Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked
Questions
Henry B. Hogue
Analyst in American National Government
December 12, 2011
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RS21308
CRS Report for Congress
Pr
epared for Members and Committees of Congress
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
Summary
Under the Constitution (Article II, §2, clause 2), the President and the Senate share the power to
make appointments to high-level policy-making positions in federal departments, agencies,
boards, and commissions. Generally, the President nominates individuals to these positions, and
the Senate must confirm them before he can appoint them to office. The Constitution also
provides an exception to this process. When the Senate is in recess, the President may make a
temporary appointment, called a recess appointment, to any such position without Senate
approval (Article II, §2, clause 3). This report supplies brief answers to some frequently asked
questions regarding recess appointments. It will be updated as events warrant.
Congressional Research Service
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
Contents
What Is the Purpose of a Recess Appointment? ........................................................................ 1
How Often Have Recent Presidents Made Recess Appointments? ........................................... 1
What Is a “Session”? ................................................................................................................. 1
What Is a “Recess”? .................................................................................................................. 2
How Long Must the Senate Be in Recess Before a President May Make a Recess
Appointment? ......................................................................................................................... 2
What Constitutes a “Vacancy”?................................................................................................. 3
How Long Does a Recess Appointment Last? .......................................................................... 4
Must a Recess Appointee Be Nominated to the Position as Well?............................................ 5
What Is the Difference Between the Authority and Pay of a Confirmed Appointee and
Those of a Recess Appointee?................................................................................................ 5
Are There Any Legal Constraints on the President’s Recess Appointment Power?.................. 5
What Happens If the Nomination of a Recess Appointee Is Rejected?..................................... 6
Can the President Make Successive Recess Appointments to the Same Position? ................... 6
Can a Recess Appointment Be Used to Fill a Vacancy on the Federal Bench?......................... 6
Can Congress Prevent Recess Appointments? .......................................................................... 7
Practices Implemented Unilaterally by the Senate.............................................................. 7
Senate Practices Necessitated by the Absence of House Consent to Adjourn..................... 8
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 10
Congressional Research Service
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
What Is the Purpose of a Recess Appointment?
The Constitution states that “[t]he President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End
of their next Session” (Article 2, §2, clause 3). The records of debate at the Constitutional
Convention and the Federalist Papers provide little evidence of the framers’ intentions in the
recess appointment clause. Opinions by later Attorneys General, however, suggested that the
clause was meant to allow the President to maintain the continuity of administrative government
through the temporary filling of offices during periods when the Senate was not in session, at
which time his nominees could not be considered or confirmed.1 This interpretation was bolstered
by the fact that both houses of Congress had relatively short sessions and long recesses between
sessions during the early years of the republic. In fact, until the beginning of the 20th century,
Congress was, on average, in session less than half the year. Throughout the history of the
republic, Presidents have also sometimes used the recess appointment power for political reasons.
For example, recess appointments enable the President to temporarily install an appointee who
probably would not be confirmed by the Senate.
How Often Have Recent Presidents Made Recess Appointments?
President William J. Clinton made 139 recess appointments, 95 to full-time positions. President
George W. Bush made 171 recess appointments, of which 99 were to full-time positions.2 As of
December 8, 2011, President Barack Obama had made 28 recess appointments, all to full-time
positions.
What Is a “Session”?
For the purposes of the recess appointment clause, the word “session” refers to the period
between the reconvening of the Senate after a sine die adjournment and the next sine die
adjournment. The Twentieth Amendment to the Constitution provides that Congress will meet
annually on January 3, “unless they shall by law appoint a different day.”3 Generally, a session of
the Senate begins on that day and continues until sine die adjournment, usually in the fall.4 The
Senate could be called back into session after sine die adjournment if certain conditions have
been included in the adjournment resolution. Nonetheless, sine die adjournment is generally
considered to be the end of the Senate’s session for purposes of the expiration of a recess
appointment.5
1 An opinion by Attorney General William Wirt in 1823 stated, in part, “The substantial purpose of the constitution was
to keep these offices filled; and the powers adequate to this purpose were intended to be conveyed.” 1 Op. A.G. at 632.
2 For more, see CRS Report RL33310, Recess Appointments Made by President George W. Bush, by Henry B. Hogue
and Maureen Bearden.
