Iran Sanctions
Kenneth Katzman
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
December 2, 2011
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RS20871
CRS Report for Congress
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epared for Members and Committees of Congress
Iran Sanctions
Summary
There is broad international support for imposing progressively strict economic sanctions on Iran
to try to compel it to verifiably confine its nuclear program to purely peaceful uses. Many U.S.
and international officials appear to agree that the sanctions have not, to date, hurt Iran’s economy
to the point at which the Iranian leadership feels pressured to accommodate core Western goals on
Iran’s nuclear program. As of September 2011, Iran’s leaders have stated interest in new
proposals that could form the basis of revived nuclear talks, although prospects for new talks have
been set back by diplomatic rifts between Iran and several European countries in November 2011.
Whether or not core goals have yet been accomplished, the United States and its allies appear to
agree that sanctions might yet succeed and that pressure should be added to further weaken Iran’s
energy sector and isolate Iran from the international financial system. The energy sector provides
nearly 70% of government revenues. Iran’s large trading community needs financing to buy
goods from the West and sell them inside Iran. There have been a stream of announcements by
major international firms since early 2010 that they are exiting or declining to undertake further
work in the Iranian market, particularly the energy sector, taking with them often irreplaceable
expertise. Partly as a result, Iran’s oil production has remained relatively steady at about 4.1
million barrels per day, defying Iranian efforts to increase production. Iran has small amounts of
natural gas exports; it had none at all before Iran opened its fields to foreign investment in 1996.
Several countries, particularly India, have delayed billions of dollars in oil payments for Iran
because payments mechanisms have been disrupted by sanctions. However, Iran’s overall ability
to limit the effects of sanctions has been aided by relatively high oil prices in 2011.
What has generated U.S. optimism about the eventual success of sanctions has been the
broadening of international support for and compliance with them. Using the authorities of U.N.
Security Council Resolution 1929, adopted June 9, 2010, measures adopted since mid-2010 by
the United Nations Security Council, the European Union, and several other countries target the
key energy and financial sectors of Iran. These measures complement the numerous U.S. laws
and regulations that have long sought to try to pressure Iran, particularly the Iran Sanctions Act
(ISA)—a 1996 U.S. law that mandates U.S. penalties against foreign companies that invest in
Iran’s energy sector. The application of that law was broadened by the Comprehensive Iran
Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010 (CISADA, P.L. 111-195) as well as by
Executive Order 13590 issued November 21, 2011. The issuing of that Order was accompanied
by a Treasury Department warning, under Section 311 of the USA Patriot Act, that conducting
transactions with the Iranian financial system constitutes a risk of facilitating Iranian proliferation
and terrorism financing activity.
The prospects for additional international sanctions have been heightened in late 2011 by U.S.
revelations in October 2011 of a purported Iranian plot to assassinate the Saudi Ambassador to the
United States, an International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) report on Iran’s possible efforts to
design a nuclear explosive device, and diplomatic and financial rifts with Britain, which caused
the storming of the British Embassy in Tehran on November 30, 2011. In the 112th Congress,
legislation, such as S. 1048 and H.R. 1905, would enhance both the economic sanctions and
human rights-related provisions of CISADA and other laws. An amendment to a Senate FY2012
defense authorization bill would sanction foreign banks that do business with Iran’s Central Bank.
Some countries and experts also seek a broad or partial embargo on Iran’s sale of oil, to reinforce
the sanctions effects discussed above. For a broader analysis of policy on Iran, see CRS Report
RL32048, Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses, by Kenneth Katzman.
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Iran Sanctions
Contents
Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 1
Sanctions Targeting Foreign Participation in Iran’s Energy Sector: The Iran Sanctions Act
(ISA), CISADA, and a November 2011 Executive Order............................................................ 1
Legislative History and Provisions............................................................................................ 2
Key ”Triggers” .................................................................................................................... 2
Mandate and Time Frame to Investigate Violations............................................................ 5
Available Sanctions Under ISA........................................................................................... 5
Waivers, Exemptions, and Termination Authority .............................................................. 6
Termination Requirements and Sunset Provisions.............................................................. 7
Interpretations and Implementation........................................................................................... 7
ISA Sanctions Determinations: September 2010 to the Present.......................................... 8
Non-Application to Crude Oil or Natural Gas Purchases from Iran or to Official
Credit Guarantee Agencies............................................................................................. 11
Application to Energy Pipelines........................................................................................ 12
Application to Iranian Firms or the Revolutionary Guard ................................................ 14
Application to Liquefied Natural Gas ............................................................................... 15
Ban on U.S. Trade and Investment With Iran ................................................................................ 19
Non-Application to Foreign Refined Oil With Iranian Content .............................................. 21
Non-Application to Foreign Subsidiaries of U.S. Firms ......................................................... 21
Subsidiaries Exiting Iran ................................................................................................... 22
Banking: Treasury Department Financial Measures, CISADA, and Patriot Act Section
311 .............................................................................................................................................. 23
Banking Provisions of CISADA ............................................................................................. 24
Sanctions ........................................................................................................................... 25
Section 311 of the Patriot Act.................................................................................................. 25
Terrorism List Designation-Related Sanctions .............................................................................. 25
Executive Order 13224............................................................................................................ 26
Proliferation-Related U.S. Sanctions ............................................................................................. 27
Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act....................................................................................... 27
Iran-North Korea-Syria Nonproliferation Act ......................................................................... 27
Executive Order 13382............................................................................................................ 28
Foreign Aid Restrictions for Suppliers of Iran ........................................................................ 28
U.S. Efforts to Promote Divestment .............................................................................................. 28
U.S. Sanctions Intended to Support Democratic Change in Iran or Alter Iran’s Foreign
Policy.......................................................................................................................................... 29
Expanding Internet and Communications Freedoms............................................................... 29
Measures to Sanction Human Rights Abuses and Promote the Opposition ............................ 30
Executive Order 13438 and 13572: Sanctioning Iranian Involvement in the
Region ............................................................................................................................ 30
Separate Visa Ban.............................................................................................................. 31
Blocked Iranian Property and Assets ............................................................................................. 31
U.N. Sanctions ............................................................................................................................... 32
International Implementation and Compliance.............................................................................. 33
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European Union and Other Western States.............................................................................. 34
Sacking of British Embassy in Tehran and Subsequent Action......................................... 34
Japan and South Korea ............................................................................................................ 34
India......................................................................................................................................... 35
China, Russia, and Others ....................................................................................................... 35
Contrast With Previous Periods............................................................................................... 36
World Bank Loans ................................................................................................................... 37
Effects of Sanctions on Iran........................................................................................................... 41
Effect on Nuclear Negotiations ............................................................................................... 42
Counter-Proliferation Effects................................................................................................... 42
General Political Effects.......................................................................................................... 43
Economic Effects..................................................................................................................... 43
Foreign Companies Exiting the Iran Market..................................................................... 44
Foreign Firms Reportedly Remaining in the Iran Market ................................................. 45
Subsidy Phase-Out Issue ................................................................................................... 45
Effect on the Energy Sector..................................................................................................... 46
Concerns About “Backfill”................................................................................................ 47
Effect on Gasoline Availability and Importation............................................................... 52
Additional Sanctions: Possible Legislation, Administrative, and Multilateral Action .................. 54
Possible Additional Multilateral Sanctions ....................................................................... 58
Tables
Table 1. Major Energy Buyers From Iran (2010) .......................................................................... 12
Table 2. Provisions and Implementation of CISADA (P.L. 111-195)............................................ 15
Table 3. Summary of Provisions of U.N. Resolutions on Iran Nuclear Program (1737,
1747, 1803, and 1929) ................................................................................................................ 33
Table 4. Points of Comparison Between U.S., U.N., and EU Sanctions Against Iran................... 38
Table 5. Post-1999 Major Investments/Major Development Projects
in Iran’s Energy Sector ............................................................................................................... 48
Table 6. Entities Sanctioned Under U.N. Resolutions and
U.S. Laws and Executive Orders................................................................................................ 60
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 69
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Iran Sanctions
Overview
The Obama Administration’s policy approach toward Iran has contrasted with the Bush
Administration’s by attempting to couple the imposition of sanctions to U.S. negotiations with
Iran on the nuclear issue. However, with negotiations yielding no firm Iranian agreement to
compromise, since early 2010 the Administration and Congress have focused on achieving
adoption of and implementing additional U.S., U.N., and allied country sanctions whose
cumulative effect could compel Iran to accept a nuclear bargain.
U.N. and worldwide bilateral sanctions on Iran (the latest of which are imposed by Resolution
1929, adopted June 9, 2010) are a relatively recent (post-2006) development. U.S. sanctions, on
the other hand, have been a major feature of U.S. Iran policy since Iran’s 1979 Islamic revolution.
Many of the U.S. sanctions overlap each other as well as the U.N. sanctions now in place, and
national measures undertaken by European and some Asian countries. Some U.S. sanctions,
particularly the 1996 Iran Sanctions Act (ISA), caused differences of opinion between the United
States and its European allies because it mandates U.S. imposition of sanctions on foreign firms.
Successive Administrations have sought to ensure that U.S. sanctions do not hamper cooperation
with key international partners whose support is needed to isolate Iran.
Sanctions Targeting Foreign Participation in Iran’s
Energy Sector: The Iran Sanctions Act (ISA),
CISADA, and a November 2011 Executive Order
The Iran Sanctions Act (ISA) is one of many U.S. sanctions in place against Iran. It has attracted
substantial attention because it is an “extra-territorial sanction”—it authorizes U.S. penalties
against foreign firms, many of which are incorporated in countries that are U.S. allies. When it
was first enacted in 1996, Congress and the Clinton Administration saw ISA as a potential
mechanism to compel U.S. allies to join the United States in enacting trade sanctions against Iran.
American firms are separately restricted from trading with or investing in Iran under separate
U.S. executive orders, as discussed below. Its application has been further expanded by CISADA
(P.L. 111-195) as well as by Executive Order 13590, issued November 21, 2011.
Originally called the Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA), ISA was enacted to try to deny Iran
the resources to further its nuclear program and to support terrorist organizations such as
Hizbollah, Hamas, and Palestine Islamic Jihad. Iran’s petroleum sector generates about 20% of
Iran’s GDP (which is about $870 billion), 80% of its exports, and 70% of its government revenue.
Iran’s oil sector is as old as the petroleum industry itself (early 20th century), and Iran’s onshore
oil fields and oil industry infrastructure are far past peak production and in need of substantial
investment. Its large natural gas resources (940 trillion cubic feet, exceeded only by Russia) were
virtually undeveloped when ISA was first enacted. Iran has 136.3 billion barrels of proven oil
reserves, the third-largest after Saudi Arabia and Canada.
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Legislative History and Provisions
The opportunity for the United States to try to harm Iran’s energy sector came in November 1995,
when Iran opened the sector to foreign investment. To accommodate its insistence on retaining
control of its national resources, Iran used a “buy-back” investment program in which foreign
firms gradually recoup their investments as oil and gas is discovered and then produced. With
input from the Administration, on September 8, 1995, Senator Alfonse D’Amato introduced the
“Iran Foreign Oil Sanctions Act” to sanction foreign firms’ exports to Iran of energy technology.
A revised version instead sanctioning investment in Iran’s energy sector passed the Senate on
December 18, 1995 (voice vote). On December 20, 1995, the Senate passed a version applying
the provisions to Libya, which was refusing to yield for trial the two intelligence agents suspected
in the December 21, 1988, bombing of Pan Am 103. The House passed H.R. 3107, on June 19,
1996 (415-0), and then concurred on a Senate version adopted on July 16, 1996 (unanimous
consent). The Iran and Libya Sanctions Act was signed on August 5, 1996 (P.L. 104-172).
Key ”Triggers”
ISA consists of a number of “triggers” - transactions with Iran that would be considered
violations of ISA and could cause a firm or entity to be sanctioned under ISA’s provisions. When
triggered, ISA provides a number of different sanctions that the President could impose that
would harm a foreign firm’s business opportunities in the United States. ISA does not, and
probably could not practically, compel any foreign government to act against one of its firms.
Original Triggers
ISA primarily targets foreign firms, because American firms are already prohibited from investing
in Iran under the 1995 trade and investment ban discussed below. The original version of ISA
requires the President to sanction companies (entities, persons) that make an “investment”1 of
more than $20 million2 in one year in Iran’s energy sector.3 The definition of “investment” in ISA
(Section 14 (9)) includes not only equity and royalty arrangements (including additions to
existing investment, as added by P.L. 107-24) but any contract that includes “responsibility for
the development of petroleum resources” of Iran.
CISADA did not alter this trigger but it did amend the definition of investment to include
pipelines to or through Iran and contracts to lead the construction, upgrading, or expansions of
energy projects. CISADA also eliminated the wording in the original version of ISA that
1 As amended by CISADA (P.L. 111-195), these definitions include pipelines to or through Iran, as well as contracts to
lead the construction, upgrading, or expansions of energy projects. CISADA also changes the definition of investment
to eliminate the exemption from sanctions for sales of energy-related equipment to Iran, if such sales are structured as
investments or ongoing profit-earning ventures.
2 Under Section 4(d) of the original act, for Iran, the threshold dropped to $20 million, from $40 million, one year after
enactment, when U.S. allies did not join a multilateral sanctions regime against Iran. However, P.L. 111-195 explicit
sets the threshold investment level at $20 million. For Libya, the threshold was $40 million, and sanctionable activity
included export to Libya of technology banned by Pan Am 103-related Security Council Resolutions 748 (March 31,
1992) and 883 (November 11, 1993).
3 The definition of energy sector had included oil and natural gas, but now, as a consequence of the enactment of P.L.
111-195, also includes liquefied natural gas (LNG), oil or LNG tankers, and products to make or transport pipelines
that transport oil or LNG.
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specifically exempts from sanctions sales of energy-related equipment to Iran. However, to be
sanctionable, such sales would need to be structured as investments or ongoing profit-earning
ventures rather than simple sales transactions.
The Iran Freedom Support Act (P.L. 109-293) amended ISA to add a trigger: that sanctions should
be imposed on entities that sell to Iran weapons of mass destruction (WMD) technology or
“destabilizing numbers and types” of advanced conventional weapons.
CISADA: Amended ISA by Adding a Trigger—Sales to Iran of Gasoline and
Related Equipment and Services
ISA, as initially constituted, did not address Iran’s gasoline dependency because sales to Iran of
gasoline were not sanctionable under ISA. Nor did the original version sanction the selling to Iran
of equipment with which it can build or expand its refineries using its own construction
capabilities.4 Nor did ISA clearly apply to Iranian investments in oil refineries in several other
countries, such as Iranian investment to help build five oil refineries in Asia (China, Indonesia,
Malaysia, and Singapore) and in Syria, reported in June 2007, would have constituted
“investment” under ISA.
Many in Congress argued that ISA should be applied to gasoline sales to Iran because Iran is
dependent on gasoline imports to meet about 40% of its gasoline needs and there were a limited
group of major gasoline suppliers to Iran. Others, however, believed the Iranian government
would have numerous ways to circumvent its effects, including rationing, reducing gasoline
subsidies in an effort to reduce gasoline consumption; or offering premium prices to obscure
gasoline suppliers. The effect on Iran’s supplies are discussed later in this report.
Main CISADA Provision on Gasoline. CISADA’s main provision was to amend ISA by making
sanctionable:
• Sales to Iran of over $1 million worth (or $5 million in a one year period) of
gasoline and related aviation and other fuels. (Fuel oil, a petroleum by-product
which is reportedly being sold to Iran by exporters in the Kurdish region of Iraq,
is not included in the definition of refined petroleum.)
• Sales to Iran of equipment or services which would help Iran make or import
gasoline. Such sales would include equipment and services that Iran can use to
construct or maintain its oil refineries.
In terms of legislative history, the ideas that became the core of CISADA were introduced as
legislation in the 110th and 111th Congresses. In the 110th Congress, H.R. 2880 would have made
sales to Iran of refined petroleum resources a violation of ISA.
In the 111th Congress, a House bill (Iran Refined Petroleum Sanctions Act) containing the
provisions above sanctioning gasoline related sales to Iran, H.R. 2194, was passed by the House
on December 15, 2009, by a vote of 412-12, with four others voting “present” and six others not
4 Taking responsibility for constructing oil refineries or petrochemical plants in Iran did constitute sanctionable projects
under the original version of ISA because ISA’s definition of investment includes “responsibility for the development
of petroleum resources located in Iran.” Table 5 provides some information on openly announced contracts to upgrade
or refurbish Iranian oil refineries.
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voting. A bill in the Senate, the “Dodd-Shelby Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and
Divestment Act,” (S. 2799), was reported to the full Senate by the Senate Banking Committee on
November 19, 2009, and passed the Senate, by voice vote, on January 28, 2010. It was adopted
by the Senate under unanimous consent as a substitute amendment to H.R. 2194 on March 11,
2010, setting up conference action on the two versions of H.R. 2194. The Senate bill added to the
House bill provisions affecting U.S.-Iran trade and other issues. As shown in Table 2, the final
version contained many of the extensive provisions of the Senate version, and some of the efforts
to compel sanctions represented in the House version. The President signed the final version on
July 1, 2010 (P.L. 111-195).
