communist states of central and eastern Europe into stable democracies and
more affluent countries. The EU maintains that the enlargement door remains open to any
European country, including Turkey and the western Balkans, able to fulfill the EU’s political and
economic criteria for membership. Croatia, for example, is expected to become the 28th member
of the Union in July 2013.
At the same time, many observers assess that EU enlargement may soon be reaching its limits,
both geographically and in terms of public enthusiasm for further expansion. Some suggest that
the EU’s current sovereign debt crisis, which may still threaten the future of the EU’s common
currency (the euro), could impede the EU’s remaining enlargement agenda. They note that EU
leaders are increasingly preoccupied not only by the Eurozone’s severe financial problems, but
also with the broader crisis of confidence it has generated within the EU as a whole. Others point
out that the EU’s economic woes and the growing uncertainty about the future direction of the EU
itself might make joining the Union less attractive for some current and potential EU candidates.
Evolution of the European Union
The EU is the latest stage in a process of European integration aimed at promoting political
reconciliation and economic prosperity throughout the European continent. It has been built over
several decades through a series of binding treaties.
Origins
After World War II, leaders in Western Europe were anxious to secure long-term peace and
stability in Europe and to create a favorable environment for economic growth and recovery. In
1952, six states—Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands—established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), a single market in
these two industrial sectors controlled by an independent supranational authority. In embarking
on this integration project, its founders hoped that the ECSC would not only help control the raw
materials of war, but would also promote economic interdependence and make another conflict in
Europe unthinkable.
In 1957, the six ECSC member states signed two new treaties in Rome: the first established the
European Economic Community (EEC) to develop common economic policies and merge the
separate national markets into a single market in which goods, people, capital, and services could
move freely; the second created a European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) to ensure
the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. These two treaties, commonly referred to as the
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“Treaties of Rome” came into force in 1958. In 1967, the ECSC, the EEC, and EURATOM
collectively became known as the European Community (EC).
The EC first added new members in 1973, with the entry of the United Kingdom, Ireland, and
Denmark. Greece joined in 1981, followed by Spain and Portugal in 1986. The Single European
Act modified the EC treaties in 1987 to facilitate the creation of the single market, introduced
institutional reforms, and increased the powers of the fledgling European Parliament. At the
beginning of 1993, the near completion of the single market brought about the mostly free
movement of goods, people, capital, and services within the EC.
Birth of the EU
On November 1, 1993, the Treaty on European Union (also known as the Maastricht Treaty) went
into effect, establishing the modern-day European Union and encompassing the EC. The
Maastricht Treaty established an EU consisting of three pillars: an expanded and strengthened
EC; a common foreign and security policy; and common internal security measures. The
Maastricht Treaty also contained provisions that resulted in the creation of an Economic and
Monetary Union (EMU), including a common European currency (the euro).1 The European
Union was intended as a significant step on the path toward not only greater economic integration
but also closer political cooperation.
On January 1, 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, bringing membership to 15
member states. In June 1997, EU leaders met to review the Maastricht Treaty and consider the
future course of European integration. The resulting Amsterdam Treaty, which took effect in
1999, enhanced the legislative powers of the European Parliament, sought to strengthen the EU’s
foreign policy, and aimed to further integrate internal security policies.
In December 2000, EU leaders concluded the Nice Treaty to pave the way for further EU
enlargement, primarily to Europe’s east. Entering into force in 2003, the Nice Treaty set out
internal, institutional reforms to enable the Union to accept new members and still be able to
operate effectively. In particular, it extended the majority voting system in the EU’s Council of
Ministers (representing the member states) to a number of additional policy areas that had
previously required unanimity, and restructured the European Commission (the EU’s executive).
The Big Bang: From 15 to 27
Since the end of the Cold War, the EU had worked with the former communist countries of
central and eastern Europe to reform their political systems and economies in order to meet the
EU’s membership criteria. The EU viewed enlargement to Europe’s east as fulfilling a historic
pledge to further the integration of the continent by peaceful means, overcome decades of
artificial division, and help make Europe “whole and free.” Cyprus and Malta had also expressed
interest in joining the EU. In March 1998, the EU began accession negotiations with Cyprus, the
1 On January 1, 1999, eleven EU member states were the first to adopt the single European currency—the euro—and
banks and many businesses began using the euro as a unit of account. Euro notes and coins replaced national currencies
in participating states on January 1, 2002. Participating countries also have a common central bank and a common
monetary policy. Today, 17 of the EU’s 27 member states use the euro: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain.
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Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, and Slovenia. In December 1999, the EU decided to
open negotiations with six others: Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Romania, and Slovakia.