3 U.S. Constitution, 20th Amend., §2.
4 Congress can also meet in extraordinary session; this last happened in the 1940s.
5 See, for example, 41 Op. A.G. 463 (1960), which, in the context of a discussion of the expiration of recess
appointments, refers to sine die adjournment at the end of a Senate session.
Congressional Research Service
1
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
What Is a “Recess”?
Generally, a recess is a break in House or Senate proceedings. Neither chamber may take a break
of more than three days without the consent of the other.6 Such consent is usually provided
through a concurrent resolution.7 A recess within a session is referred to as an intrasession recess.
In recent decades, Congress has typically had 5-11 intrasession recesses of more than three days,
usually in conjunction with national holidays. The break between the end of one session and the
beginning of the next is referred to as an intersession recess. In recent decades, each Congress has
consisted of two 9-12 month sessions separated by an intersession recess. The period between the
second session of one Congress and the first session of the following Congress is also an
intersession recess.
Recent Presidents have made both intersession and intrasession recess appointments. Intrasession
recess appointments were unusual, however, prior to the 1940s, in part because intrasession
recesses were less common at that time. Intrasession recess appointments have sometimes
provoked controversy in the Senate, and some academic literature also has called their legitimacy
into question.8 Legal opinions have also varied on this issue over time. In general, however,
recent opinions have supported the President’s use of the recess appointment authority during
intrasession recesses.9 Intrasession recess appointments are usually of longer duration than
intersession recess appointments. (See below, “How Long Does a Recess Appointment Last?”)
How Long Must the Senate Be in Recess Before a President May
Make a Recess Appointment?
The Constitution does not specify the length of time that the Senate must be in recess before the
President may make a recess appointment. Over time, the Department of Justice has offered
differing views on this question, and no settled understanding appears to exist. In 1993, however,
a Department of Justice brief implied that the President may make a recess appointment during a
recess of more than three days.10 In doing so, the brief linked the minimum recess length with
Article I, Section 5, clause 4 of the U.S. Constitution. This “Adjournments Clause” provides that
“Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn
for more than three days ....”11 Arguing that the recess during which the appointment at issue in
the case was made was of sufficient length, the brief stated:
6 U.S. Constitution, Art. 1, §5, cl. 4.
7 A concurrent resolution requires adoption by both houses, but does not require the President’s signature.
8 Regarding Senate controversy, see Sen. George Mitchell, “The Senate’s Constitutional Authority to Advise and
Consent to the Appointment of Federal Officers,” Congressional Record, vol. 139, July 1, 1993, p. 15266; and Senate
Legal Counsel, “Memorandum of United States Senate as Amicus Curiae in Support of Plaintiffs’ Motion, and in
Opposition to Defendants’ Motions, for Summary Judgment on Count Two,” U.S. District Court for the District of
Columbia, Mackie v. Clinton, Civ. Action No. 93-0032-LFO, Congressional Record, vol. 139, July 1, 1993, pp. 15267-
15274. For academic literature, see, for example, Michael A. Carrier, “When Is the Senate in Recess for Purposes of
the Recess Appointments Clause?” Michigan Law Review, vol. 92, June 1994.
9 For information and analysis related to the legal landscape in this area, see CRS Report RL33009, Recess
Appointments: A Legal Overview, by Vivian S. Chu.
10 Memorandum of Points and Authorities in Support of Defendants’ Opposition to Plaintiffs’ Motion for Partial
Summary Judgment, at 24-6, Mackie v. Clinton, 827 F. Supp. 56 (D.D.C. 1993), vacated as moot, 10 F.3d 13 (D.C. Cir.
1993). Hereafter cited as “Justice Department Brief.”
11 In practice, the period has often extended to not more than four calendar days over a weekend. Under House
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
2
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
If the recess here at issue were of three days or less, a closer question would be presented.
The Constitution restricts the Senate’s ability to adjourn its session for more than three days
without obtaining the consent of the House of Representatives. ... It might be argued that this
means that the Framers did not consider one, two and three day recesses to be
constitutionally significant. …
Apart from the three-day requirement noted above, the Constitution provides no basis for
limiting the recess to a specific number of days. Whatever number of days is deemed
required, that number would of necessity be completely arbitrary.12
The logic of the argument laid out in this brief appears to underlie congressional practices,
intended to block recess appointments, that were first implemented during the 110th Congress.
(See below, “Can Congress Prevent Recess Appointments?”)