Earlier in the 111th Congress, a few initiatives to sanction sales of gasoline to Iran were adopted
prior to CSIDA. Using U.S. funds to fill the Strategic Petroleum Reserve with products from
firms that sell over $1 million worth of gasoline to Iran is prevented by the FY2010 Energy and
Water Appropriation (H.R. 3183, P.L. 111-85, signed October 28, 2009). A provision of the
FY2010 consolidated appropriation (P.L. 111-117) would deny Ex-Im Bank credits to any firm
that sells gasoline to Iran, provides equipment to Iran that it can use to expand its oil refinery
capabilities, or performs gasoline production projects in Iran. These initiatives did deter some
gasoline sales to Iran, including a decision in December 2008 by Reliance Industries Ltd. of India
to at least temporarily cease new sales of refined gasoline to Iran (December 31, 2008). That
decision came after several Members of Congress urged the Ex-Im Bank of the United States to
suspend assistance to Reliance, on the grounds that it was assisting Iran’s economy with the gas
sales. The Ex-Im Bank, in August 2008, had extended a total of $900 million in financing
guarantees to Reliance to help it expand.
Additional Triggers Added by Executive Order 13590 of November 21, 2011:
Application of ISA to Sales of Energy Sector (Including Petrochemical)
Equipment and Services
In the wake of a November 8, 2011, IAEA report indicating Iran might have worked on nuclear
explosive technology, the Administration issued an Executive Order, under the International
Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), expanding the authorities of the Iran Sanctions Act to
direct the Secretary of State to impose at least one (1) of the available ISA sanctions on foreign
firms that:
• Provide to Iran $1 million or more (or $5 million in a one year period) worth of
goods or services that Iran could use to maintain or enhance its oil and gas sector.
This would appear to make sanctionable the activity of global oil services firms
in Iran, or the provision to Iran of gear typically used in the oil industry such as
drills, pumps, vacuums, oil rigs, and the like.
• Provide to Iran $250,000 (or $1 million in a one year period) worth of goods or
services that Iran could use to maintain or expand its production of petrochemical
products.
• Because these provisions were issued by Executive Order, the other legislative
provisions of ISA, such as the time frame to begin and complete investigations of
suspected violations, do not necessarily apply.
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Mandate and Time Frame to Investigate Violations
In the original version of ISA, there was no firm requirement, and no time limit, for the
Administration to investigate potential violations and determine that a firm has violated ISA’s
provisions. Some might argue that the CISADA amendments still do not set a binding
determination deadline, although the parameters are narrowed significantly.
In restricting the Administration’s ability to choose not to act on information about potential
violations, CISADA, Section 102(g)(5), makes mandatory that the Administration begin an
investigation of potential ISA violations when there is “credible information” about a potential
violation. The same section of CISADA makes mandatory the 180-day time limit for a
determination of violation (with the exception that the mandatory investigations and time limit go
into effect one year after enactment (as of July 1, 2011), with respect to gasoline related sales to
Iran). Under Section 102(h)(5), the mandate to investigate gasoline related sales can be delayed
an additional 180 days if an Administration report, submitted to Congress by June 1, 2011, asserts
that its policies have produced a significant result in sales of gasoline to Iran. No such report was
submitted. However, there is still lack of precision and potential differences of opinion over what
constitutes “credible information” that an investment or sanctionable sale has been undertaken.
Earlier, P.L. 109-293, the “Iran Freedom Support Act” (signed September 30, 2006) amended ISA
by calling for, but not requiring, a 180-day time limit for a violation determination (there is no
time limit in the original law).5 Early versions of legislation (H.R. 282, S. 333) that ultimately
became the Iran Freedom Support Act (P.L. 109-293) contained ISA amendment proposals that
were viewed by the Bush Administration as too inflexible and restrictive, and potentially harmful
to U.S. relations with its allies. These provisions included setting a mandatory 90-day time limit
for the Administration to determine whether an investment is a violation; cutting U.S. foreign
assistance to countries whose companies violate ISA; and applying the U.S.-Iran trade ban to
foreign subsidiaries of U.S. firms.
Available Sanctions Under ISA
Once a firm is determined to be a violator, the original version of ISA required the imposition of
two of a menu of six sanctions on that firm. CISADA added three new possible sanctions and
requires the imposition of at least three out of the nine against violators. Executive Order 13590,
discussed above, provides for exactly the same penalties as those in ISA. The nine available
sanctions against the sanctioned entity that the Secretary of State or of Treasury can select from
(Section 6) include:
1. denial of Export-Import Bank loans, credits, or credit guarantees for U.S. exports
to the sanctioned entity;
2. denial of licenses for the U.S. export of military or militarily useful technology to
the entity;
3. denial of U.S. bank loans exceeding $10 million in one year to the entity;
5 Other ISA amendments under that law included recommending against U.S. nuclear agreements with countries that
supply nuclear technology to Iran and expanding provisions of the USA Patriot Act (P.L. 107-56) to curb money-
laundering for use to further WMD programs.
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4. if the entity is a financial institution, a prohibition on its service as a primary
dealer in U.S. government bonds; and/or a prohibition on its serving as a
repository for U.S. government funds (each counts as one sanction);
5. prohibition on U.S. government procurement from the entity;
6. prohibitions in transactions in foreign exchange by the entity;
7. prohibition on any credit or payments between the entity and any U.S. financial
institution;
8. prohibition of the sanctioned entity from acquiring, holding, using, or trading any
U.S.-based property which the sanctioned entity has a (financial) interest in; and
9. restriction on imports from the sanctioned entity, in accordance with the
International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA, 50 U.S.C. 1701).
New Mandatory ISA Sanction Imposed by CISADA: Prohibition on Contracts
With the U.S. Government
CISADA (Section 102(b)) added a provision to further incent foreign companies to comply with
ISA. It requires companies, as a condition of obtaining a U.S. government contract, to certify to
the relevant U.S. government agency, that the firm—and any companies it owns or controls—are
not violating ISA, as amended. A contract may be terminated—and further penalties imposed—if
it is determined that the company’s certification of compliance was false. CISADA requires a
revision of the Federal Acquisition Regulation (within 90 days of CISADA enactment on July 1,
2010) to reflect this requirement. This requirement has been imposed in regulations, as per an
interim rule issued on September 29, 2010. H.R. 6296, introduced September 29, 2010, in the
111th Congress, would have authorized state and local governments to ban such contracts.
This sanction is not specified as available to apply to any firm sanctioned under Executive Order
13590.
Waivers, Exemptions, and Termination Authority
The President has had the authority under ISA to waive sanctions if he certifies that doing so is
important to the U.S. national interest (Section 9(c)). CISADA (Section 102(c)), changed the 9(c)
ISA waiver standard to “necessary” to the national interest. Under the original version of ISA,
there was also waiver authority (Section 4(c)) if the parent country of the violating firm joined a
sanctions regime against Iran, but this waiver provision was changed by the Iran Freedom
Support Act (P.L. 109-293) to allow for a waiver determination based on U.S. vital national
security interests. The Section 4(c) waiver was altered by CISADA to provide for a six month
(extendable) waiver if doing so is vital to the national interest and if the parent country of the
violating entity is “closely cooperating” with U.S. efforts against Iran’s WMD and advanced
conventional weapons program. The criteria of “closely cooperating” are defined in the
conference report, with primary focus on implementing all U.N. sanctions against Iran. However,
it is not clear why an Administration would use a Section 4 waiver rather than a Section 9 waiver,
although it could be argued that using a Section 4 waiver would support U.S. diplomacy with the
parent country of the offending entity.
ISA (Section5(f)) also contains several exceptions such that the President is not required to
impose sanctions that prevent procurement of defense articles and services under existing
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contracts, in cases where a firm is the sole source supplier of a particular defense article or
service. The President also is not required to prevent procurement or importation of essential
spare parts or component parts.
In the 110th Congress, several bills not adopted contained provisions that would have further
amended ISA; H.R. 1400, which passed the House on September 25, 2007 (397-16), would have
removed the Administration’s ability to waive ISA sanctions under Section 9(c), national interest
grounds, although without imposing a time limit for a sanctions determination.
“Special Rule” Exempting Firms That End Their Business With Iran
CISADA (Section 102(g)(5) amended ISA to provide a means—a so-called “special rule”—for
firms to avoid any possibility of U.S. sanctions by pledging to verifiably end their business with
Iran and to forgo any sanctionable business with Iran in the future. Under the special rule, the
Administration is not required to make a determination of sanctionability against a firm that
makes such pledges. The special rule has been invoked on several occasions as discussed below.
Termination Requirements and Sunset Provisions
In its entirety, ISA application to Iran would terminate if Iran is determined by the Administration
to have ceased its efforts to acquire WMD; is removed from the U.S. list of state sponsors of
terrorism; and no longer “poses a significant threat” to U.S. national security and U.S. allies.6 The
amendments to ISA made by P.L. 111-195 would terminate if the first two criteria are met.
Even without such determinations, ISA was to sunset on August 5, 2001, in a climate of lessening
tensions with Iran (and Libya). During 1999 and 2000, the Clinton Administration had eased the
trade ban on Iran somewhat to try to engage the relatively moderate Iranian President Mohammad
Khatemi. However, some maintained that Iran would view its expiration as a concession, and
renewal legislation was enacted (P.L. 107-24, August 3, 2001). This law required an
Administration report on ISA’s effectiveness within 24 to 30 months of enactment; that report was
submitted to Congress in January 2004 and did not recommend that ISA be repealed. ISA was
scheduled to sunset on December 31, 2011 (as provided by P.L. 109-293). The sunset is now
December 31, 2016, as provided for in CISADA.
Interpretations and Implementation
The Obama Administration has, as of 2010, stepped up U.S. efforts to use ISA authorities to
discourage investment in Iran and to impose sanctions on companies that insist on continuing
their business with Iran. This is a contrast from the first 10-15 years after ISA’s passage, in which
successive Administrations hesitated to confront partner countries over its implementation.
Traditionally reticent to impose economic sanctions, the European Union opposed ISA, when it
was first enacted, as an extraterritorial application of U.S. law. It threatened to file a formal
complaint before the World Trade Organization (WTO). In April 1997, the United States and the
6 This latter termination requirement added by P.L. 109-293. This law also removed Libya from the act, although
application to Libya effectively terminated when the President determined on April 23, 2004, that Libya had fulfilled
the requirements of all U.N. resolutions on Pan Am 103.
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EU agreed to avoid a trade confrontation over ISA and a separate Cuba sanctions law (P.L. 104-
114). The agreement involved the promise by the EU not to file any complaint with the WTO
over this issue, in exchange for the eventual May 18, 1998, announcement by the Clinton
Administration to waive ISA sanctions (“national interest”—Section 9c—waiver) on the first
project determined to be in violation. That project was a $2 billion7 contract, signed in September
1997, for Total SA of France and its partners, Gazprom of Russia and Petronas of Malaysia, to
develop phases 2 and 3 of the 25+ phase South Pars gas field. The EU, for its part, pledged to
increase cooperation with the United States on nonproliferation and counterterrorism. Then-
Secretary of State Albright, in the May 18, 1998, waiver announcement, indicated that similar
future such projects by EU firms in Iran would not be sanctioned, provided overall EU
cooperation against Iranian terrorism and proliferation continued.8 (The EU sanctions against
Iran, announced July 27, 2010, might render this understanding moot because the EU sanctions
ban EU investment in and supplies of equipment and services to Iran’s energy sector.) Despite
investments made in Iran’s energy sector, as shown in Table 5, the Administration made no
violations determinations from 1998 until September 2010.
ISA Sanctions Determinations: September 2010 to the Present9
Prior to the passage of CISADA, several Members of Congress questioned why no penalties had
been imposed for violations of ISA. State Department reports to Congress on ISA, required every
six months, have routinely stated that U.S. diplomats raise U.S. policy concerns about Iran with
investing companies and their parent countries. However, these reports have not specifically
stated which foreign companies, if any, were being investigated for ISA violations. No
publication of such deals has been placed in the Federal Register, as required by Section 5e of
ISA. In an effort to address the congressional criticism, Under Secretary of State for Political
Affairs William Burns testified on July 9, 2008 (House Foreign Affairs Committee), that the
Statoil project (listed in Table 6) was under review for ISA sanctions. Statoil is incorporated in
Norway, which is not an EU member, and it would therefore not fall under the 1998 U.S.-EU
agreement discussed above.
Possibly in response to the pending CISADA legislation, and to an October 2009 letter signed by
50 Members of Congress referencing Table 5, Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern
Affairs Jeffrey Feltman testified before the House Foreign Affairs Committee on October 28,
2009, that the Obama Administration would review investments in Iran for violations of ISA.
Feltman testified that the preliminary review would be completed within 45 days (by December
11, 2009) to determine which projects, if any, require further investigation. He testified that some
announced projects were for political purposes and did not result in actual investment.
On February 25, 2010, Secretary of State Clinton testified before the House Foreign Affairs
Committee that the State Department’s preliminary review was completed in early February and
that some of the cases reviewed “deserve[] more consideration” and were undergoing additional
scrutiny. The preliminary review, according to the testimony, was conducted, in part, through
7 Dollar figures for investments in Iran represent public estimates of the amounts investing firms are expected to spend
over the life of a project, which might in some cases be several decades.
8 Text of announcement of waiver decision by then Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, containing expectation of
similar waivers in the future. http://www.parstimes.com/law/albright_southpars.html.
9 Much of this section is derived from a meeting between the CRS author and officials of the State Department’s
Economics Bureau, which is tasked with the referenced review of investment projects. November 24, 2009.
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State Department officials’ contacts with their counterpart officials abroad and corporation
officials. The additional investigations of problematic investments would involve the intelligence
community, according to Secretary Clinton. State Department officials told CRS in November
2009 that they intended to complete the additional investigation and determine violations within
180 days of the completion of the preliminary review, or by early August 2010. (The 180-day
time frame was, according to the Department officials, consistent with the Iran Freedom Support
Act amendments to ISA discussed above, even though the 180-day time frame was not a
mandatory deadline before CISADA was adopted.) On June 22, 2010, then Assistant Secretary of
State William Burns testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee that there were “less
than 10” cases of possible ISA violations.
September 30, 2010, Sanctions Determinations
Several determinations of sanctionability were made on September 30, 2010. That day, a Swiss-
based Iranian-owned oil trading company—Naftiran Intertrade Company (NICO)—became the
first firm to be sanctioned under ISA. The three penalties selected were: a ban on Ex-Im Bank
credits; a denial of dual use export licensing to the firm; and a denial of bank loans exceeding $10
million. The mandatory ban on receiving U.S. government contracts applies as well.
That same day, following a months-long Administration review discussed later, four major energy
sector investing companies were deemed eligible to avoid sanctions, under the ISA “special rule,”
by pledging to end their business in Iran. They are
• Total of France,
• Statoil of Norway,
• ENI of Italy, and
• Royal Dutch Shell of Britain and the Netherlands.
• Inpex of Japan was exempted from sanctions under the special rule on November
17, 2010, according to a State Department announcement. The firm announced
on October 15, 2010, that it is shedding its stake in the Azadegan development
project shown in the table.
There remained some difference of opinion on the Administration invocation of the special rule,
as evident at a hearing of the House Foreign Affairs Committee on December 1, 2010. At the
hearing, then Under Secretary Burns stated that companies exempted under the special rule had
pledged to end their existing investments in Iran “in the very near future.” Some Members of
Congress questioned the imprecision of that time frame and others question the process for
determining whether a firm is adhering to its pledge to pursue no future business in Iran’s energy
sector. The energy firms insisted they needed time to wind down their investments in Iran—under
the buy-back program used for investments in Iran, the energy firms are paid back their
investment over time, making it highly costly for them to suddenly end operations in Iran.
March 29, 2011, Sanctions Determination Against Belarusneft
As shown in Table 5, several additional foreign investment agreements have been agreed with
Iran not covered in the September 2010 determination. Some of these firms remained under
Administration scrutiny, and the Administration stated that determinations will be made within
180 days (by April 1, 2011). On March 29, 2011, with that deadline approaching, the State
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Department announced that one additional firm would be sanctioned under ISA—Belarusneft, a
subsidiary of the Belarus government owned Belneftekhim—for a $500 million contract with
Naftiran (the company sanctioned in September 2010) to develop the Jofeir oil field discussed in
Table 5. Other subsidiaries of Belneftekhim were sanctioned in 2007 under Executive Order
13405 related to U.S. policy on Belarus. The three ISA sanctions imposed on March 29, 2011,
were denial of Exim Bank financing, denial of U.S. export licenses, and denial of U.S. loans
above $10 million.