In December 2001, the EU announced that ten of these countries—Cyprus, the Czech Republic,
Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia—would likely be able
to conclude accession talks by the end of 2002. Negotiations in 2002 with these ten candidates on
remaining issues such as agriculture and regional assistance proved challenging because they
raised budgetary and burden-sharing issues. A deal was finally reached, however, and the EU
concluded accession talks with all ten at its December 2002 summit. The accession treaty was
signed with the ten countries on April 16, 2003, and they acceded to the EU on May 1, 2004.2
In December 2004, the EU completed accession negotiations with Bulgaria and Romania, despite
some continued EU concerns about the status of judicial reforms and anti-corruption efforts in
both countries. Bulgaria and Romania formally joined the EU on January 1, 2007, bringing the
Union to 27 member states. With the addition of these last two countries, the Union’s borders now
stretch from the Baltics to the Black Sea and the EU has a total population of almost 500 million.
Further EU Institutional Reforms and Enlargement
Although the Nice Treaty had sought to introduce institutional reforms to allow an enlarged
Union to function better and more effectively, critics asserted that the treaty established an even
more complex and less efficient decision-making process. Certain provisions in the Nice Treaty
also effectively (although not explicitly) limited the size of the EU to 27 member states. In light
of the criticisms of the Nice Treaty and with a view to potential enlargement beyond 27 members,
the EU embarked on a new institutional reform effort in 2002.
This process culminated on December 1, 2009, when the Lisbon Treaty came into force. The
Lisbon Treaty evolved from the proposed EU constitutional treaty, which was rejected in French
and Dutch national referendums in 2005, in part because of public concerns about continued EU
enlargement. The Lisbon Treaty aims to further streamline the EU’s governing institutions and
decision-making processes, and in doing so eliminates the technical hurdle to enlarging the EU
beyond 27 member states. The new treaty also seeks to give the EU a stronger and more coherent
voice and identity on the world stage, and attempts to increase democracy and transparency
within the EU, in part by granting more powers to the European Parliament.3
2 Although the EU would have preferred a prior political solution to the conflict over Cyprus, it had long asserted that
this was not a “precondition” for the divided island’s accession. Moreover, Greece threatened to block any round of
enlargement that excluded Cyprus. Despite the approval of a U.N. plan to reunify the island by Turkish Cypriot voters
in the north in April 2004, this proposal failed when it was rejected by Greek Cypriot voters in the south. In the
continued absence of a settlement, EU laws and financial benefits are applied only to the southern Greek Cypriot part
of the island (officially the Republic of Cyprus), which is the internationally recognized state. For more information,
see CRS Report R41136, Cyprus: Reunification Proving Elusive, by Vincent Morelli.
3 For more information, see CRS Report RS21618, The European Union’s Reform Process: The Lisbon Treaty, by
Kristin Archick and Derek E. Mix.
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EU Institutions
The 27-member European Union is governed by several institutions that embody the EU’s dual supranational and
intergovernmental character.
The European Council serves as a strategic guide and driving force for EU policy. It is composed of the Heads of
State or Government of the EU’s member states and the President of the European Commission; it meets several
times a year in what are often termed “EU summits.” The European Council is headed by a President, appointed by
the member states to organize the Council’s work, ensure policy continuity, and facilitate consensus.
The European Commission is essential y the EU’s executive and upholds the common interest of the EU as a
whole. It implements and manages EU decisions and common policies, ensures that the provisions of the EU’s treaties
and rules are carried out properly, and has the sole right of legislative initiative in most policy areas. It is composed of
27 Commissioners, one from each country; each Commissioner holds a distinct portfolio (e.g., agriculture, trade, EU
enlargement). One Commissioner serves as Commission President.
The Council of the European Union (or the Council of Ministers) represents the member states. It enacts
legislation, usual y based on proposals put forward by the Commission and agreed to (in most cases) by the European
Parliament. In a few sensitive areas, such as foreign policy, the Council of Ministers holds sole decision-making
authority. It consists of ministers from the 27 national governments; different ministers participate in Council
meetings depending on the subject (e.g., foreign ministers would meet to discuss the Middle East, agriculture ministers
to discuss farm subsidies). The Presidency of the Council rotates among the member states every six months.
The European Parliament represents the citizens of the EU. It shares responsibility for enacting most EU
legislation with the Council of Ministers and decides on the allocation of the EU’s budget jointly with the Council. It
currently consists of 754 members who are directly elected in the member states for five-year terms. Members of the
European Parliament (MEPs) caucus according to political affiliation, rather than nationality.
A number of other institutions also play key roles in the EU. The Court of Justice interprets EU laws and its rulings
are binding; a Court of Auditors monitors the EU’s financial management; the European Central Bank manages
the euro and EU monetary policy; and advisory committees represent economic, social, and regional interests.