Between the beginning of the Reagan presidency and the end of the George W. Bush presidency,
it appears that the shortest intersession recess during which a President made a recess
appointment was 11 days,13 and the shortest intrasession recess during which a President made a
recess appointment was 10 days.14
What Constitutes a “Vacancy”?
Historically, questions have arisen about the meaning of the constitutional phrase “Vacancies that
may happen during the Recess of the Senate.” Does “happen” mean “exist” or “occur”? The first
meaning would allow the President to make recess appointments to any position that became
vacant prior to the recess and continued to be vacant during the recess, as well as positions that
became vacant during the recess. The second meaning would allow recess appointments only to
positions that became vacant during the recess. Although this question was a source of
controversy in the early 19th century, Attorneys General and courts have now long supported the
first, broader interpretation of the phrase.15
(...continued)
precedents, “The House of Representatives in adjourning for not more than three days must take into the count either
the day of adjourning or the day of the meeting, and Sunday is not taken into account in making this computation.”
U.S. Congress, House, Constitution, Jefferson’s Manual and Rules of the House of Representatives of the United States,
One Hundred Twelfth Congress, 111th Cong., 2nd sess., H.Doc. 111-157 (Washington: GPO, 2011), sec. 83. Senate
practice appears to be consistent with this approach. Floyd M. Riddick and Alan S. Frumin, Riddick’s Senate
Procedure: Precedents and Practices, 101st Cong., 2nd Sess., S.Doc. 101-28 (Washington: GPO, 1992), pp. 15-16,
1265.
12 Justice Department Brief, pp. 25-26.
13 President Ronald W. Reagan recess appointed John C. Miller to be a member of the National Labor Relations Board
on December 23, 1982, during a recess that began that day and lasted until the Senate reconvened on January 3, 1983.
(U.S. President (Reagan), “Digest of Other White House Announcements,” Weekly Compilation of Presidential
Documents, vol. 18 (December 23, 1982), p. 1662.)
14 On May 31, 1996, President William J. Clinton recess appointed Johnny H. Hayes to be a member of the Tennessee
Valley Authority. (U.S. President (Clinton), “Digest of Other White House Announcements,” Weekly Compilation of
Presidential Documents, vol. 32 (May 31, 1996), p. 980.) The Senate had adjourned on May 24, 1996, and reconvened
on June 3.
15 For a further discussion of this controversy and a list of related opinions, see CRS Report RL33009, Recess
Appointments: A Legal Overview, by Vivian S. Chu.
Congressional Research Service
3
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
A second question regarding the meaning of “Vacancies” arises in connection with recess
appointments to fixed-term positions, such as those often associated with regulatory boards and
commissions. In order to promote continuity of operations, Congress has often included
“holdover” provisions in the statutory language creating such positions. The question then arises
whether or not a position is vacant, for the purposes of a recess appointment, if an individual is
continuing to serve, under a holdover provision, past the end of his or her term. The courts have
varied in their rulings on this matter, and it has not been settled definitively by an appellate court.
Based on decisions to date, however, the answer appears to hinge on the specific language of the
holdover provision. For example, if the language is mandatory (the officeholder “shall continue
to serve after the expiration of his term”), rather than permissive (“may continue to serve”), the
position has been seen by the courts as not vacant, and therefore not available for a recess
appointment.16 When the provision includes a specific time limit for the holdover, such as one
year, the position has also been seen as not vacant.17
How Long Does a Recess Appointment Last?
A recess appointment expires at the end of the Senate’s next session or when an individual (either
the recess appointee or someone else) is nominated, confirmed, and permanently appointed to the
position, whichever occurs first.
A recess appointment expires at the sine die adjournment of the Senate’s “next session.” In
practice, this means that a recess appointment could last for almost two years. If the President
makes a recess appointment between sessions (of the same or successive Congresses), that
appointment will expire at the end of the following session. If he makes the appointment during a
recess in the middle of a session, that appointment also will expire at the end of the following
session. In this case, the duration of the appointment will include the rest of the session in
progress plus the full length of the session that follows. At any point in a year, as a result, by
making a recess appointment during an intrasession recess, the President may fill a position not
just for the rest of the year, but until near the end of the following year.