The Administration announcement did not indicate that some of the other investments in Table 5
or other investments, for which no ISA determinations have been made to date, are still under
investigation. In public statements and letters to the Administration, some Members of Congress
have expressed concern that Chinese firms have not been sanctioned, indicating that the
Administration might be emphasizing some policy goals with respect to China at the expense of
implementing sanctions against Iran.
May 24, 2011, Sanctions Imposed on Gasoline-Related Exportation to Iran
On May 24, 2011, the Administration issued its first sanctions determinations under the CISADA-
amended “trigger” that requires sanctions against sales of gasoline and related equipment and
services. The reasons for the sanctions, including size of gasoline shipments to Iran, as well as the
ISA-related sanctions selected, can be found at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2011/05/
164132.htm. The seven firms sanctioned were:
• Petrochemical Commercial Company International (PCCI) of Bailiwick of Jersey
and Iran
• Royal Oyster Group (UAE)
• Tanker Pacific (Singapore)
• Allvale Maritime (subsidiary of Ofer Brothers Group, Israel)
• Societie Anonyme Monegasque Et Aerienne (SAMAMA, Monaco, subsidiary of
Ofer Brothers)
• Speedy Ship (UAE/Iran)
• Associated Shipbroking (Monaco)
• Petroleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) of Venezuela
The determinations of sanctionability of Allvale and SAMAMA were issued on September 13,
2011, as a “clarification” of the May 24 determinations, which named Ofer Brothers Group (and
not Allvale or SAMAMA) as sanctioned entities at that time. Ofer Brothers Group, the parent
company in Israel, is not therefore under sanction Many of the firms sanctioned on May 24, 2011,
including the two “clarified” as added on September 13, were subjected to the financial-related
sanctions provided in ISA. With respect to PDVSA, the Administration made clear in its
announcement that U.S.-based subsidiaries were not included in the determination and that U.S.
purchases of Venezuelan oil would not be affected. The day prior to the May 2011 sanctions
announcement, President Obama issued an executive order clarifying that it is the responsibility
of the Treasury Department to implement those ISA sanctions that involve the financial sector,
including bans on loans, credits, and foreign exchange for, or imports from the sanctioned entity,
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as well as blockage of property of the sanctioned entity (if these sanctions are selected by the
Secretary of State, who makes the decision which penalties to impose on sanctioned entities).
Non-Application to Crude Oil or Natural Gas Purchases from Iran or to
Official Credit Guarantee Agencies
Simple purchases of oil or natural gas from Iran are generally considered not to constitute
violations of ISA, because ISA sanctions investment in Iran’s energy sector and sales to Iran of
gasoline or gasoline-related services or equipment. Some of the deals listed in the chart later in
this report involve combinations of investment and purchase. However, as discussed later, many
experts are looking at trying to sanction such purchases of crude oil or natural gas as the optimal
means of pressuring Iran’s economy.
As noted above, ISA itself does not sanction sales to Iran of equipment that Iran could use to
explore or extract its own oil or gas resources, unless such sales are structured to provide ongoing
profits or royalties (and therefore meet the definition of investments as provided in ISA).10 For
example, selling Iran an oil or gas drill rig or motors or other gear that Iran will use to drill for oil
or gas would not appear to be sanctionable under ISA, unless the sale is structured to provide the
seller ongoing profits or royalties. However, this exception was made moot by Executive Order
13590, issued November 21, 2011, which does provide for sanctions against sales of such
equipment and services.
Official credit guarantee agencies are not considered sanctionable entities under ISA. In the 110th
Congress, several bills—including S. 970, S. 3227, S. 3445, H.R. 957 (passed the House on July
31, 2007), and H.R. 7112 (which passed the House on September 26, 2008)—would have
expanded the definition of sanctionable entities to official credit guarantee agencies, such as
France’s COFACE and Germany’s Hermes, and to financial institutions and insurers generally.
Some versions of CISADA would have made these entities sanctionable but these provisions
were not included in the final law, probably out of concern for alienating U.S. allies in Europe.
10 Prior to CISADA, the definition of investment in ISA specifically exempted sales of equipment or services under that
definition. CISADA omitted that exclusion.
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Table 1. Major Energy Buyers From Iran (2010)
(amounts in millions of U.S. dollars;
includes mineral fuels, crude oil, natural gas, distillates, and the like)
South Africa
22,855
China 13,044
Japan 11,030
India 9,394
Turkey 6,642
South Korea
6,447
Italy 5,763
Spain 4,348
Netherlands 2,608
Taiwan 2,162
Singapore 2,152
Greece 1,520
France
1,036
Germany 788
Sri Lanka
645
Austria 370
Indonesia 370
Malaysia 332
United Kingdom
226
Australia 138
Portugal 133
Thailand 129
Morocco 121
Czech Republic
89
Brazil 60
Source: World Trade Atlas, adapted by Susan Chesser, Knowledge Services Group, CRS.
Application to Energy Pipelines
As noted earlier, ISA’s definition of sanctionable “investment,” which specifies investment in
Iran’s petroleum resources, defined as petroleum and natural gas, has been interpreted by
successive administrations to include construction of energy pipelines to or through Iran. That
interpretation was reinforced by amendments to ISA in CISADA, which specifically included in
the definition of petroleum resources “products used to construct or maintain pipelines used to
transport oil or liquefied natural gas.”
The Clinton and Bush Administrations used the threat of ISA sanctions to deter oil routes
involving Iran and thereby successfully promoted an alternate route from Azerbaijan (Baku) to
Turkey (Ceyhan). The route became operational in 2005.
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Only a few significant pipelines involving Iran have been constructed in recent years—a line built
in 1997 to carry natural gas from Iran to Turkey. Each country constructed the pipeline on its side
of their border. At the time the project was under construction, State Department testimony stated
that Turkey would be importing gas originating in Turkmenistan, not Iran, under a swap
arrangement. That was one reason given for why the State Department did not determine that the
project was sanctionable under ISA. However, many believe the decision not to sanction the
pipeline was because the line was viewed as crucial to Turkey, a key U.S. ally. That explanation
was reinforced when direct Iranian gas exports to Turkey through the line began in 2001, and no
determination of sanctionability has been made. In May 2009, Iran and Armenia inaugurated a
natural gas pipeline between the two, built by Gazprom of Russia. No determination of
sanctionability has been announced.
As shown in Table 5, in July 2007, a preliminary agreement was reached to build a second Iran-
Turkey pipeline, through which Iranian gas would also flow to Europe. That agreement was not
finalized during Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad’s visit to Turkey in August 2008
because of Turkish commercial concerns, but the deal reportedly remains under discussion. On
February 23, 2009, Iranian newspapers said Iran had formed a joint venture with a Turkish firm to
export 35 billion cubic meters of gas per year to Europe; 50% of the venture would be owned by
the National Iranian Gas Export Company (NIGEC).
Iran and Kuwait have held talks on the construction of a 350-mile pipeline that would bring
Iranian gas to Kuwait. The two sides have apparently reached agreement on volumes (8.5 million
cubic meters of gas would go to Kuwait each day) but not on price.11 There are also discussions
reported between Iran and Iraq on constructing pipelines to facilitate oil and gas swaps between
the two, but no firm movement on these projects is evident.
Iran-Pakistan- India Pipeline (IPI)
Another pending pipeline project would carry Iranian gas, by pipeline, to Pakistan. India had been
a part of the $7 billion project, which would take about three years to complete, but India it did
not sign a memorandum between Iran and Pakistan finalizing the deal on June 12, 2010. India
reportedly has been concerned about the security of the pipeline, the location at which the gas
would be officially transferred to India, pricing of the gas, tariffs, and the source in Iran of the gas
to be sold. Other steps taken by India since late 2010 to prevent some banking transactions with
Iran, discussed later, could suggest that India is now cautious about any expansion of energy
relations with Iran. Previously, the threat of imposition of U.S. sanctions had not dissuaded Indian
firms from taking equity stakes in various Iranian energy projects, as shown in Table 5.
During the Bush Administration, Secretary of State Rice on several occasions “expressed U.S.
concern” about the pipeline deal or called it “unacceptable.” Possibly contributing to India’s
hesitancy to move forward, the late Ambassador Richard Holbrooke, the Administration Special
Representative on Pakistan and Afghanistan, during 2010 trips to Pakistan, raised the possibility
that the project could be sanctioned if it is undertaken, citing enactment of CISADA.
Nonetheless, energy experts in Iran12 say Iran has largely completed the pipeline extension from
11 http://www.kuwaittimes.net/read_news.php?newsid=NDQ0OTY1NTU4; http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?
nn=8901181055.
12 For example, Bijan Kajehpour of Atieh Consulting. Presentation at CSIS, October 4, 2011.
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its network to the Pakistan border, meaning that the project could become operational if Pakistan
completes construction on its side of the border, and the two are linked.
India may envision an alternative to the pipeline project, as a means of tapping into Iran’s vast gas
resources. During high-level economic talks in early July 2010, Iranian and Indian officials
reportedly raised the issue of constructing an underwater natural gas pipeline, which would avoid
going through Pakistani territory. However, such a route would presumably be much more
expensive to construct than would be an overland route.
European Gas Pipeline Routes
Iran also is attempting to position itself as a gas exporter to Europe. The Obama Administration,
like its predecessors, takes the view that Iran be excluded from gas pipeline projects to Europe,
even though the projects might make Europe less dependent on Russian gas supplies. One
potential project involving Iran is the Nabucco pipeline project, which would transport Iranian
gas to western Europe. Iran, Turkey, and Austria reportedly have negotiated on that project.
Another is the Trans-Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) although, as discussed below, partners in that
project have announced that Iranian gas would not be involved. Iran’s Energy Minister Gholam-
Hossein Nozari said on April 2, 2009, that Iran is considering negotiating a gas export route—the
“Persian Pipeline”—that would send gas to Europe via Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean Sea.
Application to Iranian Firms or the Revolutionary Guard
Although ISA is widely understood to apply to firms around the world that reach an investment
agreement with Iran, the provisions could also be applied to Iranian firms and entities subordinate
to the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), which is supervised by the Oil Ministry. The firm
that was sanctioned, Naftiran Intertrade Company (NICO), is one such entity; it is a subsidiary of
NIOC. However, such entities, including Naftiran, do not do business in the United States and
would not likely be harmed by any of the penalties that could be imposed under ISA. Some of the
other major components of NIOC are
• The Iranian Offshore Oil Company;
• The National Iranian Gas Export Co.;
• National Iranian Tanker Company; and
• Petroleum Engineering and Development Co.
Actual construction and work is largely done through a series of contractors. Some of them, such
as Khatam ol-Anbia and Oriental Kish, have been identified by the U.S. government as controlled
by Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and have been sanctioned under various
executive orders, discussed below. The relationship of other Iranian contractors to the Guard, if
any, is unclear. Some of the Iranian contractor firms include Pasargad Oil Co, Zagros Petrochem.
Co, Sazeh Consultants, Qeshm Energy, Sadid Industrial Group, and others. Some believe the
August 2011 confirmation of Khatam ol-Anbia’s chief, Rostam Ghasemi, as Oil Minister, will,
over time, bolster the role of the IRGC in Iran’s oil sector. Ghasemi has also taken over the chair
of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) because it is Iran’s turn to hold
that rotating post. Ghasemi has been subjected to asset freezes by the United States and an asset
freeze and travel ban by the European Union. However, under an agreement between OPEC and
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Austria, Ghasemi would be allowed to travel to Vienna (OPEC’s headquarters) to attend OPEC
meetings and perform his duties as rotating head of the organization.
Application to Liquefied Natural Gas
The original version of ISA did not apply to the development of liquefied natural gas. Iran has no
LNG export terminals, in part because the technology for such terminals is patented by U.S. firms
and unavailable for sale to Iran. However, as noted below, CISADA specifically includes LNG in
the definition of petroleum resources and therefore makes investment in LNG (or supply of LNG
tankers or pipelines) sanctionable.
Table 2. Provisions and Implementation of CISADA (P.L. 111-195)
General Goals and Overview: Expand the authorities of the Iran Sanctions Act (ISA, P.L. 104-172) to deter sales
by foreign companies of gasoline to Iran. Adds new provisions sanctioning Iranians determined to be involved in
human rights abuses and prohibiting transactions with foreign banks that conduct business with Revolutionary Guard
and U.N.-sanctioned Iranian entities.
Statement of U.S. Policy on Sanctioning Iran’s Central Bank (Bank Markazi):
Section 104 (see below) contains sense of Congress urging U.S. sanctions against Iranian Central Bank and would
prohibit U.S. bank dealings with any financial institution that helps the Central Bank facilitate circumvention of U.N.
resolutions on Iran.
Extension of ISA to Sales of Gasoline:
Section 102(a) contains provisions amending ISA to make sanctionable sales of gasoline and provision of services and
equipment that Iran could use to manufacture its own gasoline or import gasoline. Such services include shipping or
shipping insurance, and equipment (such as ships).
Sets dollar value “trigger” for such sales or services at $1 million transaction, or $5 million aggregate value
(equipment or gasoline sales) in a one-year period.
Specifies that what is sanctionable includes helping Iran develop its liquefied natural gas (LNG) sector. Products whose
sales is sanctionable include LNG tankers and products to build pipelines used to transport oil or LNG. Includes
aviation fuel in definition of refined petroleum.
Formally reduces investment threshold to $20 million to trigger sanctionability.
Expansion of ISA Sanctions:
Section 102(b) amends ISA to add add three sanctions to the existing menu of six sanctions in ISA and requires the
President to impose 3 out of the 9 specified sanctions on entities determined to be violators.
(As it previously existed, ISA required the imposition of two out of six sanctions of the menu.)
U.S. Government Enforcement Mechanism:
Section 102(b) amends ISA by adding a provision similar to the House version: requiring, within 90 days of enactment
(by October 1, 2010) new Federal Acquisition Regulations that mandate that firms to certify that they are not in
violating of ISA as a condition of receiving a U.S. government contract, and providing for penalties for any falsification.
The Civilian Agency Acquisition Council issued the needed regulations (interim ruling) on September 29, 2010.
Paperwork that firms must sign making that certification now included as part of their contract signature package.
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Additional Sanctions Against Suppliers of Nuclear, Missile, or Advanced Conventional Weapons
Technology to Iran:
Section 102(a)(2) amends ISA by adding a prohibition on licensing of nuclear materials, facilities, or technology to any
country which is the parent country of an entity determined to be sanctioned under ISA for providing WMD
technology to Iran.
Waiver is provided on vital national security interest grounds.
Alterations to Waiver and Implementation Provisions:
Section 102(g) amends ISA to make mandatory the beginning of an investigation of potential y sanctionable activity
upon receipt of credible information of a potential violation. Makes mandatory a decision on sanctionability within 180
days of the beginning of such an investigation. (Previously, 180-day period was nonbinding.)
Mandatory investigation (which goes into effect July 1, 2011) of gasoline sales to Iran can be delayed for 180 days
subject to a report—by June 1, 2011—certifying that there has been a substantial reduction in gasoline sales to Iran as
a result of CISADA.
Section 102(c) sets 9(c) waiver standard as “necessary to the national interest”
Section 102(g) also alters existing 4(c) ISA waiver to delay sanctions on firms of countries that are “closely
cooperating” with U.S. efforts against Iran’s WMD programs. (This is not an automatic “carve out” for cooperating
countries.)
Section 102(g)(3) adds to ISA a “special rule” that no investigation of a potential violation need be started if a firm has
ended or pledged to end its violating activity in/with Iran.
“Special rule” invoked twice, as discussed above.
Required Reports:
Various reporting requirements throughout (separate from those required to trigger or justify the various sanctions
or waivers). These reporting requirements are:
- Amendment of section 10 of ISA to include a report, within 90 days of enactment, and annual thereafter, on trade
between Iran and the countries of the Group of 20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors. (From House
version)
- Section 110 of the law (not an amendment to ISA) requires a report within 90 days, and every 180 days hence, on
investments made in Iran’s energy sector since January 1, 2006. The report must include significant joint ventures
outside Iran in which Iranian entities are involved.
- The Section 110 report is to include an estimate of the value of ethanol imported by Iran during the reporting
period.
Not clear whether Section 110 reports have been submitted to Congress.
- Section 111 (not an ISA amendment) requires a report within 90 days on the activities of export credit agencies of
foreign countries in guaranteeing financing for trade with Iran).
Not clear whether report was submitted to Congress.
Expansion of ISA Definitions:
Does not include export credit agencies as a sanctionable entity under ISA (as amended). (However, a report is
required on export credit agency activity, as discussed above.)
Does include LNG as petroleum resources.
As discussed in text, eliminates specific exemption of application of ISA sanctions energy sector equipment and
services. This change largely mooted by November 2011 Executive Order, discussed above, which specifically
sanctions sales to Iran of such equipment.
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Termination Provisions:
The amendments to ISA in this law terminate if the President certifies that Iran has ceased WMD development, and
has qualified for removal from the U.S. terrorism list.