Process of Enlargement
According to the Maastricht Treaty, any European country may apply for EU membership if it
meets a set of core political and economic criteria, known as the “Copenhagen criteria.” These
criteria for EU membership require candidates to achieve “stability of institutions guaranteeing
democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities; a
functioning market economy, as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and
market forces within the Union; the ability to take on the obligations of membership, including
adherence to the aims of political, economic, and monetary union.”4 In addition, the EU must be
able to absorb new members, so the EU can decide when it is ready to accept a new member.
When a country submits an application to join the EU, it triggers a complex technical process and
a sequence of evaluation procedures. At the same time, EU enlargement is very much a political
process; most all steps on the path to accession require the unanimous agreement of the existing
member states. As such, a prospective EU candidate’s relationship or conflicts with individual
member states may significantly influence a country’s EU accession prospects and timeline.
4 European Council Conclusions, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 1993.
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Following the submission of a given country’s application, the European Commission first issues
a formal opinion on the aspirant country, after which the Council of Ministers decides whether to
accept the application. Following a positive unanimous decision by all 27 member states in the
Council of Ministers to accept a given country’s application, that country becomes an official EU
candidate. Accession negotiations, a long and complex process in which the candidate country
must adopt and implement a massive body of EU treaties, laws, and regulations, may then begin.
The Commission and the Council of Ministers (acting unanimously) must also approve the actual
opening of accession negotiations and a negotiating framework, which establishes the general
guidelines for the enlargement talks.
The EU’s 80,000 pages of rules and regulations are known as the acquis communautaire. The
acquis is divided into 35 subject-related chapters that range from free movement of goods to
agriculture to competition. Accession negotiations on each chapter begin with a screening process
to see to what extent the applicant meets the requirements of each chapter; detailed negotiations
take place at the ministerial level to establish the terms under which applicants will adopt and
implement the rules in each chapter. The European Commission proposes common negotiating
positions for the EU on each chapter, and conducts the negotiations on behalf of the EU.
Enlargement policy and accession negotiations are directed and led by the EU Commissioner for
Enlargement and European Neighborhood Policy, currently Stefan Füle.
In all areas of the acquis, the candidate country must bring its institutions, management capacity,
and administrative and judicial systems up to EU standards, both at national and regional levels.
During negotiations, applicants may request transition periods for complying with certain EU
rules. All candidate countries receive financial assistance from the EU, mainly to aid in the
accession process.
Chapters of the acquis can only be opened and closed with the unanimous approval of all 27
existing EU member states acting in the Council of Ministers. Periodically, the Commission
issues “progress” reports to the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament assessing the
achievements in the candidate countries. Once the Commission concludes negotiations on all 35
chapters with an applicant state, the agreements reached are incorporated into a draft accession
treaty, which must be approved by the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament. After
the accession treaty is signed by the EU and the candidate country, it must then be ratified by
each EU member state and the candidate country; this process can take up to two years.
Current EU Candidates
Five countries are currently recognized by the EU as official candidates for membership: Croatia,
Iceland, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Turkey. All are at different stages of the accession process,
and face various issues and challenges on the road to EU membership.5
5 For more detailed background on the EU’s relationship with each candidate country and the status of negotiations, see
the European Commission’s web page on enlargement, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/index_en.htm.
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Croatia
Croatia is one of the six countries that made up the former Yugoslavia. In 2001, within a decade
of gaining independence, Croatia concluded a Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA)
with the EU to govern relations, including financial and technical assistance geared toward
helping Croatia meet the political and economic criteria for EU accession. Croatia submitted its
application to join the EU in February 2003.
In June 2004, the EU named Croatia as an official candidate for membership. At the time, the EU
asserted that Croatia still needed to make further progress on some of the political preconditions
for membership related to issues such as minority rights, judiciary reform, and the apprehension
of war criminals stemming from the Balkan conflicts of the 1990s. In December 2004, the EU
announced it would open accession negotiations with Croatia in March 2005, provided that
Croatia demonstrated “full cooperation” with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former
Yugoslavia (ICTY). The start of accession talks was delayed, however, because some EU
members were not convinced that Croatia was cooperating sufficiently with the ICTY in
apprehending a prominent war crimes suspect.
EU accession talks with Croatia were eventually opened in October 2005, following a
determination that Croatia was in full compliance with the ICTY. Croatia’s accession talks stalled,
however, in December 2008 when neighboring EU member Slovenia began blocking the opening
and closing of several chapters of the acquis amid a border dispute. In September 2009, Slovenia
agreed to resolve the border issue separately, detaching it from Croatia’s EU membership bid and
thereby allowing accession negotiations to continue.