A comparison of two recess appointments by President Obama illustrates the difference in recess
appointment duration that results from the timing of appointments. On March 27, 2010, during an
intrasession recess within the second session of the 111th Congress, the White House announced
that President Obama recess appointed Alan D. Bersin to be Commissioner of U.S. Customs and
Border Protection. The recess appointment of William J. Boarman to be Public Printer (head of
the Government Printing Office) was announced on December 29, 2010, during the intersession
recess between the end of the second session of the 111th Congress and the beginning of the first
session of the 112th Congress. Both of these recess appointments expire when the Senate adjourns
sine die at the end of the first session of the 112th Congress. Because of the timing of their
respective appointments, however, Bersin could serve as a recess appointee as much as nine
months longer than Boarman.
16 Compare Staebler v. Carter, 464 F. Supp. 585 (1979), and Wilkinson v. L.S.C., 865 F. Supp. 891 (1994).
17 See Mackie v. Clinton, 827 F. Supp. 56 (1993).
Congressional Research Service
4
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
Must a Recess Appointee Be Nominated to the Position as Well?
The President is not required to nominate the recess appointee to the appointed position. The
President will sometimes use a recess appointment to fill a position while a different nominee to
the same position is going through the Senate confirmation process. Under certain conditions,
however, a provision of law may prevent a recess appointee from being paid from the Treasury if
he or she has not been nominated to the position. (See below, “Are There Any Legal Constraints
on the President’s Recess Appointment Power?”)
What Is the Difference Between the Authority and Pay of a
Confirmed Appointee and Those of a Recess Appointee?
A confirmed appointee and a recess appointee have the same legal authority and receive the same
rate of pay. However, two provisions of law may, under certain circumstances, prevent a recess
appointee from being paid. (See below, “Are There Any Legal Constraints on the President’s
Recess Appointment Power?”)
Are There Any Legal Constraints on the President’s Recess
Appointment Power?
There is no qualification on the President’s “Power to fill up all Vacancies” in the constitutional
provision. Neither is there a statutory constraint on this power. There are, however, two
provisions of law that may prevent a recess appointee from being paid. Under 5 U.S.C. Section
5503(a), if the position to which the President makes a recess appointment became vacant while
the Senate was in session, the recess appointee may not be paid from the Treasury until he or she
is confirmed by the Senate. The salary prohibition does not apply if (1) the vacancy arose within
30 days of the end of the session; (2) a nomination for the office (other than the nomination of
someone given a recess appointment during the preceding recess) was pending when the Senate
recessed; or (3) a nomination was rejected within 30 days of the end of the session and another
individual was given the recess appointment. A recess appointment falling under any one of these
three exceptions must be followed by a nomination to the position not later than 40 days after the
beginning of the next session of the Senate.18 For this reason, when a recess appointment is made,
the President generally submits a new nomination to the position even when an old nomination is
pending. In addition, although a recess appointee whose nomination to a full term is subsequently
rejected by the Senate may continue to serve until the end of the recess appointment, a provision
routinely included in an appropriations act may prevent him or her from being paid after the
rejection. (See below, “What Happens If the Nomination of a Recess Appointee Is Rejected?”)
18 Congress placed limits on payments to recess appointees as far back as 1863. The current provisions date from 1940
(ch. 580, 54 Stat. 751, 5 U.S.C. 56, revised, and recodified at 5 U.S.C. 5503, by P.L. 89-554, 80 Stat. 475). For a legal
history and overview of recess appointments, see CRS Report RL33009, Recess Appointments: A Legal Overview, by
Vivian S. Chu.
Congressional Research Service
5
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
What Happens If the Nomination of a Recess Appointee Is
Rejected?
Rejection by the Senate does not end the recess appointment. However, a provision of the
FY2008 Financial Services and General Government Appropriations Act might prevent an
appointee from being paid after his or her rejection. The provision reads, “Hereafter, no part of
any appropriation contained in this or any other Act shall be paid to any person for the filling of
any position for which he or she has been nominated after the Senate has voted not to approve the
nomination of said person.”19 Similar provisions had been included in annual funding measures
for most of, if not all of, the prior 50 years. As a practical matter, nominations are rarely rejected
by a vote of the full Senate.
Can the President Make Successive Recess Appointments to the
Same Position?
The President may make successive recess appointments of the same or a different individual to a
position. Payment from the Treasury to the appointee may be limited, however, under 5 U.S.C.