However, the pre-existing version of ISA would continue to apply until the President also certifies that Iran poses no
significant threat to U.S. national security, interests, or allies.
ISA Sunset:
Extends ISA sunset to December 31, 2016.
It was previously scheduled to “sunset” on December 31, 2011, as amended by the Iran Freedom Support Act (P.L.
109-293).
Additional Provisions That Are Not Amendments to ISA
Modification to U.S. Ban on Trade With and Investment in Iran:
Bans all imports of Iranian origin from the United States, with the exception of informational material. Previously,
modifications to the U.S. trade ban with Iran (Executive Order 12959 of May 6, 1995) that became effective in 2000
permit imports of Iranian luxury goods, such as carpets, caviar, nuts, and dried fruits.
- Reiterates/codifies prior provisions of U.S. trade ban related to U.S. exports to Iran., which prohibit exports to Iran
of all goods except food and medical devices, informational material, articles used for humanitarian assistance to Iran,
or goods needed to ensure safe operation of civilian aircraft.
Contains a new section that the existing U.S. ban (by executive order) on most exports to Iran not include the
exportation of services for Internet communications.
Provision also states that the ban on most exports should not include goods or services needed to help non-
governmental organizations support democracy in Iran.
Both provisions designed to support opposition protesters linked to Iran’s “Green movement.”
Implementation: In July 2010, Treasury Office of Foreign Assets Control issued a statement that, effective
September 29, 2010, the general license for imports of Iranian luxury goods will be eliminated (no such imports
allowed). This went into effect that day.
Freezing of Assets/Travel Restriction on Revolutionary Guard and Related Entities and Persons:
Mandates the President to freeze the assets of Iranian diplomats, IRGC, or other Iranian official personnel deemed a
threat to U.S. national security under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (50 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.).
Provision requires freezing of assets of families and associates of persons so designated. Also calls for a ban on travel
of IRGC and affiliated persons.
Application of U.S. Trade Ban to Subsidiaries:
No provision
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Mandatory Sanctions on Financial Institutions that Help Iran’s Sanctioned Entities:
Section 104(c) requires the Treasury Department to develop regulations (within 90 days of enactment) to prohibit
and specify penalties for any U.S. financial transactions with any foreign financial institution that
- facilitates efforts by the Revolutionary Guard to acquire WMD or fund terrorism
- facilitate the activities of any person sanctioned under U.N. resolutions on Iran.
- facilitates the efforts by Iran’s Central Bank to support the Guard’s WMD acquisition efforts or support any U.N.-
sanctioned entity
Section 104(d) requires penalties to be specified in regulations within 90 days.
Section 104(e) requires regulations (no date specified) to make this requirement retroactive to existing accounts,
pending an audit by the U.S. banks involved.
Implementation: Treasury Department regulations implementing Section 104(c) and (d) provisions issued August
16, 2010. Regulations to implement 104(e) finalized in October 2011, based on proposals by Treasury Department’s
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FINCEN).
Sanctions on Iranian Human Rights Abusers:
Section 105 requires, within 90 days, a report listing Iranian officials (or affiliates) determined responsible for or
complicit in serious human rights abuses since the June 12, 2009, Iranian election. Those listed are ineligible for a U.S.
visa, their U.S, property is to be blocked, and transactions with those listed are prohibited.
On September 29, 2010, President Obama issued Executive Order 13553 providing for these sanctions. See human
rights section of this paper for Iranians sanctioned.
Sanctioning Certain Information Technology Sales to Iran:
Section 106 prohibits U.S. executive agencies from contracting with firms that export sensitive technology to Iran.
“Sensitive technology” is defined as hardware, software, telecommunications equipment, or other technology that
restricts the free flow of information in Iran or which monitor or restrict “speech” of the people of Iran.
The contracting restriction is to be imposed “pursuant to such regulations as the President may prescribe.”
The contracting regulations issued September 29, 2010, “partial y” implement this requirement, with further
regulations to be issued.
Treasury Department Authorization to prevent misuse of the U.S. financial system by Iran or other
countries:
Section 109 authorized $102 million for FY2011 and “sums as may be necessary” for FY2012 and 2013 to the
Treasury Department Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence. Another $100 million was authorized for FY2011
for the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, and $113 million for FY2011 for the Bureau of Industry and Security
for the Department of Commerce
Hezbollah:
Section 113 contains a sense of Congress that the President impose the full range of sanctions under the International
Emergency Economic Powers Act (50 U.S.C. 1701) on Hezbol ah, and that the President renew international efforts
to disarm Hezbol ah in Lebanon (as cal ed for by U.N. Security Council Resolutions 1559 and 1701).
Divestment:
Title II prevents criminal, civil, or administrative action against any investment firm or officer or adviser based on its
decision to divest from securities that
- have investments or operations in Sudan described in the Sudan Accountability and Divestment Act of 2007
- or, engage in investments in Iran that would be considered sanctionable by the Senate bill.
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Prevention of Transshipment, Reexportation, or Diversion of Sensitive Items to Iran:
Requires a report by the Director of National Intelligence that identifies all countries considered a concern to allow
transshipment or diversion of WMD-related technology to Iran (technical y: “items subject to the provision of the
Export Administration Regulations”).
Section 303 requires the Secretary of Commerce to designate a country as a “Destination of Possible Diversion
Concern” if such country is considered to have inadequate export controls or is unwilling to prevent the diversion of
U.S. technology to Iran.
Designation would set up a strict licensing requirement for U.S. exports of sensitive technologies to that country.
List of countries that are believed to be al owing diversion of specified goods or technology to Iran to be named in a
report provided within 180 days of enactment.
Implementation: Not clear that the required report has been submitted.
Ban on U.S. Trade and Investment With Iran
A ban on U.S. trade with and investment in Iran was imposed on May 6, 1995, by President
Clinton, through Executive Order 12959.13 This followed an earlier March 1995 executive order
barring U.S. investment in Iran’s energy sector. The trade and investment ban was intended to
blunt criticism that U.S. trade with Iran made U.S. appeals for multilateral containment of Iran
less credible. Each March since 1995 (and most recently on March 10, 2010), the U.S.
Administration has renewed a declaration of a state of emergency that triggered the investment
ban; it is likely to be renewed again in March 2011. The operation of the trade regulations is
stipulated in Section 560 of the Code of Federal Regulations (Iranian Transactions Regulations,
ITR’s). As noted above, in accordance with CISADA, the strict ban on imports from Iran was
restored on September 29, 2010; the ban on exports to Iran was altered only slightly by CISADA.
Some modifications to the trade ban since 1999 account for the fact that trade between the United
States and Iran is minimal. Total U.S.-Iran trade was about $300 million in 2010 ($208 million in
exports to Iran, and $94 million in imports). Trade was about $350 million worth of goods for all
of 2009 ($281 million in exports to Iran, and $67 million in imports from Iran). That is about half
the value of the bilateral trade in 2008.
The following conditions and modifications, as administered by the Office of Foreign Assets
Control (OFAC) of the Treasury Department, apply to the operation of the trade ban:
• Some goods related to the safe operation of civilian aircraft may be licensed for
export to Iran (Section 560.528 of Title 31, C.F.R.). As recently as September
2006, the George W. Bush Administration, in the interests of safe operations of
civilian aircraft, permitted a sale by General Electric of Airbus engine spare parts
13 The executive order was issued under the authority of: The International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA,
50 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.; the National Emergencies Act (50 U.S.C. 1601 et seq.; Section 505 of the International Security
and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (22 U.S.C. 2349aa-9) and Section 301 of Title 3, United States Code. An
August 1997 amendment to the trade ban (Executive Order 13059) prevented U.S. companies from knowingly
exporting goods to a third country for incorporation into products destined for Iran.
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to be installed on several Iran Air passenger aircraft (by European airline
contractors). (A provision of H.R. 6296, a bill introduced in the 111th Congress,
sought to prevent these sales to Iran.) An Administration intent to sell Iran data to
repair certain GE engines for its legacy American-made aircraft, in order to
ensure safe operation, was notified to Congress on March 16, 2011. On June 23,
2011, the Administration sanctioned Iran Air as a proliferation entity under
Executive order 13382, rendering any future licensing of parts or repairs for Iran
Air unclear.
• U.S. firms may not negotiate with Iran or to trade Iranian oil overseas, but U.S.
companies may apply for licenses to conduct “swaps” of Caspian Sea oil with
Iran. A Mobil Corporation application to do so was denied in April 1999, and no
known applications were submitted subsequent to that first attempt.
• According to the Iranian Transactions Regulations (ITR’s), the ban does not
apply to personal communications (phone calls, e-mails), or to humanitarian
donations. U.S. non-governmental organizations (NGOs) require a specific
license to operate in Iran, but some of these NGOs say the licensing requirements
are too onerous to make work in Iran practical. For example, there are restrictions
on how a U.S. NGO may expend funds in Iran, for example to hire Iranian
nationals.
• Since April 1999, commercial sales of food and medical products to Iran have
been allowed, on a case-by-case basis and subject to OFAC licensing. According
to OFAC in April 2007, licenses for exports of medicines to treat HIV and
leukemia are routinely expedited for sale to Iran, and license applications are
viewed favorably for business school exchanges, earthquake safety seminars,
plant and animal conservation, and medical training in Iran.
• OFAC generally declines to discuss export licenses approved, and a press
account on December 24, 2010,14 paints a picture of broad export approvals to
Iran of such condiments as ice cream sprinkles, chewing gum, food additives, hot
sauces, body-building supplements, and other goods that appear to have uses
other than those that are purely humanitarian or nutritive. U.S. exporters widely
mentioned include Mars Co. (candy manufacturer); Kraft Foods; Wrigley’s
(gum); and McCormick and Co. (spices). Some goods were sold through a
Revolutionary Guard-owned chains of stores in Iran called Qods; as well as a
government owned Shahrvand store and a chain called Refah. OFAC officials
indicated in the press accounts that such licenses were not in contradiction with
U.S. law or policy, although there might have been less than full scrutiny of some
Iranian end users and that such scrutiny might be increased in future licensing
decisions.
• As far as financing of approved U.S. sales to Iran, private letters of credit can be
used to finance approved transactions, but no U.S. government credit guarantees
are available, and U.S. exporters are not permitted to deal directly with Iranian
banks. The FY2001 agriculture appropriations law (P.L. 106-387) contained a
provision banning the use of official credit guarantees for food and medical sales
14 The information in this bullet is taken from: Becker, Jo. “With U.S. Leave, Companies Skirt Iran Sanctions.” New
York Times, December 24, 2010.
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to Iran and other countries on the U.S. terrorism list, except Cuba, although
allowing for a presidential waiver to permit such credit guarantees. No U.S.
Administration has authorized credit guarantees, to date. In December 2004, the
trade ban was further modified to allow Americans to freely engage in ordinary
publishing activities with entities in Iran (and Cuba and Sudan).
• In April 2000, the trade ban was further eased to allow U.S. importation of
Iranian nuts, dried fruits, carpets, and caviar. Financing was permitted for U.S.
importers of these goods. The United States was the largest market for Iranian
carpets before the 1979 revolution, but U.S. anti-dumping tariffs imposed on
Iranian products in 1986 dampened of many Iranian products. As discussed
above, CISADA ended approval of such imports as of October 1, 2010. Prior to
the entry into force of this CISADA provision, the number one U.S. import from
Iran was pomegranate juice concentrate. Iranian carpets were another popular
import, despite a U.S. tariff of about 3%-6%. Imports of Iranian caviar carried a
duty of about 15%.
Non-Application to Foreign Refined Oil With Iranian Content
The ban on trade with Iran operates largely on items produced in and originating from Iran itself.
In the case of crude oil, the United States, as noted, cannot import or trade overseas any Iranian
crude oil.
However, existing regulations do not ban the importation, from foreign refiners, of gasoline or
other energy products in which Iranian oil is contained and mixed with oil from other producers.
The rationale for the regulation is that the product of a specific refinery is considered a product of
the country where that refinery is located, and not a product of Iran, even if the product has some
Iran-origin content. Some experts say that it is feasible to exclude Iranian content from any
refinery, if there were a decision to ban U.S. imports of products with any Iranian content at all.
Non-Application to Foreign Subsidiaries of U.S. Firms
The U.S. trade ban does not bar subsidiaries of U.S. firms from dealing with Iran, as long as the
subsidiary has no operational relationship to the parent company. For legal and policy purposes,
foreign subsidiaries are considered foreign persons, not U.S. persons, and are subject to the laws
of the country in which the subsidiaries are incorporated. The March 7, 2010, New York Times
article, cited above, discusses some subsidiaries of U.S. firms that have been active in Iran and
which have also received U.S. government contracts, grants, loans, or loan guarantees. Among
major foreign subsidiaries of U.S. firms that have traded with Iran are the following:
• U.S. energy equipment firms. Some subsidiaries of such firms may still be in the
Iranian market, according to their “10-K” filings with the Securities and
Exchange Commission. These include Natco Group,15 Overseas Shipholding
Group,16 UOP (United Oil Products, a Honeywell subsidiary based in Britain),17
15 Form 10-K Filed for fiscal year ended December 31, 2008.
16 Prada, Paulo, and Betsy McKay. Trading Outcry Intensifies. Wall Street Journal, March 27, 2007; Brush, Michael.
Are You Investing in Terrorism? MSN Money, July 9, 2007.
17 New York Times, March 7, 2010, cited previously.
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Itron18, Fluor,19 Flowserve,20 Parker Drilling, Vantage Energy Services,21
Weatherford,22 and a few others. UOP reportedly sells refinery gear to Iran; new
sales of which may be sanctionable under ISA, as amended by CISADA. In
September 2011, the Commerce Department fined Flowserve $2.5 million to
settle 288 charges of unlicensed exports and re-exports of oil industry equipment
to Iran, Syria, and other countries.
• An Irish subsidiary of the Coca Cola company provides syrup for the U.S.-brand
soft drink to an Iranian distributor, Khoshgovar. Local versions of both Coke and
of Pepsi (with Iranian-made syrups) are also marketed in Iran by distributors who
licensed the recipes for those soft drinks before the Islamic revolution and before
the trade ban was imposed on Iran.
• Transammonia Corp., via a Swiss-based subsidiary, is said to be conducting
business with Iran to help it export ammonia, a growth export for Iran.
• Press reports in early October 2011 indicated that subsidiaries of Kansas-based
Koch Industries may have sold equipment to Iran to be used in petrochemical
plants (making methanol) and possibly oil refineries, among other equipment.
However, the reports say the sales ended as of 2007, a time at which foreign firm
sales of refinery equipment to Iran were not clearly sanctionable under ISA. 23
Subsidiaries Exiting Iran
As international sanctions against Iran have increased in recent years, many foreign subsidiaries
have decided that the risks of continuing to do business with Iran outweigh the benefits. These
decisions to leave the Iran market might have been reached in discussions with their U.S. parent
corporations.
• Chemical manufacturer Huntsman announced in January 2010 its subsidiaries
would halt sales to Iran.
• Halliburton. On January 11, 2005, Iran said it had contracted with U.S. company
Halliburton, and an Iranian company, Oriental Kish, to drill for gas in Phases 9
and 10 of South Pars. Halliburton reportedly provided $30 million to $35 million
worth of services per year through Oriental Kish, leaving unclear whether
Halliburton would be considered in violation of the U.S. trade and investment
ban or the Iran Sanctions Act (ISA),24 because the deals involved a subsidiary of
18 Subsidiaries of the Registrant at December 31, 2009. http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/780571/
000078057110000007/ex_21-1.htm.
19 “Exhibit to 10-K Filed February 25, 2009.” Officials of Fluor claim that their only dealings with Iran involve
property in Iran owned by a Fluor subsidiary, which the subsidiary has been unable to dispose of. CRS conversation
with Fluor, December 2009.
20 Form 10-K for Fiscal year ended December 31, 2009.
21 Form 10-K for Fiscal year ended December 31, 2007.
22 Form 10-K for Fiscal year ended December 31, 2008, claims firm directed its subsidiaries to cease new business in
Iran and Cuba, Syria, and Sudan as of September 2007.
23 Asjylyn Loder and David Evans. “Koch Brothers Flout Law Getting Richer With Iran Sales.” Bloomberg News,
October 3, 2011.
24 “Iran Says Halliburton Won Drilling Contract.” Washington Times, January 11, 2005.
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Halliburton (Cayman Islands-registered Halliburton Products and Service, Ltd.,
based in Dubai). On April 10, 2007, Halliburton announced that its subsidiaries
were no longer operating in Iran, as promised in January 2005.
• General Electric (GE). The firm announced in February 2005 that it would seek
no new business in Iran, and it reportedly wound down preexisting contracts by
July 2008. GE was selling Iran equipment and services for hydroelectric, oil and
gas services, and medical diagnostic projects through Italian, Canadian, and
French subsidiaries.
• Oilfield services firm Smith International said on March 1, 2010, it would stop
sales to Iran by its subsidiaries.