In June 2011, the EU concluded accession negotiations with Croatia. The EU and Croatia signed
the Treaty of Accession in December 2011. Croatia is expected to become the 28th member of the
Union on July 1, 2013, following the completion of the ratification process in both Croatia and in
all existing 27 member states. The EU noted Croatia’s transformation over the past two decades
into a stable democracy with a functioning market economy and commended Croatia on the
considerable progress it has made in bringing its laws, regulatory frameworks, and administrative
practices into line with those of the Union; at the same time, the EU asserted that Croatia must
continue with its reforms, especially those related to tackling corruption, increasing judicial
transparency, and doing more to help disadvantaged minorities.6 On January 22, 2011, Croatian
voters approved the country’s EU accession in a national referendum, with 66% in favor.
Iceland
Although Iceland has close and extensive ties with the EU, it resisted joining the EU for decades.
In July 2009, however, Iceland applied for EU membership in the wake of the 2008 financial
crisis that led to the collapse of its banking system and the devaluation of its national currency.
Many Icelandic officials believed that membership in the Union would significantly bolster
Iceland’s ability to recover from its economic recession. The EU named Iceland as an official
candidate in June 2010, and began accession negotiations with Iceland in July 2010.
6 “EU Enlargement,” BBC News, December 9, 2011; “Historic Day for Croatia and the EU,” Agence Europe,
December 10, 2011.
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Iceland has a stable democratic government and open market economy. Iceland and the EU have
a free trade agreement dating back to 1972 and Iceland has been a member of the European
Economic Area (EEA) since 1994. Through the EEA, Iceland participates in the EU’s single
market and a significant number of EU laws already apply in Iceland. Also, Iceland is a member
of the Schengen area, which enables Icelanders to work and travel freely throughout the EU, and
participates in a number of EU agencies and programs in areas such as enterprise, the
environment, education, and research.
Given Iceland’s existing integration with the EU, many observers expected accession talks to
proceed quickly. As of the end of 2011, talks had been opened on 11 chapters, and eight of these
provisionally closed. However, several challenges remain for Iceland. These include resolving
differences with the EU on fisheries and whaling policies, and settling an ongoing dispute over
repaying the British and Dutch governments for debts incurred when Iceland’s online bank—
Icesave—failed in 2008. Furthermore, it is unclear at present whether Icelanders would support
EU membership in a national referendum; Iceland’s political parties are divided on the benefits of
EU accession and recent public opinion polls suggest that a strong “no” camp exists. Experts
assert that late 2013 is probably the earliest date by which Iceland would be ready to join the EU.7
Macedonia
Macedonia, once part of the former Yugoslavia, concluded a Stabilization and Association
Agreement with the EU in 2001. It applied for EU membership in March 2004. The EU named
Macedonia as an official EU candidate in December 2005, but it has not yet secured a start date
for accession negotiations.
Since 2009, the European Commission has recommended that the EU open membership talks
with Macedonia. The Commission has asserted that Macedonia is sufficiently fulfilling the
political and economic criteria for membership, although it continues to urge Macedonia to
complete necessary reforms aimed at improving the electoral process, protecting freedom of
expression, promoting the independence of the judiciary, and strengthening anti-corruption
efforts. Some EU officials and leaders also remain concerned about inter-ethnic tensions in
Macedonia, especially with respect to its Albanian minority.
Accession negotiations with Macedonia, however, have largely been delayed by a long-running
and ongoing disagreement with Greece over the country’s official name. Macedonia maintains the
right to be recognized internationally by its constitutional name, the Republic of Macedonia, but
Greece asserts that it implies territorial claims to the northernmost Greek province of the same
name. As a result of this dispute, Greece continues to block the opening of EU accession talks
with Macedonia. EU officials acknowledge that progress on resolving the issue of the country’s
name is crucial in order to further Macedonia’s EU membership bid. Currently, the EU refers to
Macedonia in official documents as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), a
provisional name coined in 1993 to enable Macedonia to join the United Nations.8
7 “Iceland EU Bid Gets European Commission Support,” BBC News, February 24, 2010; Delegation of the European
Union to the United States, “On the Path To EU Membership: The EU Enlargement Process,” EUInsight, December
2010.
8 “EU Confirms Earlier Recommendation To Launch Accession Talks with Macedonia,” SeeNews, October 12, 2011;
“EU/Enlargement: Croatia Concludes, Iceland Progresses, Balkans Slow,” Agence Europe, October 13, 2011.
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Montenegro
After ending its union with Serbia and gaining independence in June 2006, Montenegro and the
EU began talks on a Stabilization and Association Agreement. The SAA was signed in October
2007. Macedonia applied for EU membership in December 2008 and was granted candidate
status in December 2010.