Section 5503. As discussed above, this section provides that if the position to which the President
makes a recess appointment fell vacant while the Senate was in session, the recess appointee may
not be paid from the Treasury until he or she is confirmed by the Senate. Of the three exemptions
to this pay prohibition, the first and third would not apply here. The second exemption, however,
provides that, “if, at the end of the session, a nomination for the office, other than the nomination
of an individual appointed during the preceding recess of the Senate, was pending before the
Senate for its advice and consent,” the prohibition would not apply.20 The clause “other than the
nomination of an individual appointed during the preceding recess of the Senate” probably would
prevent payment in the case of most successive recess appointments. This interpretation has been
supported by the Department of Justice, which stated in 1991, “Although its language is far from
clear, Section 5503(a) has been interpreted as prohibiting the payment of compensation to
successive recess appointees.”21
Can a Recess Appointment Be Used to Fill a Vacancy on the Federal
Bench?
Presidents have long made recess appointments to the federal judiciary. In recent years, however,
recess appointments of federal judges have been unusual and controversial. Over the past 25
years, there have been only three recess appointments to fill Article III judgeships. President
William J. Clinton recess appointed Roger L. Gregory to the Fourth Circuit on December 27,
2000, a step that met some opposition in the Senate. Ultimately, Gregory was re-nominated by
President George W. Bush and confirmed by the Senate. On January 16, 2004, President Bush
recess appointed Charles W. Pickering to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit.
Pickering’s appointment expired at the end of the second session of the 108th Congress, and he
19 P.L. 110-161, Div. D, §709; 121 Stat. 2021.
20 5 U.S.C. §5503(a)(2).
21 15 Op. O.L.C. 93 (1991). See also 6 Op. O.L.C. 585 (1982); 41 Op. A.G. 463 (1960).
Congressional Research Service
6
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
retired.22 On February 20, 2004, President Bush named William H. Pryor to the Eleventh Circuit
Court of Appeals. Pryor was subsequently confirmed by the Senate.23
Can Congress Prevent Recess Appointments?
From the 110th Congress onward, new scheduling practices have arisen that appear intended to
prevent the President from making recess appointments. One set of practices was implemented by
the Senate alone; no unusual action or inaction by the House was necessary. A second, related set
of practices, which developed in the 112th Congress, arose from the lack of a concurrent
resolution of adjournment, which can result from a lack of consent by either the House or the
Senate.
As noted above, the Constitution does not specify the length of time that the Senate must be in
recess before the President may make a recess appointment. Over the last century, as shorter
recesses have become more commonplace, the Department of Justice has offered differing views
on this issue. A 1993 Justice Department brief implied that the President may make a recess
appointment during a recess of more than three days.24 (See above, “How Long Must the Senate
Be in Recess Before a President May Make a Recess Appointment?”)
Practices Implemented Unilaterally by the Senate
The logic of the argument laid out in the Justice Department brief appears to underlie the
congressional practices that were first implemented during the 110th Congress.25 From November
2007 through the end of the George W. Bush presidency, the Senate structured its recesses in a
way that was intended, at least initially, to prevent the President from making recess
appointments.26 The approach involved the use of pro forma sessions, which are short meetings of
22 Adam Liptak, “Judge Appointed by Bush After Impasse in Senate Retires,” New York Times, December 10, 2004, p.
A20.
23 For more, see CRS Report RL32971, Judicial Recess Appointments: A Legal Overview, by T. J. Halstead.
24 Mackie v. Clinton, Memorandum of Points and Authorities in Support of Defendants’ Opposition to Plaintiffs’
Motion for Partial Summary Judgment, at 24-26, Civ. Action No. 93-0032-LFO, (D.D.C. 1993).
25 It appears that this practice was considered, but not implemented, during the 1980s and 1990s. In response to certain
recess appointments by President William J. Clinton in 1999, one Republican Senator reportedly stated, “‘What we can
do—if they’re appointments that he should not make—is just not go into recess .... We’ll just go into pro forma. You’re
in session, theoretically, but there’s no votes’” (Dave Boyer, “Clinton Warned Against Recess Appointments; GOP
Senators May Not Adjourn,” Washington Times, November 5, 1999, p. A1). In remarks on the Senate floor, the Senator
indicated that a threat of this practice had been part of recess appointment negotiations in 1985 between Senator Robert
C. Byrd and President Ronald W. Reagan: “He [Byrd] extracted from him [Reagan] a commitment in writing that he
would not make recess appointments and, if it should become necessary because of extraordinary circumstances to
make recess appointments, that he would have to give the list to the majority leader ... in sufficient time in advance that
they could prepare for it either by agreeing in advance to the confirmation of that appointment or by not going into
recess and staying in pro forma so the recess appointments could not take place” (Senator James M. Inhofe, “Recess
Appointments,” remarks in the Senate, Congressional Record, vol. 145, part 163 (November 17, 1999), p. 29915).