• On March 1, 2010, Caterpillar Corp. said it had altered its policies to prevent
foreign subsidiaries from selling equipment to independent dealers that have been
reselling the equipment to Iran.25 Ingersoll Rand, maker of air compressors and
cooling systems, followed suit.26
• In April 2010, it was reported that foreign partners of several U.S. or other
multinational accounting firms had cut their ties with Iran, including KPMG of
the Netherlands, and local affiliates of U.S. firms PricewaterhouseCoopers and
Ernst and Young.27
In the 110th Congress, S. 970, S. 3227, S. 3445, and three House-passed bills (H.R. 1400, H.R.
7112, and H.R. 957) - would have applied sanctions to the parent companies of U.S. subsidiaries
if those subsidiaries are directed by the parent company to trade with Iran. The Senate version of
CISADA contained a similar provision, but it was taken out in conference action. A provision of
H.R. 6296, the bill introduced in the 111th Congress, would apply this sanction. Provisions in the
112th Congress are discussed at the section below on pending legislation.
Banking: Treasury Department Financial Measures,
CISADA, and Patriot Act Section 311
U.S. efforts to shut Iran out of the international banking system have gained strength as other
countries have joined the effort. These efforts have been implemented by the Treasury
Department through “targeted financial measures,” and several other actions, including
designation of Iranian entities as violators of various Executive Orders.
During 2006-2010, strengthened by leverage provided in five U.N. Security Council Resolutions,
then Undersecretary of the Treasury Stuart Levey and his aides convinced at least 80 foreign
banks that dealing with Iran entails financial risk and furthers terrorism and proliferation.
Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner has described Levey as having “led the design of a
25 “Caterpillar Says Tightens ‘No-Iran’ Business Policy.” Reuters, March 1, 2010.
26 Nixon, Ron. “2 Corporations Say Business With Tehran Will Be Curbed.” New York Times, March 11, 2010.
27 Baker, Peter. “U.S. and Foreign Companies Feeling Pressure to Sever Ties With Iran.” New York Times, April 24,
2010.
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remarkably successful program”28 with regard to targeting Iran’s proliferation networks. Levey
left office in April 2011 and was replaced by Daniel Cohen.
These actions followed efforts to prevent Iran from accessing the U.S. financial system. On
September 6, 2006, the Treasury Department barred U.S. banks from handling any indirect
transactions (“U-turn transactions,” meaning transactions with non-Iranian foreign banks that are
handling transactions on behalf of an Iranian bank) with Iran’s Bank Saderat, which the
Administration accused of providing funds to Hezbollah.29 Bank Sepah is subject to asset freezes
and transactions limitations as a result of Resolutions 1737 and 1747. The Treasury Department
extended that U-Turn restriction to all Iranian banks on November 6, 2008.
The Treasury Department has also used punishments to pressure firms to cease doing business
with Iran. In 2004, the Treasury Department fined UBS $100 million for the unauthorized
movement of U.S. dollars to Iran and other sanctioned countries, and in December 2005, the
Treasury Department fined Dutch bank ABN Amro $80 million for failing to fully report the
processing of financial transactions involving Iran’s Bank Melli (and another bank partially
owned by Libya). In the biggest such instance, on December 16, 2009, the Treasury Department
announced that Credit Suisse would pay a $536 million settlement to the United States for illicitly
processing Iranian transactions with U.S. banks. Credit Suisse, according to the Treasury
Department, saw business opportunity by picking up the transactions business from a competitor
who had, in accordance with U.S. regulations discussed below, ceased processing dollar
transactions for Iranian banks. Credit Suisse also pledged to cease doing business with Iran.
On December 17, 2008, the U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York filed a civil
action seeking to seize the assets of the Assa Company, a UK-chartered entity. Assa allegedly was
maintaining the interests of Bank Melli in an office building in New York City. An Iranian
foundation, the Alavi Foundation, allegedly is an investor in the building.
Banking Provisions of CISADA
The Treasury Department efforts have been enhanced substantially by the authorities of Section
104 of CISADA and U.N. and EU sanctions. Broadly, Section 104 of CISADA seeks to exclude
foreign banks from operating in the United States if these banks conduct transactions with the
Revolutionary Guard or its affiliates, or with Iranian entities that are subject to international or
U.S. sanctions (under various Executive Orders issued under IEEPA, such as 13224 and 13382
discussed below). The premise of the provision is that cutting off Iran’s access to the international
financial system would make it more difficult for Iran to move its money.
The binding provisions of Section 104 of CISADA require the Secretary of the Treasury to
prescribe several sets of regulations to forbid U.S. banks from opening new “correspondent
accounts” or “payable through accounts”—or force the cancellation of existing such accounts—
with foreign banks that process “significant transactions” with the entities discussed above.
Foreign banks that do not have operations in the United States typically establish such accounts
with U.S. banks as a means of accessing the U.S. financial system and financial industry. The
entities with which transactions would trigger the sanctions are:
28 Hearing of the Financial Services and General Government Subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee,
Federal News Service, May 21, 2009.
29 Kessler, Glenn. “U.S. Moves to Isolate Iranian Banks.” Washington Post, September 9, 2006.
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• The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) or any of its agents or affiliates
that are sanctioned under U.S. executive orders. The two executive orders that
have served as the principal source of U.S. sanctions against Iranian firms and
organizations are Executive Order 13224 (September 23, 2001) and 13382 (June
28, 2005), discussed elsewhere in this paper.
• Any entity that is sanctioned by U.S. executive orders such as the two mentioned
above. To date, over 125 entities (including individuals), almost all of them Iran-
based or of Iranian origin, have been designated for Iran-related proliferation or
terrorism activities under these orders. A full list is at the end of this paper.
• Any entity designated under the various U.N. Security Council resolutions
adopted to impose sanctions on Iran.
• Any entity that assists Iran’s Central Bank in efforts to help the IRGC acquire
weapons of mass destruction or support international terrorism.
Sanctions
As of October 13, 2011, the United States has not announced any sanctions against any bank
under this provision of CISADA.
Section 311 of the Patriot Act
On November 21, 2011, the Administration took further steps to isolate Iran’s banking system and
to dissuade foreign banks and countries from dealing with any Iranian bank. Secretary of
Treasury Geithner announced that day that the Administration had acted under Section 311 of the
USA Patriot Act (31 U.S.C. 5318A) to identify Iran as a “jurisdiction of primary money
laundering concern30—that its financial system, including the Central Bank, constitutes a threat to
governments or financial institutions that do business with these banks. Banks that do business
with the Iranian financial system were declared at risk of supporting Iran’s pursuit of nuclear
weapons, its support for terrorism, and its efforts to deceive financial institutions and evade
sanctions. The designation carried no immediate penalty, per se, but it imposes additional
requirements on U.S. banks to ensure against improper Iranian access to the U.S. financial
system. It also likely has the effect of causing foreign banks to hesitate to do business with Iran.
Terrorism List Designation-Related Sanctions
Several U.S. sanctions are in effect as a result of Iran’s presence on the U.S. “terrorism list.” The
list was established by Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of 1979 (P.L. 96-72, as
amended), sanctioning countries determined to have provided repeated support for acts of
international terrorism. Iran was added to the list in January 1984, following the October 1983
bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks in Lebanon (believed perpetrated by Hezbollah). Sanctions
imposed as a consequence include a ban on U.S. foreign aid to Iran; restrictions on U.S. exports
to Iran of dual use items; and requires the United States to vote against international loans to Iran.
30 http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1367.aspx
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• The terrorism list designation restricts sales of U.S. dual use items (Export
Administration Act, as continued through presidential authorities under the
International Emergency Economic Powers Act, IEEPA, as implemented by
executive orders), and, under other laws, bans direct U.S. financial assistance
(Section 620A of the Foreign Assistance Act, FAA, P.L. 87-195) and arms sales
(Section 40 of the Arms Export Control Act, P.L. 95-92, as amended), and
requires the United States to vote to oppose multilateral lending to the designated
countries (Section 327 of the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of
1996, P.L. 104-132). Waivers are provided under these laws, but successive
foreign aid appropriations laws since the late 1980s ban direct assistance to Iran
(loans, credits, insurance, Ex-Im Bank credits) without providing for a waiver.
• Section 307 of the FAA (added in 1985) names Iran as unable to benefit from
U.S. contributions to international organizations, and require proportionate cuts if
these institutions work in Iran. No waiver is provided for.
• The Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (Sections 325 and 326 of
P.L. 104-132) requires the President to withhold U.S. foreign assistance to any
country that provides to a terrorism list country foreign assistance or arms.
Waivers are provided.
U.S. sanctions laws do not bar disaster aid. The United States donated $125,000, through relief
agencies, to help victims of two earthquakes in Iran (February and May 1997), and another
$350,000 worth of aid to the victims of a June 22, 2002, earthquake. (The World Bank provided
some earthquake related lending as well.) The United States provided $5.7 million in assistance
(out of total governmental pledges of about $32 million, of which $17 million have been
remitted) to the victims of the December 2003 earthquake in Bam, Iran, which killed as many as
40,000 people and destroyed 90% of Bam’s buildings. The United States military flew in 68,000
kilograms of supplies to Bam. In the Bam case, there was also a temporary exemption made in
the regulations to allow for a general licensing (no need for a specific license) for donations to
Iran of humanitarian goods by American citizens and organizations. Those exemptions were
extended several times but expired in March 2004. When that expiration occurred, the policy
reverted to a requirement for specific licensing (application to OFAC) and approval process for
donations and operations in Iran of U.S.-based humanitarian NGO’s.
Executive Order 13224
The separate, but related, Executive Order 13324 (September 23, 2001) authorizes the President
to freeze the assets of and bar U.S. transactions with entities determined to be supporting
international terrorism. This order, issued two weeks after the September 11 attacks, under the
authority of the IEEPA, the National Emergencies Act, the U.N. Participation Act of 1945, and
Section 301 of the U.S. Code, was intended to primarily target Al Qaeda-related entities.
However, it has increasingly been applied to Iranian entities. Such Iran-related entities named and
sanctioned under this order are in Table 6, which also contains the names of Iranian entities
sanctioned under other orders and under United Nations resolutions. On October 12, 2011, the
Treasury Department designated Mahan Air, an airline operating in Iran and the Persian Gulf
region, under this Order, for allegedly helping the Qods Force (the arm of Iran’s Revolutionary
Guard that supports pro-Iranian movements abroad) ship weapons and other gear. The
announcement followed U.S. revelations of an alleged Qods plot to assassinate the Saudi
Ambassador to the United States in Washington, D.C. – the Qods officers and others allegedly
involved in this purported plot were sanctioned under this Order the previous day (October 11).
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On July 28, 2011, the Treasury Department designated six members of Al Qaeda under this order
for allegedly serving as financiers for Al Qaeda. The six are based in Iran, according to the
Treasury Department and are allowed to operate from Iran under an agreement between Al Qaeda
and the Iranian government.
Proliferation-Related U.S. Sanctions
Iran is prevented from receiving advanced technology from the United States under relevant and
Iran-specific anti-proliferation laws31 and by Executive Order 13382 (June 28, 2005). Some of
these laws and executive measures seek to penalize foreign firms and countries that provide
equipment to Iran’s WMD programs.
Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act
The Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 102-484) imposes a number of sanctions on
foreign entities that supply Iran with WMD technology or “destabilizing numbers and types of
conventional weapons.” Sanctions imposed on violating entities include a ban, for two years, on
U.S. government procurement from that entity, and a two-year ban on licensing U.S. exports to
that entity. A sanction to ban imports to the United States from the entity is authorized.
If the violator is determined to be a foreign country, sanctions to be imposed are a one-year ban
on U.S. assistance to that country; a one-year requirement that the United States vote against
international lending to it; a one-year suspension of U.S. co-production agreements with the
country; a one-year suspension of technical exchanges with the country in military or dual use
technology; and a one-year ban on sales of U.S. arms to the country. The President is also
authorized to deny the country most-favored-nation trade status; and to impose a ban on U.S.
trade with the country.
The Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act (Section 1603) also provides for a “presumption of
denial” for all dual use exports to Iran (which would include computer software). A waiver to
permit such exports, on a case-by-case basis, is provided for.
Iran-North Korea-Syria Nonproliferation Act
The Iran Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 106-178), now called the Iran-North Korea-Syria Non-
Proliferation Act (INKSNA) authorizes sanctions on foreign persons (individuals or corporations,
not countries or governments) that are determined by the Administration to have assisted Iran’s
WMD programs. It bans U.S. extraordinary payments to the Russian Aviation and Space Agency
in connection with the international space station unless the President can certify that the agency
or entities under its control had not transferred any WMD or missile technology to Iran within the
year prior.32 (A Continuing Resolution for FY2009, which funded the U.S. government through
31 Such laws include the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 and the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58).
32 The provision contains certain exceptions to ensure the safety of astronauts, but it nonetheless threatened to limit
U.S. access to the international space station after April 2006, when Russia started charging the United States for
transportation on its Soyuz spacecraft. Legislation in the 109th Congress (S. 1713, P.L. 109-112) amended the provision
in order to facilitate continued U.S. access and extended INA sanctions provisions to Syria.
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March 2009, waived this law to allow NASA to continue to use Russian vehicles to access the
International Space Station.) Pending legislation in the 112th Congress, discussed later, would
amend INKSNA.
Executive Order 13382
Executive Order 13382 (June 28, 2005) allows the President to block the assets of proliferators of
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and their supporters under the authority granted by the
International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA, 50 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.), the National
Emergencies Act (50 U.S.C. 1601 et seq.), and Section 301 of Title 3, United States Code. Table
6 lists Iran-related entities sanctioned under the order. As an example, the IRGC is named as a
proliferation entity under E.O. 13382.
Foreign Aid Restrictions for Suppliers of Iran
In addition, successive foreign aid appropriations punish the Russian Federation for assisting Iran
by withholding 60% of any U.S. assistance to the Russian Federation unless it terminates
technical assistance to Iran’s nuclear and ballistic missiles programs.
U.S. Efforts to Promote Divestment
A growing trend not only in Congress but in several states is to require or call for or require
divestment of shares of firms that have invested in Iran’s energy sector (at the same levels
considered sanctionable under the Iran Sanctions Act).33 The concept of these sanctions is to
express the view of Western and other democracies that Iran is an outcast internationally.
Legislation in the 110th Congress, H.R. 1400, did not require divestment, but would have required
a presidential report on firms that have invested in Iran’s energy sector. Another bill, H.R. 1357,
required government pension funds to divest of shares in firms that have made ISA-sanctionable
investments in Iran’s energy sector and bar government and private pension funds from future
investments in such firms. Two other bills, H.R. 2347 (passed by the House on July 31, 2007) and
S. 1430, would protect mutual fund and other investment companies from shareholder action for
any losses that would occur from divesting in firms that have investing in Iran’s energy sector.
In the 111th Congress, H.R. 1327 (Iran Sanctions Enabling Act), a bill similar to H.R. 2347 of the
110th Congress, was reported by the Financial Services Committee on April 28, 2009. It passed
the House on October 14, 2009, by a vote of 414-6. A similar bill. S. 1065, was introduced in the
Senate. Provisions along these lines was contained in CISADA (P.L. 111-195)—in particular
providing a “safe harbor” for investment managers who sell shares of firms that invest in Iran’s
energy sector.
33 For information on the steps taken by individual states, see National Conference of State Legislatures. State
Divestment Legislation.
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U.S. Sanctions Intended to Support Democratic
Change in Iran or Alter Iran’s Foreign Policy
A trend since the June 2009 Iran election dispute has been to promote the prospects for the
domestic opposition in Iran. Proposals to target the Revolutionary Guard for sanctions, discussed
throughout, represent one facet of that trend. The IRGC is involved in Iran’s WMD programs but
it is also the key instrument through which the regime has suppressed the pro-democracy
movement. Several measures to support the opposition’s ability to communicate, to reduce the
regime’s ability to monitor or censor Internet communications and to identify and sanction
Iranian human rights abusers, were included in CISADA.
Earlier legislation, the Iran Freedom Support Act (IFSA, P.L. 109-293), represented a
congressional effort to promote the prospects for opponents of the regime. That law authorized
“sums as may be necessary” to assist Iranians who are “dedicated” to “democratic values … and
the adoption of a democratic form of government in Iran”; and “advocates the adherence by Iran
to nonproliferation regimes….”
Expanding Internet and Communications Freedoms
Some Members have focused on expanding Internet freedom in Iran or preventing the Iranian
government from using the Internet to identify opponents. Subtitle D of the FY2010 Defense
Authorization Act (P.L. 111-84), called the “VOICE” (Victims of Iranian Censorship) Act
contained several provisions to increase U.S. broadcasting to Iran and to identify (in a report to be
submitted 180 days after enactment, or April 25, 2009) companies that are selling Iran technology
equipment that it can use to suppress or monitor the internet usage of Iranians. The Act authorized
funds to document Iranian human rights abuses since the June 12, 2009, presidential election.