In October 2011, the European Commission assessed that Montenegro had achieved the necessary
degree of compliance with the political and economic criteria for accession talks to begin. At their
December 2011 summit, EU leaders announced that they hoped to open accession negotiations
with Montenegro in June 2012, provided that the European Commission finds that Montenegro is
making sufficient progress in implementing its reform agenda. EU leaders emphasized that they
would pay particular attention to Montenegro’s efforts in the areas of rule of law, fundamental
rights, and the fight against corruption and organized crime.9
Turkey
Turkey has a long-standing bid for EU membership, but the relationship between Turkey and the
European project has been characterized historically by a series of ups and downs. Although EU
member states have always supported a close association with Turkey, divisions have and
continue to exist among member states over whether Turkey should be allowed to join the Union
given concerns about its political system, human rights record, economy, and large Muslim
population. The status of Turkey’s membership application is a frequent source of tension
between Turkey and the EU.
Turkish EU aspirations date back to the 1960s. Turkey and the European Economic Community
concluded an association agreement (known as the Ankara Agreement) in 1963, which was aimed
at developing closer economic ties. The Ankara Agreement was supplemented by an Additional
Protocol, signed in 1970, preparing the way for a customs union. Nevertheless, Turkey’s 1987
application for full membership in the European Community was essentially rejected.
In 1995, the customs union between the EU and Turkey entered into force, allowing most goods
to cross the border in both directions without customs restrictions. In 1997, the EU declared
Turkey eligible to become a member of the Union, but did not set a clear timeline for accession.
In 1999, the EU finally recognized Turkey as an official candidate country; at the same time, the
EU asserted that Turkey still needed to comply fully with the political and economic criteria for
membership before accession talks could begin.
In 2001, the EU adopted its first “Accession Partnership” with Turkey, setting out the political
and economic priorities Turkey needed to address in order to adopt and implement EU standards
and legislation. Ankara had hoped that the EU would set a firm date for starting negotiations at its
December 2002 summit, but was disappointed; several EU members argued that although Turkey
had undertaken significant reforms—such as abolishing the death penalty and increasing civilian
control of the military—it still did not fully meet the membership criteria. Some member states
also remained concerned about Turkey’s stance toward Cyprus, which has been divided since
1974 between the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus administered by the Greek
9 European Council Conclusions, Brussels, Belgium, December 9, 2011.
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Cypriot government in the island’s south, and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,
controlled by Turkish Cypriots. Turkish troops remain stationed in northern Cyprus, and Turkey
does not recognize the Republic of Cyprus under the Greek Cypriot government.
In December 2004, the EU asserted that Turkey had made sufficient progress on legislative,
judicial, and economic reforms to allow accession talks to begin in October 2005, provided
Turkey met two conditions by that time: bringing into force several additional pieces of reform
legislation; and agreeing to extend Turkey’s existing agreements with the EU and its customs
union to the 10 new EU member states, including Cyprus. Turkey met both of these requirements
by July 2005. In pledging to extend its EU agreements and the customs union, however, Turkey
asserted that it was not granting diplomatic recognition to the Greek Cypriot government.
After some contentious debate among EU members over issues related to Turkey’s lack of formal
recognition of Cyprus and whether a “privileged partnership” short of full membership for Turkey
should be retained as a future option, the EU opened accession talks with Turkey in October
2005. The negotiating framework effectively requires Turkey to continue working toward
normalizing relations with Cyprus and asserts that “if Turkey is not in a position to assume in full
all the obligations of membership, it must be ensured that Turkey is fully anchored in the
European structures through the strongest possible bond.” The EU maintains that the “shared
objective of the negotiations is accession,” but that it will be an “open-ended process, the
outcome of which cannot be guaranteed beforehand.”10 In other words, despite agreeing to open
accession talks, Turkey is still not ensured eventual full EU membership.
Detailed negotiations between the EU and Turkey on the acquis began in 2006. Since then, the
EU has opened talks on 13 chapters of the acquis (one of these was provisionally closed in June
2006), but progress has been slow and negotiations have been complicated by Cypriot-related
issues. According to the EU, Turkey’s continued refusal to open its ports and airports to ships and
planes from the Greek Cypriot part of the island, as required by the 1970 Additional Protocol and
the customs union, is a major stumbling block. In December 2006, the EU decided to delay the
opening of eight chapters dealing with areas affecting the customs union pending Turkey’s
compliance with applying the Additional Protocol to Cyprus. Although negotiations on other
chapters would be allowed to continue or be opened when ready, the EU also asserted that no
further chapters would be provisionally closed without resolution of the issues related to the
Additional Protocol. In December 2009, the EU reaffirmed the freeze on the opening of the eight
chapters affecting the operation of the customs union. Cyprus and France have also put holds on
opening several other chapters of the acquis.