26 Although, as described here, the Senate Majority Leader initially indicated that the use of pro forma sessions was
intended to prevent the President from making recess appointments, on at least one other occasion, he provided another
reason for using these sessions. On September 17, 2008, he announced, with regard to the Senate, “We are going to
have to get some committee hearings underway, which is why we are not going to adjourn. We will be in pro forma
session so committees can still meet, though we won’t have any activities here on the floor as relates to these markets.”
(Sen. Harry Reid, “The Economy,” remarks in the Senate, Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 154 (September
17, 2008), p. S8907.)
Congressional Research Service
7
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
the Senate or the House held for the purpose of avoiding a recess of more than three days and
therefore the necessity of obtaining the consent of the other House. Normally, it is understood that
during a pro forma session no business will be conducted.27
On November 16, 2007, the Senate Majority Leader announced that the Senate would “be coming
in for pro forma sessions during the Thanksgiving holiday to prevent recess appointments.”28 The
Senate recessed later that day and pro forma meetings were convened on November 20, 23, 27,
and 29, with no business conducted. The Senate next conducted business after reconvening on
December 3, 2007. During the remainder of 2007 and 2008, similar procedures were followed
during most other periods that would otherwise have been Senate recesses of a week or longer in
duration.29
The Senate pro forma session practice appears to have achieved its stated intent: President Bush
made no recess appointments between the initial pro forma sessions in November 2007 and the
end of his presidency.
These procedures were not used during the first session of the 111th Congress, but were again
employed during the latter part of the second session; the Senate structured its 2010 pre-election
break as a series of shorter recesses separated by pro forma sessions.
The procedures used by the Senate during the 110th Congress supplemented the adjournment
procedures typically used by the House and Senate. In each of the instances where the pro forma
session practice was used during the 110th Congress, the two chambers also adopted a concurrent
resolution of adjournment. In each case, the schedule of pro forma sessions was established in the
Senate by unanimous consent within the terms provided for in the concurrent resolution.30
Senate Practices Necessitated by the Absence of House Consent to Adjourn
During the first few months of the 112th Congress, the House and Senate passed concurrent
resolutions of adjournment prior to periods of absence of more than three days. Throughout this
period, the Senate did not use the pro forma session practice during the resulting recesses.
27 Business has sometimes been conducted during pro forma sessions, however. For example, by unanimous consent,
the Senate agreed, on August 2, 2011, that it would “recess and convene for pro forma session only, with no business
conducted” on a number of dates in August and early September, including August 5, 2011 (Sen. Harry Reid, “Orders
for Friday, August 5 through Tuesday, September 6, 2011,” remarks in the Senate, Congressional Record, daily
edition, vol. 157 (August 2, 2011), p. S5292). On August 5, 2011, the Senate convened as scheduled and, by unanimous
consent, passed the Airport and Airway Extension Act of 2011, Part IV (Sen. Jim Webb, “Airport and Airway
Extension Act of 2011, Part IV” remarks in the Senate, Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 157 (August 5, 2011),
p. S5297).
28 Sen. Harry Reid, “Recess Appointments,” remarks in the Senate, Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 153
(November 16, 2007), p. S14609.
29 For further information on the use of the practice during the Bush Administration, see CRS Report RL33310, Recess
Appointments Made by President George W. Bush, by Henry B. Hogue and Maureen Bearden.
30 For example, H.Con.Res. 259 (110th Congress) provided that, “when the Senate recesses or adjourns on any day from
Thursday, November 15, 2007, through Thursday, November 29, 2007, on a motion offered pursuant to this concurrent
resolution by its Majority Leader or his designee, it stand recessed or adjourned until noon on Monday, December 3,
2007, or such other time on that day as may be specified by its Majority Leader or his designee in the motion to recess
or adjourn ....” The series of pro forma sessions established by the Senate prior to its period of absence around this time
concluded with a pro forma session on November 29, 2007, the last date upon which the Senate could adjourn under
the resolution.