Another provision (Section 1241) required an Administration report, not later than January 31,
2010, on U.S. enforcement of sanctions against Iran, and the effect of those sanctions on Iran.
In the 111th Congress, the “Reduce Iranian Cyber-Suppression Act,” (S. 1475 and H.R. 3284)
was incorporated into CISADA. It authorizes the President to ban U.S. government contracts with
foreign companies that sell technology that Iran could use to monitor or control Iranian usage of
the internet. Another provision of CISADA (Section 103(b)(2)) exempts from the U.S. export ban
on Iran equipment to help Iranians communicate and use the Internet. The provisions were
directed, in part, against firms, including a joint venture between Nokia (Finland) and Siemens
(Germany), reportedly sold Internet monitoring and censorship technology to Iran in 2008.34
Perhaps to avoid further embarrassment, Siemens announced on January 27, 2010, that it would
stop signing new business deals in Iran as of mid-2010.35 There is some concern that a large
Chinese firm, Huawei, might have sold Iran Internet monitoring or censorship gear as part of its
work in Iran’s communications industry although there is no clear information that it has done so.
In line with this trend, on March 8, 2010, OFAC amended the Iran Transactions Regulations that
implement the U.S.-Iran trade ban to provide for a general license for providing to Iranians free
34 Rhoads, Christopher. “Iran’s Web Spying Aided by Western Technology.” Wall Street Journal, June 22, 2009.
35 End, Aurelia. “Siemens Quits Iran Amid Mounting Diplomatic Tensions.” Agence France Press, January 27, 2010.
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Iran Sanctions
mass market software in order to facilitate internet communications. The ruling appeared to
incorporate the major features of a proposal in the 111th Congress, H.R. 4301, the “Iran Digital
Empowerment Act.” The OFAC determination required a waiver of the provision of the Iran-Iraq
Arms Nonproliferation Act (Section 1606 waiver provision) discussed above.
To counter some of the efforts above, and among other measures, in 2011 the Iranian government
established a “cyber police” force. Part of the force’s duties are to sensitize young Iranians to the
government view that Western countries are using the Internet to undermine Iran’s Islamic values
and government.36
Measures to Sanction Human Rights Abuses and
Promote the Opposition
Another part of the effort to help Iran’s opposition has been legislation to sanction regime
officials involved in suppressing the domestic opposition in Iran. Senator John McCain proposed
to offer amendments to S. 2799 (the Senate version of what became H.R. 2194) to focus on
banning travel and freezing assets of those Iranians determined to be human rights abusers. These
provisions were included in the conference report on CISADA. The provisions were similar to
those of Senator McCain’s earlier stand alone bill, S. 3022, the “Iran Human Rights Sanctions
Act.” Companion measures in the House were H.R. 4647 and H.R. 4649.
On September 29, 2010, the Administration implemented the CISADA provision when President
Obama signed an Executive Order (13553) providing for the CISADA sanctions against Iranians
determined to be responsible for or complicit in post-2009 Iran election human rights abuses.
Along with the order, an initial group of eight Iranian officials were penalized, including
Mohammad Ali Jafari, the commander-in-chief of the IRGC, and several other officials who were
in key security or judicial positions at the time of the June 2009 election and aftermath. Several
additional officials and security force entities have been sanctioned under the Order since, as
shown in the table at the end of this paper. Under State Department interpretations of the
executive order, if an entity is designated, all members of that entity are ineligible for visas to
enter the United States.37 Similar sanctions against many of these same officials—as well as
several others—have been imposed by the European Union - a total of 61 Iranians have been so
sanctioned by the EU to date, including 29 Iranian officials sanctioned on October 5, 2011.
Executive Order 13438 and 13572: Sanctioning Iranian Involvement in the
Region
Some sanctions have been imposed to try to punish Iran’s involvement in certain activities in the
region. On July 7, 2007, President Bush issued Executive Order 13438. The order sanctions
Iranian persons who are posing a threat to Iraqi stability, presumably by providing arms or funds
to Shiite militias there. Some persons sanctioned have been Qods Force officers, some have been
Iraqi Shiite militia-linked figures, and some entities have been sanctioned as well.
36 Thomas Erdbink. “Iran’s Cyber Police Battle the Lure of the Internet.” Washington Post, October 30. 2011.
37 U.S. Department of Treasury, Office of Public Affairs. Treasury Sanctions Iranian Security Forces for Human Rights
Abuses, June 9, 2011.
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More recently, the Qods Force and a number of Iranian Qods Force officers, including Qods
Force commander Qasem Soleimani, have been sanctioned under Executive Order 13572. That
order was issued on April 29, 2011, targeting Syrian officials and other responsible for human
rights abuses and repression of the Syrian people. The Iranians were sanctioned for allegedly
helping Syria commit abuses against protesters and repress its domestic opposition movement
that has conducted nationwide demonstration since March 2011. In September 2011, the
European Union similarly sanctioned the Qods Force for its purported assistance to Syria’s
repression.
Separate Visa Ban
On July 8, 2011, in conjunction with Britain, the United States imposed visa restrictions on more
than 50 Iranian officials for participating in political repression in Iran. The State Department
announcement stated that the names of those subject to the ban would not be released because
visa records are confidential. The action was taken under the authorities of Section 212(a)(3)(C)
of the Immigration and Nationality Act, which renders inadmissible to the United States a foreign
person whose activities could have serious consequences for the United States.
Blocked Iranian Property and Assets
Iranian leaders continue to assert that the United States is holding Iranian assets, and that this is
an impediment to improved relations. A U.S.-Iran Claims Tribunal at the Hague continues to
arbitrate cases resulting from the 1980 break in relations and freezing of some of Iran’s assets.
Major cases yet to be decided center on hundreds of Foreign Military Sales (FMS) cases between
the United States and the Shah’s regime, which Iran claims it paid for but were unfulfilled. About
$400 million in proceeds from the resale of that equipment was placed in a DOD FMS account an
remains in this escrow account. Additionally, according to the Treasury Department “Terrorist
Assets Report” for 2010, about $48 million in Iranian diplomatic property and accounts remains
blocked - this amount includes proceeds from rents received on the former Iranian embassy in
Washington, D.C. and ten other properties in several states, along with six related bank
accounts.38
Other past disputes include the mistaken U.S. shoot-down on July 3, 1988, of an Iranian Airbus
passenger jet (Iran Air flight 655), for which the United States, in accordance with an ICJ
judgment, paid Iran $61.8 million in compensation ($300,000 per wage earning victim, $150,000
per nonwage earner) for the 248 Iranians killed. The United States has not compensated Iran for
the airplane itself. As it has in past similar cases, the Bush Administration opposed a terrorism
lawsuit against Iran by victims of the U.S. Embassy Tehran seizure on the grounds of diplomatic
obligation.39
38 http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Documents/tar2010.pdf.
39 See CRS Report RL31258, Suits Against Terrorist States by Victims of Terrorism, by Jennifer K. Elsea.
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U.N. Sanctions
The U.S. sanctions discussed in this report are more extensive than those imposed, to date, by the
United Nations Security Council or by individual foreign countries or groups of countries, such as
the European Union. However, U.N. sanctions apply to all U.N. member states, and therefore
tend to be more effective than unilateral sanctions. There is increasing convergence among all
these varying sets of sanctions.
As part of a multilateral process of attempting to convince Iran to choose the path of negotiations
or face further penalty, during 2006-2008, three U.N. Security Council resolutions—1737, 1747,
and 1803—imposed sanctions primarily on Iran’s weapons of mass destruction (WMD)
infrastructure. The multilateral group negotiation with Iran (“P5+1:” the Security Council
permanent members, plus Germany) at the same time offered Iran incentives to suspend uranium
enrichment. After failed negotiations with Iran during 2009, Resolution 1929 was adopted on
June 9, 2010, by a vote of 12-2 (Turkey and Brazil), with one abstention (Lebanon). (Iranian
entities and persons sanctioned by the United Nations are in Table 6.)
The main points of Resolution 1929 are:40
• It adds several firms affiliated with the Revolutionary Guard firms to the list of
sanctioned entities.
• It makes mandatory a ban on travel for Iranian persons named in it and in
previous resolutions—including those Iranians for whom there was a nonbinding
travel ban in previous resolutions.
• It gives countries the authorization to inspect any shipments—and to dispose of
its cargo—if the shipments are suspected to carry contraband items. However,
inspections on the high seas are subject to concurrence by the country that owns
that ship. This provision is modeled after a similar provision imposed on North
Korea, which did cause that country to reverse some of its shipments.
• It prohibits countries from allowing Iran to invest in uranium mining and related
nuclear technologies, or nuclear-capable ballistic missile technology.
• It bans sales to Iran of most categories of heavy arms to Iran and requests
restraint in sales of light arms, but does not bar sales of missiles not on the “U.N.
Registry of Conventional Arms.”
• It requires countries to insist that their companies refrain from doing business
with Iran if there is reason to believe that such business could further Iran’s
WMD programs.
• It requests, but does not mandate, that countries prohibit Iranian banks to open in
their countries, or for their banks to open in Iran, if doing so could contribute to
Iran’s WMD activities.
• It authorizes the establishment of a “panel of experts,” which is chaired by senior
State Department arms control and proliferation adviser Robert Einhorn, to assist
40 Text of the resolution is at http://www.isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/
Draft_resolution_on_Iran_annexes.pdf.
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the U.N. sanctions committee in implementing the Resolution and previous Iran
resolutions, and to suggest ways of more effective implementation.
• The resolution did not make mandatory some measures that reportedly were
considered, including barring any foreign investment in Iranian bond offerings;
banning insurance for transport contracts for shipments involving Iran; banning
international investment in Iran’s energy sector; banning the provision of trade
credits to Iran, or banning all financial dealings with Iranian banks.
Table 3. Summary of Provisions of U.N. Resolutions on Iran Nuclear Program
(1737, 1747, 1803, and 1929)
Require Iran to suspend uranium enrichment, and to refrain from any development of ballistic missiles that are
nuclear capable (1929)
Prohibit transfer to Iran of nuclear, missile, and dual use items to Iran, except for use in light-water reactors
Prohibit Iran from exporting arms or WMD-useful technology
Prohibit Iran from investing abroad in uranium mining, related nuclear technologies or nuclear capable ballistic missile
technology
Freeze the assets of over 80 named Iranian persons and entities, including Bank Sepah, and several corporate affiliates
of the Revolutionary Guard.
Require that countries ban the travel of over 40 named Iranians
Mandates that countries not export major combat systems to Iran
Calls for “vigilance” (a nonbinding call to cut off business) with respect to all Iranian banks, particularly Bank Melli and
Bank Saderat.
Calls for vigilance (voluntary restraint) with respect to providing international lending to Iran and providing trade
credits and other financing and financial interactions.
Cal s on countries to inspect cargoes carried by Iran Air Cargo and Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines—or by any
ships in national or international waters—if there are indications they carry cargo banned for carriage to Iran.
Searches in international waters would require concurrence of the country where the ship is registered.
A Sanctions Committee, composed of the 15 members of the Security Council, monitors Implementation of all Iran
sanctions and collects and disseminates information on Iranian violations and other entities involved in banned
activities. A “panel of experts” is empowered by 1929 to make recommendations for improved enforcement.
Source: Text of U.N. Security Council resolutions 1737, 1747, 1803, and 1929. http://www.un.org. More
information on specific provisions of each of these resolutions and the nuclear negotiations with Iran is in CRS
Report. CRS Report RL32048, Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses, by Kenneth Katzman.
International Implementation and Compliance
U.S. allies have generally supported and joined the Obama Administration’s sanctions toward
Iran, in part because the approach is perceived as not purely punitive, and in part because their
own concerns about Iran’s nuclear advancement have increased. U.S. and European/allied
approaches have been gradually converging since 2002, when the nuclear issue came to the fore,
but as of 2010, an unprecedented degree of global consensus has emerged on how to deal with
Iran. There is a degree of consensus among experts that many countries, not only allies of the
United States, are complying with the provisions of U.N. sanctions, but there are selected
exceptions (discussed below). Implementation appears to be somewhat less complete in Iran’s
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immediate region, perhaps because its neighbors do not want confrontation with Iran and are
hesitant to disrupt traditional relationships among traders and businessmen in the region.
European Union and Other Western States
In its July 27, 2010, sanctions measures, the product of consensus among the EU states, the EU
countries imposed sanctions on Iran that exceed those mandated in Security Council resolutions.
Concurrent with the EU announcement, not only Norway (not an EU member) but also Canada
and Australia announced similar, although less sweeping, Iran sanctions. A comparison between
U.S., U.N., and EU sanctions against Iran is contained in the chart below, although noting that
there are differing legal bases and authorities for these sanctions. A U.S. President cannot
mandate a foreign company take any particular action; however, the U.S. government can
penalize or reward foreign firms who take action that supports U.S. objectives. U.N. Security
Council resolutions are considered binding on U.N. member states. The EU clarified in late
October 2010, that its sanctions against Iran do not ban importation of Iranian oil and gas, nor do
they ban exports of gasoline to Iran.
Sacking of British Embassy in Tehran and Subsequent Action
On November 21, 2011, in a concerted action with those taken by the U.S. Treasury Department
(see above under Section 311 of the Patriot Act), Britain and Canada announced they would no
longer do business with Iran’s financial institutions. Iran’s parliament subsequently voted to
downgrade relations with Britain, a move that, on November 29, 2011, contributed to the
overrunning of the British Embassy in Tehran by pro-government students, with at least the
partial apparent complicity of regime security forces. That attack prompted Britain to give all
Iranian diplomats 48 hours to leave Britain, and precipitated a European Union meeting on
December 1, 2011.
At that meeting, the EU states:
• Designated an additional 180 Iranian entities, mostly those linked to the
Revolutionary Guard, as subject to assets freezes and travel bans. One of the
entities is the Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines (IRISL).
• Discussed, but did not agree to, a French proposal that EU member states
voluntarily cease purchases of Iranian crude oil. Opposition from economically-
troubled Greece, which imports a substantial portion of its oil from Iran,
reportedly caused the proposal to be tabled until a ministerial meeting in a few
weeks. By that time, it is believed Greece might be able to line up new oil
suppliers.
Japan and South Korea
In early September 2010, Japan and then South Korea announced Iran sanctions similar to those
of the EU. Both countries adopted measures limiting trade financing for Iran, limiting new
banking relations with Iran, sanctioning numerous named Iranian entities, and restricting new
projects in Iran’s energy sector. The sanctions adopted by both were far more extensive than was
expected by U.S. officials. At the same time, Japan and South Korea are said to fear moves by the
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United States and the EU to sanction Iran’s Central Bank or promote a voluntary halt to purchases
of Iranian oil – both get substantial oil volumes from Iran.
India
India has generally been considered friendly toward Iran and unlikely to impose any national
sanctions on that country. Therefore, many experts were surprised when India’s central bank, in
late December 2010, announced that it would no longer use a regional body, the Asian Clearing
Union, to handle transactions with Iran. The Asian Clearing Union, based in Tehran, was set up in
the 1970s by the United Nations to ease commerce among Asian nations. There have been
allegations in recent years that Iran might be using the Clearing Union to handle transactions so
as to avoid limitations imposed by European and other banks.
The Indian move complicated India’s purchases of about 350,000-400,000 barrels per day of
Iranian oil, and Indian officials subsequently undertook negotiations with Iran to find an alternate
mechanism to clear Indian payments for that oil and other Iranian goods. Still, the Indian move—
and the reported difficulty in agreeing to a replacement payments mechanism—appeared to signal
that India was taking steps to join U.S./European-led efforts to shut Iran out of the international
financial system. The Indian move followed President Obama’s visit there in November 2010.
Several banks considered as replacement mechanisms were either under U.N. sanctions or fear
fallout (restrictions in the U.S. banking system) from transacting banking business for Iran. In
February 2011, India and Iran agreed to use an Iranian bank, Europaisch-Iranische Handelsbank
(EIH) to clear the payments. EIH has accounts with National Iranian Oil Company as well as with
the Central Bank of Germany, rendering the bank able to process the Indian payments to Iran.
Some Members of Congress had characterized that bank as one of Iran’s few remaining access
points to the European financial system and had asked the German government to order it
closed.41 On May 23, 2011, the EU named EIH and about 100 other entities as Iran proliferation-
related activities, rendering India and Iran again in search of an alternative payments mechanism.
With approximately $6.3 billion in oil payments due Iran building up in an escrow account, in
July 2011 Iran threatened to reduce or cut off entirely oil shipments to India. In late July 2011, the
two identified Turkey’s Halkbank as at least an interim solution, and about $1.3 billion was
transferred to Iran. Iranian officials said that about $5 billion was still due, although on
September 4, 2011, Iran’s Central Bank Governor said India had fully settled its debt. Perhaps
because of the payments difficulties, some Indian firms, including Reliance Industries, Ltd, have
reduced their crude oil purchases from Iran.