Although accession talks between Turkey and the EU are expected to continue in 2012, many
observers view the process as largely stalled. No new chapters of the acquis were opened in 2011,
and little progress appears to have been made in the chapters already under negotiation. Experts
contend that this slow pace suits some EU governments and many EU citizens who remain wary
about the implications of Turkey’s accession on the Union’s institutions and finances given
Turkey’s size (with nearly 80 million people, Turkey would rival Germany as the largest EU
country in terms of population), and the relatively large portion of Turks considered poor in
economic terms. Despite Turkey’s improving and increasingly vibrant economy, some in the EU
still fear an influx of Turkish laborers, who would have the right to live and work in existing EU
member states should Turkey accede to the Union. Many EU leaders and publics also worry that
10 Agreed EU Negotiating Framework for Turkey, October 3, 2005.
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Turkey’s predominantly Muslim culture would fundamentally alter the character, policies, and
identity of the Union. In addition, EU concerns persist about the status of Turkish political
reforms, the independence of its judiciary, women’s rights, the degree of media freedoms, and the
extent to which religious and ethnic minorities are protected.
Analysts predict that at best, Turkish membership in the EU is at least another decade away.
Moreover, they note that it is highly unlikely that Turkey would be able to join the EU without a
political settlement on the divided island of Cyprus. A number of observers point out that some
Turkish policymakers and citizens are also increasingly questioning the value of and need for
Turkish accession given the EU’s current financial woes and sovereign debt crisis, ongoing
European concerns about Turkey’s potential membership, and the perceived stalemate in Turkey’s
accession negotiations.11
Prospects for Future Rounds of EU Enlargement
As noted previously, the EU asserts that the enlargement door remains open to any European
country that is able to meet and implement the political and economic criteria for membership.
The remaining western Balkan states of Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Serbia are all
recognized as potential EU candidates but their accession prospects and timetables vary (see text
box for more information); most experts assess that it will likely be many more years before any
of these four countries are ready to join the EU. Nevertheless, the EU hopes that the possibility of
membership will help accelerate reforms and promote greater stability in these and other states
interested in eventual EU accession. Countries such as Ukraine and Georgia have also expressed
long-term EU aspirations.
On the other hand, “enlargement fatigue” in the wake of the recent addition of 12 new members
has become a serious issue in Europe. Although the EU is moving ahead with enlargement to
include Croatia and probably some of the western Balkans countries and Iceland, analysts assert
that a number of European leaders and many EU citizens remain cautious about further EU
enlargement. This is especially true with respect to Turkey or the countries of “wider Europe,”
usually considered to include Ukraine, Moldova, and the southern Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia,
and Azerbaijan). EU officials increasingly stress that the process of enlargement must take into
account the Union’s “integration capacity.” In other words, acceding countries must be ready and
able to fully assume the obligations of EU membership and additional EU enlargement must not
endanger the ability of the EU’s institutions to function effectively or render EU financing
arrangements unsustainable.12
11 For more information on Turkey and the EU, see CRS Report RS22517, European Union Enlargement: A Status
Report on Turkey’s Accession Negotiations, by Vincent Morelli.
12 The EU’s emphasis on “integration capacity” is a key part of the EU’s “renewed consensus on enlargement,” agreed
by EU leaders in December 2006. See European Council Conclusions, Brussels, Belgium, December 15, 2006.
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Potential Future EU Candidates in the Western Balkans
For many years, the EU has official y considered al the countries of the western Balkans as potential future
candidates. The EU’s Stabilization and Association Process (SAP) is the framework for the EU’s relations with the
countries of the Western Balkans. The centerpiece of the SAP is the conclusion of a Stabilization and Association
Agreement (SAA), which represents the contractual relationship between the EU and each western Balkans country;
the SAA also sets out EU financial and technical assistance aimed at helping each country meet the EU’s membership
criteria. Many view the SAA as the first step toward EU membership for the countries of the western Balkans. With
Croatia expected to become the 28th member of the EU in 2013, and with Macedonia and Montenegro formal y
recognized as EU candidates, four countries in the region with a future European perspective remain: Albania, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Serbia.
Albania and the EU completed a Stabilization and Association Agreement in June 2006. In April 2009, the SAA
entered into force and Albania formal y applied to join the EU. In October 2011, in its most recent annual report on
Albania, the European Commission asserted that although Albania has made some progress in meeting the political
and economic criteria for membership, it has been limited, in part because of an ongoing political stalemate following
Albania’s June 2009 general elections. In addition to concerns about the implementation of democratic reforms in
Albania, the Commission also highlighted several areas in need of more work, including anti-corruption efforts,
respect for media freedom, judiciary reform, the functioning of public administration, the protection of property
rights, and the treatment of the Roma community. As such, the Commission maintains that the conditions required to
grant Albania formal EU candidate status and open accession negotiations have not yet been met.