Congressional Research Service
8
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
During the middle of the first session of the 112th Congress, a new related practice appeared to
emerge. On May 25, 2011, in a letter to Speaker of the House John Boehner, 20 Senators urged
him “to refuse to pass any resolution to allow the Senate to recess or adjourn for more than three
days for the remainder of the president’s term.”31 The letter stated that “President Obama has used
recess appointments to fill powerful positions with individuals whose views are so outside the
mainstream that they cannot be confirmed by the Senate of the United States,” and it referred to
the Senate practices of 2007 as “a successful attempt to thwart President Bush’s recess
appointment powers.” The request of the Senators appeared intended to similarly block President
Obama from using the recess appointment power.
In a June 15, 2011 letter to the Speaker of the House, the House majority leader, and the House
majority whip, 78 Representatives requested that “all appropriate measures be taken to prevent
any and all recess appointments by preventing the Senate from officially recessing for the
remainder of the 112th Congress.”32
As of December 8, 2011, no concurrent resolution of adjournment had been introduced in either
chamber since May 12, 2011. During periods of extended absence, the Senate has used pro forma
sessions to avoid recesses of more than three days.33
As of December 8, 2011, President Obama had not made any recess appointments during one of
the periods of extended Senate absence during which pro forma sessions have been held.
On at least two occasions in the past, the President has made recess appointments during recesses
of three days or less between sessions. On one of these occasions, the President made a recess
appointment during an intersession recess of three days or less, where the Senate had adjourned
sine die under the terms of a concurrent resolution. The adjournment began when the Senate
adjourned the second session of the 80th Congress sine die on December 31, 1948, and concluded
when the first session of the 81st Congress was convened on January 3, 1949. On January 1, 1949,
during this three-day adjournment between sessions, official records indicate that President Harry
S Truman recess appointed Oswald Ryan to be a Member of the Civil Aeronautics Board.34 Ryan
had been serving on the board, and President Truman appointed him to a new term. Notably, the
adoption of a concurrent resolution prior to this short intersession recess distinguishes it from the
short intrasession recesses resulting from practices during the 112th Congress, where no
concurrent resolution had been introduced.
On the other of the two occasions, the President made recess appointments during a transition
between sessions of less than a day in length, where no concurrent resolution regarding the
transition between sessions had been adopted. In fact, it appears that little time elapsed between
the sessions on this occasion. When the first session of the 58th Congress ended, at noon on
December 7, 1903, and the second session began soon thereafter, President Theodore Roosevelt
31 U.S. Congress, Senate, Senator David Vitter, “Vitter, DeMint Urge House to Block Controversial Recess
Appointments,” press release, May 25, 2011, available at http://vitter.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=
PressRoom.PressReleases&ContentRecord_id=290b81a7-802a-23ad-4359-6d2436e2eb77&Region_id=&Issue_id=.
32 U.S. Congress, House, Representative Jeff Landry, letter to the Speaker of the House John Boehner, et al., June 15,
2011, available at http://landry.house.gov/sites/landry.house.gov/files/documents/
Freshmen%20Recess%20Appointment%20Letter.pdf
33 The House has also used pro forma sessions during such periods of extended absence.
34 Declaration of Ronald R. Geisler, exhibit 2, page 2, Bowers v. Moffett, Civil Action No. 82-0195 (D.D.C. 1982).
Congressional Research Service
9
Recess Appointments: Frequently Asked Questions
made over 160 recess appointments—mostly of military officers. President Roosevelt treated the
period between these sessions as a “constructive recess.”
The historical instances cited here indicate that recess appointments have, on occasion, been
attempted during sine die adjournments of three days or fewer. Nevertheless, the instances cited
here each have unique characteristics, and their potential applicability under current practices and
conditions remains open to question. 35 As far as can be determined, no succeeding President has
made recess appointments under similar circumstances. The shortest recess during which
appointments have been made during the past 20 years was 10 days.
Author Contact Information
Henry B. Hogue
Analyst in American National Government
hhogue@crs.loc.gov, 7-0642
35 These historical instances and their potential applicability under current practices and conditions is discussed in an
October 24, 2011, Congressional Distribution Memorandum, “Efforts to Prevent Recess Appointments through
Congressional Scheduling and Historical Recess Appointments During Short Intervals Between Sessions,” by Henry B.
Hogue and Richard S. Beth. Copies of this memorandum are available to the congressional community from its
authors.
Congressional Research Service
10