Separately, the majority owner of EIH, Iran’s Bank of Industry and Mines (BIM), was sanctioned
by the United States as a proliferation entity under Executive Order 13382, for providing
transactions for Bank Mellat and EIH in support of Iran’s proliferation activities.
China, Russia, and Others
The position of Russia, China, and several other countries—that they will impose only those
sanctions required by applicable U.N. Security Council resolutions, but not impose sanctions
beyond those specifically mandated—has been of concern to several Members of Congress. As
41 Letter signed by eleven U.S. Senators to German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle. February 1, 2011.
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noted below, some Members and outside experts express concern that Chinese firms, in
particular, might move to fill the void in Iran’s energy industry left by vacating European firms
(“backfill”), but Administration officials say they have not seen evidence of such a trend. Russia
is an oil exporter itself and a need to preserve oil imports from Iran are therefore not a factor in its
Iran policy calculations.
At the same time, there are no signs that China would join an EU-led embargo of purchases of
Iranian oil. About 20% of Iran’s total oil exports are to China – with a value of about $16 billion
in 2011. That is more than sufficient to offset the approximately $12 billion in goods Iran buys
from China, meaning that China has to settle some of this trade balance in hard currency.
Treasury Department officials say China does not make extensive use of payments through Iran’s
Central Bank, but alternative mechanisms that are used are unclear. Some speculate that China
might be making some payments to Iran in its own currency or other currencies.
An even more significant concern is that these and other countries are refusing or failing to
prevent Iran from acquiring weapons and WMD technology. Secretary of State Clinton singled
out China on January 19, 2011, as not enforcing all aspects of international sanctions that bar
sales of most nuclear-related equipment to Iran; the comment came of the eve of the state visit to
the United States by President Hu Jintao. On March 9, 2011, State Department Special Adviser
for Non-Proliferation and Arms Control, Robert Einhorn, said Iran may be working with Chinese
firms to obtain sensitive technology useful for nuclear weapons development. In some cases, Iran
has been able, according to some reports, to obtain sophisticated technology even from U.S.
firms.42
A related issue is Iran’s efforts to use the high seas or the territory of other countries to supply
weapons to groups it supports (such shipments are barred by U.N. resolutions; see above). In
March 2011, Israel intercepted a freighter, the Victoria, that it said was carrying Iranian weapons
to Palestinian militant groups. Also in March 2011, Turkey, generally considered friendly toward
Iran, complied with U.N. requirements by twice forcing the landing in Turkey of Iranian cargo
aircraft. In both cases, the aircraft were searched, and in one instance, weapons were removed,
allegedly bound for Syria, before the aircraft were allowed to proceed.
Contrast With Previous Periods
The emerging consensus on Iran sanctions differs from early periods when there was far more
disagreement. Reflecting the traditional European preference for providing incentives rather than
enacting economic punishments, during 2002-2005, there were active negotiations between the
European Union and Iran on a “Trade and Cooperation Agreement” (TCA). Such an agreement
would have lowered the tariffs or increased quotas for Iranian exports to the EU countries.43
However, negotiations were discontinued after the election of Ahmadinejad in June 2005, at
which time Iran’s position on its nuclear program hardened. Similarly, there is insufficient
international support to grant Iran membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) until
42 Warrick, Joby. “Iran Using Fronts to Get Bomb Parts From U.S.” Washington Post, January 11, 2009; Institute for
Science and International Security. “Iranian Entities’ Illicit Military Procurement Networks.” David Albright, Paul
Brannan, and Andrea Scheel. January 12, 2009.
43 During the active period of talks, which began in December 2002, there were working groups focused not only on the
TCA terms and proliferation issues but also on Iran’s human rights record, Iran’s efforts to derail the Middle East peace
process, Iranian-sponsored terrorism, counter-narcotics, refugees, migration issues, and the Iranian opposition PMOI.
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there is progress on the nuclear issue. Iran first attempted to apply to join the WTO in July 1996.
On 22 occasions after that, representatives of the Clinton and then the George W. Bush
Administration blocked Iran from applying (applications must be by consensus of the 148
members). As discussed above, as part of an effort to assist the EU-3 nuclear talks with Iran, at a
WTO meeting in May 2005, no opposition to Iran’s application was registered, and Iran formally
began accession talks.
Earlier, during the 1990s, EU countries maintained a policy of “critical dialogue” with Iran, and
the EU and Japan refused to join the 1995 U.S. trade and investment ban on Iran. The European
dialogue with Iran was suspended in April 1997 in response to the German terrorism trial
(“Mykonos trial”) that found high-level Iranian involvement in killing Iranian dissidents in
Germany, but resumed in May 1998 during Khatemi’s presidency. In the 1990s, European and
Japanese creditors—over U.S. objections—rescheduled about $16 billion in Iranian debt. These
countries (governments and private creditors) rescheduled the debt bilaterally, in spite of Paris
Club rules that call for multilateral rescheduling. In July 2002, Iran tapped international capital
markets for the first time since the Islamic revolution, selling $500 million in bonds to European
banks. (A provision of H.R. 6296 would make sanctionable under ISA the purchase of Iranian
sovereign debt).
World Bank Loans
The July 27, 2010, EU measures narrowed substantially the prior differences between the EU and
the United States over international lending to Iran. As noted above, the United States
representative to international financial institutions is required to vote against international
lending, but that vote, although weighted, is not sufficient to block international lending. In 1993
the United States voted its 16.5% share of the World Bank against loans to Iran of $460 million
for electricity, health, and irrigation projects, but the loans were approved. To block that lending,
the FY1994-FY1996 foreign aid appropriations (P.L. 103-87, P.L. 103-306, and P.L. 104-107) cut
the amount appropriated for the U.S. contribution to the bank by the amount of those loans. The
legislation contributed to a temporary halt in new bank lending to Iran. (In the 111th Congress, a
provision of H.R. 6296—Title VII—cut off U.S. contributions to the World Bank, International
Finance Corp., and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Corp. if the World Bank approves a
new Country Assistance Strategy for Iran or makes a loan to Iran.)
During 1999-2005, Iran’s moderating image had led the World Bank to consider new loans over
U.S. opposition. In May 2000, the United States’ allies outvoted the United States to approve
$232 million in loans for health and sewage projects. During April 2003-May 2005, a total of
$725 million in loans were approved for environmental management, housing reform, water and
sanitation projects, and land management projects, in addition to $400 million in loans for
earthquake relief.
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Table 4. Points of Comparison Between U.S., U.N., and EU Sanctions Against Iran
Implementation by EU (July 27,
2010) and Some Allied
U.S. Sanctions
U.N. Sanctions
Countries
General Observation: Most
Increasingly sweeping, but still
EU abides by al U.N. sanctions on
sweeping sanctions on Iran of
intended to primarily target Iran’s
Iran, but new package of Iran
virtually any country in the world
nuclear and other WMD programs.
sanctions announced July 27, 2010,
No mandatory sanctions on Iran’s
more closely aligns EU sanctions
energy sector.
with those of the U.S. than ever
before.
Japan and South Korean sanctions
(September 2010) similar to EU.
Ban on U.S. Trade with and
U.N. sanctions do not ban civilian
No general EU ban on trade in
Investment in Iran:
trade with Iran or general civilian
civilian goods with Iran, although the
sector investment in Iran. Nor do
July 27, 2010, sanctions ban sales of
Executive Order 12959 bans (with
U.N. sanctions mandate restrictions
energy related equipment and
limited exceptions) U.S. firms from
on provision of trade financing or
services. On May 23, 2011, the EU
exporting to Iran, importing from
financing guarantees by national
named about 100 entities as Iran
Iran, or investing in Iran.
export credit guarantee agencies.
proliferation-related entities which
There is an exemption for sales to
EU entities would be unable to do
Iran of food and medical products,
business with.
but no trade financing or financing
EU, Japan, and South Korea
guarantees are permitted.
measures ban “medium and long
term” trade financing and financing
guarantees. Short term financing is
permitted, but there is a cal for EU
states to “exercise restraint” on
that.
Sanctions on Foreign Firms that
No U.N. equivalent exists. However,
July 27, 2010, EU sanctions prohibit
Do Business With Iran’s Energy
preambular language in Resolution
EU companies from financing energy
Sector:
1929 “not[es] the potential
sector projects in Iran (a de-facto
connection between Iran’s revenues
ban on energy sector investment)
The Iran Sanctions Act, P.L. 104-172
derived from its energy sector and
and ban sales to Iran of equipment
(as amended most recently by the
the funding of Iran’s proliferation-
or services for its energy sector,
Comprehensive Iran Sanctions,
sensitive nuclear activities.” This
including projects outside Iran. No
Accountability, and Divestment Act
wording is interpreted by most
ban on buying oil or gas from Iran
of 2010, P.L. 111-195), and as
observers as providing U.N. support
or selling gasoline to Iran, but such a
enhanced by Executive Order 13590, for countries who want to ban their
step is under consideration as of
mandates specified sanctions on
companies from investing in Iran’s
late 2011.
foreign firms that invest threshold
energy sector.
amounts in Iran’s energy Sector or
Japan and South Korean measures
that sell certain threshold amounts of
ban new energy projects in Iran and
refined petroleum, or equipment or
call for restraint on ongoing
services for oil and gas development,
projects.
refinery or petrochemical plant
expansion or maintenance, or
production or importation of
gasoline.
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Implementation by EU (July 27,
2010) and Some Allied
U.S. Sanctions
U.N. Sanctions
Countries
Ban on Foreign Assistance:
No U.N. equivalent
EU measures of July 27, 2010, ban
grants, aid, and concessional loans
U.S. foreign assistance to Iran—
to Iran. Also prohibit financing of
other than purely humanitarian aid—
enterprises involved in Iran’s energy
is banned under Section 620A of the
sector.
Foreign Assistance Act . That section
bans U.S. assistance to countries on
Japan and South Korea measures
the U.S. list of “state sponsors of
did not specifically ban aid or
terrorism.” Iran has been on this
lending to Iran.
“terrorism list” since January 1984.
Iran is also routinely denied direct
U.S. foreign aid under the annual
foreign operations appropriations
acts (most recently in Section 7007
of division H of P.L. 111-8).
Ban on Arms Exports to Iran:
Resolution 1929 (operative paragraph EU sanctions include a
8) bans all U.N. member states from
comprehensive ban on sale to Iran
Because Iran is on the “terrorism
selling or supplying to Iran major
of all types of military equipment,
list,” it is ineligible for U.S. arms
weapons systems, including tanks,
not just major combat systems.
exports pursuant to Section 40 of
armored vehicles, combat aircraft,
the Arms Export Control Act
warships, and most missile systems,
No similar Japan and South Korean
(AECA, P.L. 95-92). The International or related spare parts or advisory
measures announced, but neither
Trafficking in Arms Regulations
services for such weapons systems.
has exported arms to Iran.
(ITAR, 22 CFR Part 126.1) also cite
the President’s authority to control
arms exports, and to comply with
U.N. Security Council Resolutions as
a justification to ban arms exports
and imports.
Restriction on Exports to Iran of The U.N. Resolutions on Iran,
EU bans the sales of dual use items
“Dual Use Items”:
cumulatively, ban the export of
to Iran, in line with U.N.
almost all dual-use items to Iran.
resolutions.
Primarily under Section 6(j) of the
Export Administration Act (P.L. 96-
Japan announced ful adherence to
72) and Section 38 of the Arms
strict export control regimes when
Export Control Act, there is a denial
evaluating sales to Iran.
of license applications to sell Iran
goods that could have military
applications.
Sanctions Against International
Resolution 1747 (oper. paragraph 7)
The July 27, 2010, measures
Lending to Iran:
requests, but does not mandate, that
prohibit EU members from
countries and international financial
providing grants, aid, and
Under Section 1621 of the
institutions refrain from making
concessional loans to Iran, including
International Financial Institutions
grants or loans to Iran, except for
through international financial
Act (P.L. 95-118), U.S.
development and humanitarian
institutions.
representatives to international
purposes.
financial institutions, such as the
No specific similar Japan or South
World Bank, are required to vote
Korea measures announced.
against loans to Iran by those
institutions.
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Iran Sanctions
Implementation by EU (July 27,
2010) and Some Allied
U.S. Sanctions
U.N. Sanctions
Countries
Sanctions Against Foreign Firms Resolution 1737 (oper. paragraph 12) The EU measures imposed July 27,
that Sell Weapons of Mass
imposes a worldwide freeze on the
2010, commit the EU to freezing
Destruction-Related Technology assets and property of Iranian entities the assets of entities named in the
to Iran:
named in an Annex to the
U.N. resolutions, as well as
Resolution. Each subsequent
numerous other named Iranian
Several laws and regulations,
Resolution has expanded the list of
entities.
including the Iran-Syria North Korea
Iranian entities subject to these
Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 106-178),
sanctions.
Japan and South Korea froze assets
the Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation
of U.N.-sanctioned entities.
Act (P.L. 102-484) and Executive
Order 13382 provide for sanctions
against entities, Iranian or otherwise,
that are determined to be involved in
or supplying Iran’s WMD programs
(asset freezing, ban on transaction
with the entity).
Ban on Transactions With
No direct equivalent
No direct equivalent, but EU
Terrorism Supporting Entities:
measures taken July 27, 2010,
The U.N. Resolutions against Iran are include some IRGC Qods Force and
Executive Order 13224 bans
intended primarily to slow or halt
related persons and entities as
transactions with entities determined Iran’s nuclear and other WMD
subject to a freeze on EU-based
by the Administration to be
programs. However, Resolution 1747 assets. Another 180 such entities
supporting international terrorism.
(oper. paragraph 5) bans Iran from
designated by the EU on December
Numerous entities, including some of exporting any arms—a provision
1, 2011.
Iranian origin, have been so
widely interpreted as trying to
designated.
reduce Iran’s material support to
groups such as Lebanese Hizbol ah,
Hamas, Shiite militias in Iraq, and
insurgents in Afghanistan.
Travel Ban on Named Iranians:
Resolution 1803 imposed a binding
The EU sanctions announced July
ban on international travel by several
27, 2010, contains an Annex of
The Comprehensive Iran Sanctions,
Iranians named in an Annex to the
named Iranians subject to a ban on
Accountability, and Divestment Act
Resolution. Resolution 1929
travel to the EU countries. An
of 2010 (P.L. 111-195) provides for a
extended that ban to additional
additional 32 Iranians involved in
prohibition on travel to the U.S. ,
Iranians, and forty Iranians are now
human rights abuses were subjected
blocking of U.S.-based property, and
subject to the ban. However, the
to EU sanctions on April 14, 2011.
ban on transactions with Iranians
Iranians subject to the travel ban are
determined to be involved in serious
so subjected because of their
Japan and South Korea announced
human rights abuses against Iranians
involvement in Iran’s WMD
bans on named Iranians.
since the June 12, 2009, presidential
programs, not because of
election there.
involvement in human rights abuses.
Restrictions on Iranian Shipping: Resolution 1803 and 1929 authorize
The EU measures announced July
countries to inspect cargoes carried
27, 2010, bans Iran Air Cargo from
Under Executive Order 13382, the
by Iran Air and Islamic Republic of
access to EU airports. The
U.S. Treasury Department has
Iran Shipping Lines (IRISL)—or any
measures also freeze the EU-based
named Islamic Republic of Iran
ships in national or international
assets of IRISL and its affiliates.
Shipping Lines and several affiliated
waters—if there is an indication that
Insurance and re-insurance for
entities as entities whose U.S.-based
the shipments include goods whose
Iranian firms is banned.
property is to be frozen.
export to Iran is banned.
Japan and South Korean measures
take similar actions against IRISL and
Iran Air.
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40
Iran Sanctions
Implementation by EU (July 27,
2010) and Some Allied
U.S. Sanctions
U.N. Sanctions
Countries
Banking Sanctions:
No direct equivalent
The EU announcement on July 27,
2010, prohibit the opening in EU
A number or provisions and policies
However, two Iranian banks are
countries of any new branches or
have been employed to persuade
named as sanctioned entities under
offices of Iranian banks. The
foreign banks to end their
the U.N. Security Council
measures also prohibit EU banks
relationships with Iranian banks.
resolutions.
from offices or accounts in Iran. In
Several Iranian banks have been
addition, the transfer of funds
named as proliferation or terrorism
exceeding 40,000 Euros (about
supporting entities under Executive
$50,000) between and Iranian bank
Orders 13382 and 13224,
and an EU bank require prior
respectively.
authorization by EU bank
P.L. 111-195 contains a provision
regulators.
that prohibits banking relationships
Japan and South Korea measures
with U.S. banks for any foreign bank
similar to the above, with South
that conducts transactions with Iran’s
Korea adhering to the same 40,000
Revolutionary Guard or with Iranian
Euro authorization requirement.
entities sanctioned under the various
Japan and S. Korea froze the assets
U.N. resolutions.
of 15 Iranian banks; South Korea
targeted Bank Mellat for freeze.