Bosnia-Herzegovina has not yet applied for EU membership. Bosnia and the EU signed a Stabilization and
Association Agreement in June 2008 and an interim agreement is in place; al EU members have ratified the SAA with
Bosnia, but it has not yet entered into force. In its most recent assessment in October 2011, the European
Commission judged that Bosnia had made only limited progress in meeting the EU’s core political criteria and that
further efforts were needed to establish a functioning market economy. EU officials remain deeply concerned with
what they view as Bosnia’s unstable political climate and continued ethnic divisions and tensions. EU worries about
corruption and organized crime in Bosnia also persist. The EU maintains a peacekeeping force and a police mission in
Bosnia.
Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia in February 2008 and is recognized by the EU as a potential future
candidate under U.N. Security Council Resolution 1244, which ended the 1999 conflict between Serbia and Kosovo.
Serbia insists that Kosovo remains part of its territory; most but not all EU member states recognize Kosovo’s
independence. Kosovo participates in the Stabilization and Association Process and receives pre-accession financial
assistance from the EU, but efforts to forge an SAA are complicated by the lack of full EU diplomatic recognition, as
well as by Kosovo’s weak political institutions and economy. In its most recent annual report on Kosovo, released in
October 2011, the European Commission noted that the government of Kosovo has demonstrated a commitment to
align its laws with those of the EU, but political reforms are proving difficult and Kosovo has failed to make progress
on establishing a functioning market economy; the Commission also cited organized crime and corruption as key EU
concerns in Kosovo.
Serbia and the EU concluded a Stabilization and Association Agreement in April 2008 and an interim agreement is
currently in place. In December 2009, Serbia submitted its formal application for EU membership. In the summer of
2011, Serbia’s accession prospects improved following the arrest and extradition of two high-profile war crimes
suspects wanted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). In October 2011, in light of
Serbia’s cooperation with the ICTY and the substantial political and economic reforms in Serbia over the last few
years, the European Commission recommended EU candidate status for Serbia. Although many observers had
expected that the EU would name Serbia as an official candidate country at its December 2011 summit, EU leaders
postponed the decision until their next meeting in March 2012. Some EU member states asserted that Serbia must do
more to normalize relations with Kosovo before it can be granted candidate status; EU leaders also remained
particularly concerned about the outbreak of violence in Serb-dominated northern Kosovo in 2011.
Sources: European Commission, Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges 2011-2012, October 12, 2011; “EU
Enlargement,” BBC News, December 9, 2011.
Apprehensions about continued EU enlargement seem to be driven by several issues. Some EU
policymakers and European publics have long worried that the addition of nations with weak
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economies and low incomes could prompt the influx of low-cost or unwanted migrant labor. Such
fears prompted the EU to allow the “old” member states to institute some temporary restrictions
on labor migration from those countries that joined the EU in 2004 and 2007. Although EU
members such as the UK and Ireland that chose not to impose any transitional restrictions did see
an increase in workers from central and eastern Europe, most studies since 2004 suggest that the
proportion of EU citizens moving from east to west following enlargement has been relatively
small and that such migrants have not displaced local workers or significantly driven down local
wages.13 Nevertheless, such concerns persist, especially when considering the accession of big,
relatively less affluent countries such as Turkey or possible Ukraine in the longer term.
The addition of large countries like Turkey or Ukraine could also have substantial financial
consequences for the Union’s budget and regional assistance programs, as well as implications for
the functioning of certain EU institutions. Some key EU member states may fear that an ever-
expanding Union could ultimately weaken their ability to set the tone and agenda in EU
institutions and to drive EU policies. Moreover, doubts persist about the ability of some potential
EU aspirants to implement EU standards, especially in areas related to the rule of law,
fundamental rights, and anti-corruption measures.14
Another broad European concern with respect to ongoing enlargement is with the overall identity
of Europe, what the Union stands for, and where “Europe” ends. The Union’s struggle with these
issues has been highlighted by the possible admission of Turkey with an Islamic culture perceived
by many Europeans to be vastly different and not compatible with Europe. Similarly, some in the
EU question whether countries like Ukraine or those of the southern Caucasus should be
considered as part of “Europe,” or whether their geography, history, and culture make them
distinct. Many experts believe that enlargement may soon be reaching its limits and that the EU is
unlikely to include the countries of “wider Europe” for the foreseeable future.15
Moreover, commentators suggest that the EU’s recent financial problems and sovereign debt
crisis—which have hit the countries of the Eurozone particularly hard and caused some observers
to doubt the future of the EU’s common currency—could potentially slow future rounds of EU
enlargement. They note that EU leaders are grappling not only with trying to remedy the
Eurozone’s financial troubles, but also with uncertainty about the future direction of the EU itself.
As a result, they may be less inclined to robustly push forward the enlargement agenda.
Conversely, the EU’s economic difficulties might make joining the Union—and ultimately the
common currency—less attractive for some current and potential EU candidates. For decades,
many countries aspired to join the EU largely for the economic benefits that membership would
13 “Free Movement of Labor in the EU 27,” EurActiv.com, August 9, 2011.
14 Many experts viewed the EU as having been too “soft” in previous accession negotiations with countries like
Bulgaria and Romania. As a result of such concerns and perceptions, over the last several years, the EU has been
placing increasing emphasis on the readiness and maturity of a candidate’s democratic institutions and its ability to
meet EU standards. Observers assess that in its recently concluded negotiations with Croatia, the EU was much more
rigorous about ensuring Croatia’s ability to comply with and fully implement EU standards.
15 In 2004, as EU enlargement pushed the Union’s borders farther east and south, the EU launched its European
Neighborhood Policy (ENP), aimed at developing deeper political and economic relations with a “ring of friends,” i.e.,
countries in close proximity to an enlarged Union. The ENP was proposed to ten southern Mediterranean countries, and
to six on the EU’s eastern periphery (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine). In 2009, the EU
launched the Eastern Partnership (EaP), a complementary program with these same six eastern neighbors designed to
offer more concrete EU support in exchange for democratic and market-oriented reforms; EU cooperation with the
government of Belarus, however, is largely frozen because of continuing state repression and human rights problems.
The EU considers Russia to be a “strategic partner,” but Russia does not participate in the ENP or in the EaP.
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bring. If financial instability in the Eurozone persists, however, some aspirants such as Turkey—
with a rapidly expanding and dynamic economy—may not view the benefits of membership as
outweighing the potential constraints on its sovereignty and national fiscal and monetary policies.
U.S. Perspectives
The United States has strongly supported the European integration project since its inception in
the 1950s. Successive U.S. Administrations and many Members of Congress have long backed
EU enlargement, believing that it serves U.S. interests by advancing democracy and economic
prosperity, and thereby creating strong European political allies and trading partners. Following
the collapse of communism in 1989, U.S. and EU officials worked in close cooperation to
promote democratic transitions and market-oriented reforms, with both sides of the Atlantic
routinely asserting that the countries of central and eastern Europe would be warmly welcomed
into Euro-Atlantic institutions such as the EU, as well as NATO, but only if they met the
necessary political and economic criteria.
Some analysts suggest that U.S. policymakers have also been keen to promote EU enlargement
because they have viewed it as a way to decrease U.S.-EU tensions given that many of the newer
members are often regarded as more pro-American. Moreover, many U.S. officials hoped that
with the EU’s enlargement to the east and the transformation of the continent nearly complete, the
EU would turn its attention outward and be a more capable partner for the United States in
tackling a range of global challenges. U.S. business and commercial interests have also generally
favored EU enlargement, believing that it would provide access to a larger, more integrated
European market, and that it would help further reforms of the EU’s regulatory regime and
common agricultural policy, frequent sources of U.S.-EU trade conflicts.
Over the years, the only significant U.S. criticism of the EU’s enlargement process has been that
the Union was moving too slowly, especially with respect to Turkey. Successive U.S.
administrations and many Members of Congress have long advocated EU membership for
Turkey, viewing it as a vital, strategic ally that should be anchored firmly to Europe. At times,
Washington has played an active, albeit small, role in Turkey’s EU accession path; in 1999, for
example, the Clinton Administration reportedly lobbied Ankara to accept the EU’s offer to
recognize Turkey as an official EU candidate, despite Ankara’s unhappiness that the EU had not
set out a timetable for accession talks. Periodically, however, U.S. pressure to promote Turkey’s
EU accession prospects has generated tensions with the EU. The United States continues to
support Turkey’s EU membership bid, as well as the EU aspirations of the western Balkans, but in
recent years, U.S. officials appear to have accepted that EU enlargement moves at its own pace,
and that Turkey’s potential EU accession is still many years away. Some U.S. officials remain
concerned that “enlargement fatigue,” as well as the EU’s current financial crisis, could hinder
additional EU expansion.
Other commentators argue that EU enlargement could have some negative implications for U.S.
interests. Even with EU institutional reforms, some assert that EU decision-making remains
cumbersome and that enlargement has done little to make the EU a more coherent actor on the
world stage. For example, they contend that the addition of the central and eastern European
countries has created more divisions on certain issues, such as EU policy toward Russia, and that
the EU is largely still preoccupied with its own internal problems. On the other hand, some
pundits worry that despite the EU’s current financial difficulties, a larger EU—with an economic
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output roughly equivalent to that of the United States and growing political clout—could
ultimately rival U.S. power and prestige in the longer term.
Figure 1. Map of the European Union
Member States and Aspirant Countries
Source: Delegation of the European Union to the United States, “On the Path to EU Membership: The EU
Enlargement Process,” EU Insight, December 2010; Adapted by CRS.
Author Contact Information
Kristin Archick
Specialist in European Affairs
karchick@crs.loc.gov, 7-2668
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