No direct equivalent, although, as
Resolution 1929 (oper. paragraph 7)
EU measures on July 27, 2010,
discussed above, U.S. proliferations
prohibits Iran from acquiring an
require adherence to this provision
laws provide for sanctions against
interest in any country involving
of Resolution 1929.
foreign entities that help Iran with its
uranium mining, production, or use
nuclear and ballistic missile programs. of nuclear materials, or technology
related to nuclear-capable ballistic
missiles.
Operative Paragraph 9 of Resolution
1929 prohibits Iran from undertaking
“any activity” related to ballistic
missiles capable of delivering a
nuclear weapon.
Effects of Sanctions on Iran
Assessing the effectiveness of U.S. and international sanctions on depends at least in part upon
which goals are being examined. U.S. officials acknowledge that the sanctions have not achieved
the core goal of altering Iran’s commitment to its nuclear program. However, most outside
experts agree that the sanctions are contributing to the necessary, if not sufficient, subordinate
goal of applying increasing pressure to Iran’s economy. Iran’s political system is in turmoil, and
there is domestic pressure on the regime to reform or change outright, but this sentiment appears
to be caused by factors not directly related to Iran’s economy or to international sanctions.
At various conferences, some Administration officials have urged to allow time for the existing
sanctions to work but, following the October 2011 revelation of the alleged Iranian plot against
the Saudi Ambassador to the United States and the November 8, 2011, IAEA report focused on
possibly nuclear weapons design efforts, Administration officials are pushing for additional multi-
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national sanctions – an outcome of which was the November 21, 2011, coordinated U.S., British,
and Canadian announcement of new sanctions against Iran’s financial sector. At the same time,
the Administration maintains that sanctions be properly targeted and calibrated so as not to cause
a sudden spike in world oil prices.
Effect on Nuclear Negotiations
There is a consensus that U.S. and U.N. sanctions have not, to date, accomplished their core
strategic objective of causing a demonstrable shift in Iran’s commitment to its nuclear program.
Most experts assess that the optimal means for sanctions to affect the nuclear program is by
compelling an Iran decision to accept a compromise that would limit Iran’s nuclear development.
In late November 2010, Iran accepted new nuclear talks in Geneva. However, during two days of
talks (December 6 and 7, 2010), Iran did not agree to curbs on its enrichment of uranium, the core
U.S. demand. There was an agreement to have new talks in Turkey, which took place during
January 21-22, 2011. Those talks, by all accounts, made little progress as Iran refused to discuss
details of various proposals for nuclear confidence building measures. The talks were said to have
nearly broken down at the end of the first day. An exchange of letters between Iran and the EU
foreign policy representative (acting on behalf of the P5+1) during February-May 2011 did not
indicate sufficient Iranian flexibility to prompt the P5+1 to seek to schedule new talks with Iran.
Some might argue that the assessment of the effect of sanctions on Iran’s negotiating stance might
be subject to reassessment. In August 2011, Iranian officials indicated interest in Russian
proposals to restart talks and indicated a willingness to allow closer IAEA “supervision” or
inspections of Iran’s nuclear program. President Ahmadinejad, during his September 2011 U.N.
General Assembly visit to the United States, said Iran might accept a proposal to cap the level of
its uranium enrichment at 5%. These statements could represent new flexibility and indicate that
sanctions might be causing Iranian leaders to seek to reduce international pressure. However, as
of early December 2011, no new P5+1 talks with Iran are scheduled, and none are likely in light
of the virtual break in Iran-Britain relations sparked by the Iranian storming of Britain’s Embassy
in Tehran.
Counter-Proliferation Effects
A related issue is whether the cumulative sanctions have, in and of themselves, added bottlenecks
to Iran’s nuclear efforts by making it difficult for Iran to import needed materials or skills. In a
speech on November 22, 2011, National Security Adviser Tom Donilon said:
The effect of these sanctions has been clear. Coupled with mistakes and difficulties in Iran,
they have slowed Iran’s nuclear efforts. Sanctions and export control efforts have made it
more difficult and costly for Iran to acquire key materials and equipment for its enrichment
program, including items that Iran cannot produce itself.44
Others, however, say that there is not clear evidence that sanctions are slowing Iran’s program in
that International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reports say that Iran’s stockpile of low-enriched
uranium continues to expand,45 as do its holdings of 20% enriched uranium. This latter material is
44 Speech by National Security Adviser Tom Donilon at the Brookings Institution. November 22, 2011.
45 The text of the report is at http://www.isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/Iran_24May2011.pdf.
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Iran Sanctions
a cause of U.S. concern because of the technological skill needed to produce that level of
enrichment.
General Political Effects
The international community has hoped that international sanctions might widen splits in Iran’s
leadership and cause its leaders to reconsider major foreign policy decisions, particularly the
nuclear program. There are growing indications of splits in the Iranian leadership—particularly
between President Ahmadinejad and the Supreme Leader—to the point at which there has been
open discussion in Iran’s parliament since June 2011 of impeaching Ahmadinejad. In October
2011, the Supreme Leader raised the possibility of amending Iran’s constitution to eliminate the
post of President altogether, and replace it with a parliamentary system in which the Majles
selects a Prime Minister. However, this split does not appear to be driven primarily by differences
over economic policy or how to react to international sanctions.
At the broader level, in early 2011, the opposition Green movement returned to the streets in a
few significant protests. However, the protests were not been sustained since and there is no
evidence that international sanctions are affecting the strength of the domestic opposition either
positively or negatively. The opposition is driven by long-standing political grievances and has
not, to date, been joined by labor groups or other protesters articulating purely economic or
foreign policy demands. Some argue that difficult economic conditions are contributing to the
political quiescence of Iranian labor because the working class fears loss of pay from
participation in demonstrations or from regime retaliation.
There have been anecdotal reports of unrest in 2011, including strikes by laborers for overdue pay
and shuttering of stores by merchants who are having trouble obtaining trade financing,
insurance, and shipping availability. These difficulties are driving up their costs by an estimated
40%, even if the merchants can complete desired transactions at all.46 A substantial portion of the
Iranian economy depends on import-export activity, so the damage to the merchant community
from international sanctions has been considerable. Labor strikes were also key to the 1979
downfall of the Shah’s rule, and are closely watched by the regime for signs of spreading or
drawing in other groups to their cause.
Economic Effects
An IMF study issued in August 2011 casts some doubt that international sanctions are seriously
harming Iran’s economy.47 The study, based largely on a May 28-June 9, 2011 study visit,
indicated that Iran’s GDP is growing at a rate of about 3.5% and is expected to increase to about
4.5% in the medium term. The study also credits positive economic effects to the government’s
privatization program. The report also concurs with the view of many experts that high world oil
prices remain—above $100 per barrel in early December 2011—enable the regime to mitigate the
effects of international sanctions.
Despite the high oil prices, U.S. officials, including National Security Adviser Donilon in the
speech cited above, believe that sanctions are causing Iran’s economy to perform well below its
46 “Iran’s Gateway in Dubai Highlights Sanctions Bite.” Associated Press, February 1, 2011.
47 International Monetary Fund. IMF Country Report No. 11/241. August 2011.
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potential (high unemployment, for example) and vulnerable to downturn as U.S. and partner
strategy shuts Iran out of the global financial system, raises the costs for Iran of financing its
transactions, causes international firms to exit Iran, and threatens to reduce Iran’s oil sales. And,
Iranian officials have said that sanctions are hurting Iran’s economy: President Ahmadinejad told
Iran’s Majles (parliament) on November 1, 2011, that international sanctions are causing serious
problems for Iran’s banking sector. Iran’s Finance Minister made similar comments at the end of
November. Among other specifics:
• During 2006 and 2010, Treasury and State Departments officials say they
persuaded at least 80 banks not to process transactions for Iranian banks. Among
those that have pulled out of Iran are UBS (Switzerland), HSBC (Britain),
Germany’s Commerzbank A.G., and Deutsche Bank AG. U.S. financial
diplomacy has reportedly convinced Kuwaiti banks to stop transactions with
Iranian accounts,48 and some banks in Asia (primarily South Korea and Japan)
and the rest of the Middle East have done the same. Then-Under Secretary Levey
said on September 20, 2010, that “today, Iran is effectively unable to access
financial services from reputable banks and is increasingly unable to conduct
major transactions in dollars or Euros.”49
• As noted above, the banking sanctions have created difficulty for several of Iran’s
oil customers to process payments to Iran. These payments difficulties have left
Iran’s Central Bank short of hard currency and caused a reduction in the value of
the currency, by many accounts. Earlier, in September 2010, the value of Iran’s
currency, the rial, fell by about 15% when the UAE, a major financial hub for
Iran, began restricting transactions with Iranian banks sanctioned by U.N.
resolutions and by the United States.
• Treasury Department’s designations of affiliates and ships belong to Islamic
Republic of Iran Shipping Lines (IRISL) reportedly are harming Iran’s ability to
ship goods and raised the prices of goods to Iranian import-export dealers. Some
ships have been impounded by various countries for nonpayment of debts due on
them.
Foreign Companies Exiting the Iran Market
Because the international community has sought to isolate Iran economically, companies all over
the world have come to a decision to end their business with Iran, even when such business would
not appear to violate any U.N. or national sanction. Neither the U.S. ban on trade and investment
with Iran, nor U.N. sanctions, nor European Union sanctions on Iran, ban trade with Iran in all
civilian goods. Many experts believe that, over time, the efficiency and output of Iran’s economy
will decline as foreign expertise departs and Iran attracts alternative investment from or imports
goods from less capable foreign companies. Examples of major non-U.S. companies
discontinuing business with Iran include the following:
• ABB of Switzerland said in January 2010 it would cease doing business with
Iran.
48 Mufson, Steven and Robin Wright. “Iran Adapts to Economic Pressure.” Washington Post, October 29, 2007.
49 Speech by Stuart Levey before the Center for Strategic and International Studies. September 20, 2010.
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• Siemens of Germany was active in the Iran telecommunications infrastructure
market, but announced in February 2010 that it would cease pursuing business in
Iran. Finemeccanica, a defense and transportation conglomerate of Italy, followed
suit, as did Thyssen-Krupp, a German steelmaker.
• Germany’s Daimler (Mercedes-Benz maker) said in April 2010 it would freeze
planned exports to Iran of cars and trucks.
• In August-September 2010, Japan and South Korea announced that their
automakers Toyota, Hyundai, and Kia Motors would cease selling automobiles to
Iran.
• Attorneys for BNP Paribas of France told the author in July 2011 that, as of 2007,
the firm was pursuing no new business in Iran, although it was fulfilling existing
obligations in that market.
• On June 30, 2011, according to press reports, the Danish shipping giant Maersk
told Iran that it would no longer operate out of Iran’s three largest ports. The
firm’s decision reportedly was based on the U.S. announcement on June 23,
2011, that it was sanctioning the operator of those ports, Tidewater Middle East
Co., as a proliferation entity under Executive Order 13382. The pullout of
Maersk will likely further raise shipping costs.
Foreign Firms Reportedly Remaining in the Iran Market
Some firms continue to run the financial risk of doing business with Iran. Some of the well-
known firms that continue to do so include Alcatel-Lucent of France; Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi
UFJ; Bosch of Germany; Canon of Japan; Fiat SPA of Italy; Ericsson of Sweden; ING Group of
the Netherlands; Mercedes of Germany; Renault of France; Samsung of South Korea; Sony of
Japan; Volkswagen of Germany; Volvo of Sweden; and numerous others. Some of the foreign
firms that trade with Iran, such as Mitsui and Co. of Japan, Alstom of France, and Schneider
Electric of France, are discussed in the March 7, 2010, New York Times article on foreign firms
that do business with Iran and also receive U.S. contracts or financing. The Times article does not
claim that these firms have violated any U.S. sanctions laws.
Other questions have arisen over how U.S. sanctions might apply to business with foreign firms
that Iran might acquire a full or partial interest in. Such firms include Daewoo Electronics of
South Korea, where an Iranian firm—Entekhab Industrial Corp.—is a leading bidder to take over
that firm. Another example is Adabank of Turkey, which reportedly might be sold to Iran.
Subsidy Phase-Out Issue
A larger issue, which may have been affected by sanctions, but perhaps positively for Iran, is a
long-delayed plan to phase out state subsidies on staple goods such staples as gasoline and some
foods over the next five years. International sanctions might have helped Ahmadinejad convince
the Majles (parliament) that passing the subsidy reduction plan was urgent if Iran was to parry the
effects of burgeoning international sanctions. After several delays, the program started on
December 19, 2010, with a reduction in subsidies of gasoline and bread. The price of traditional
bread immediately escalated to 40 cents, from 15 cents, when the program began. Gasoline prices
now run on a tiered system in which a small increment is available at the subsidized price of
about 1.60 per gallon, but amounts above that threshold are available only at a price of about
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$2.60 per gallon, close to the world price. The lower and lower middle class is being
compensated with direct cash payments of about $40 per month.50
The IMF report of August 2011, discussed above, said that the phase-out removed about $60
billion in costs from Iran’s budget. The report also credits the regime with successfully containing
initial impact of the rise in domestic energy prices on inflation. However, some Iranian
economists say that 63 million Iranians qualify for the compensatory cash payments and that this
costs the government nearly all of the savings incurred from the subsidy phase-out.
Nor has the subsidy phase out produced major additional unrest. When the plan went into effect
in December 2010, some Iranian truckers simply stopped working on the grounds that their work
was no longer profitable (because the government limited the amount of extra fees that can be
charged to make up for the increase in costs). However, the subsidy phase out did not produce
new Green movement demonstrations or other indicators of opposition.
Effect on the Energy Sector
As noted throughout, the U.S. objective has been to target sanctions against Iran’s energy sector,
considered the engine of Iran’s economy. The sector is the source of nearly 70% of government
revenue. Depriving the regime of substantial revenue, it is believed, will reduce its ability to
import needed technology for its WMD programs and enlist and maintain the loyalty of security
personnel.
There are clear indications that the sanctions—coupled with the overall sense that Iran is isolated
from the international community—are causing substantial injury to the energy sector. U.S.
officials in 2011 say that Iran has lost close to $60 billion in investment as numerous major firms
have either announced pullouts from some of their Iran projects, declined to make further
investments, or resold their investments to other companies. On the other hand, Treasury official
David Cohen, mentioned above, testified in October 2011 that sanctions are likely to deprive Iran
of an estimated $14 billion in oil revenue from 2011 to 2016.
Observers at key energy fields in Iran say there is little evidence of foreign investment activity
and little new development activity sighted, including at the large South Pars gas field that Iran
has focused on for at least 10 years. It is highly unlikely that Iran will attract the $145 billion in
new investment by 2018 that Iran’s deputy Oil Minister said in November 2008 that Iran needs.
Similar estimates come from independent Iranian energy experts, who say that, as of October
2011, the sector needs $130 billion in investment from 2011 until 2020.51 A Government
Accountability Office (GAO) report of August 3, 2011, contains tables that discuss those firms
that have discontinued commercial activity in Iran’s energy sector, as well as those still operating
and investing.52Table 3 shows international firms that have invested or remain invested in Iran’s
energy sector. Some of them have not been determined to have violated ISA and may be under
investigation by the State Department. As discussed above, some firms have been sanctioned, and
others have avoided sanctions either through Administration waivers or invocation of the “special
rule.”
50 Erdbink, Thomas. “Leaving Iran’s Middle Class Behind.” Washington Post, November 7, 2010.
51 Khajehpour presentation at CSIS. Op. cit.
52 GAO. GAO-11-855R. Firms Reported in Open Sources As Having Commercial Activity in Iran’s Oil, Gas, and
Petrochemical Sectors. August 3, 2011.
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Possibly or partly as a result of the relative lack of new investment, Iran’s oil production has
remain relatively steady at about 4.1 million barrels per day (mbd) since the mid-2000s, despite
government efforts to expand production. Production is projected to fall to about 3.3 mbd by
2015.53 That estimate is somewhat less than the 25% decline over the next five years (by 2016)
that the GAO August 3, 2011, report, quoting Oil and Gas Journal, estimates is possible. Others
maintain that Iran’s gas sector can compensate for declining oil exports, although Iran has used its
gas development primarily to reinject into its oil fields rather than to export. Iran exports about
3.6 trillion cubic feet of gas, primarily to Turkey, but also to Armenia. Some Members of
Congress believe that ISA would have been even more effective in injuring Iran’s energy sector if
successive administrations had imposed ISA sanctions more aggressively.
The EU sanctions apparently have also derailed a BP-NIOC joint venture in the Rhum gas field,
200 miles off the coast of Scotland. BP announced in November 2010 that it would stop
production there to ensure compliance with the EU sanctions. In addition, partners in the Trans-
Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) said in September 2010 that the pipeline would not be used to transport
Iranian gas to Europe.
Some believed that a key to further harming Iran’s energy sector is to persuade remaining oil
services firms to pull out of Iran. In press articles and in the December 1, 2010, House Foreign
Affairs Committee hearing discussed above, the large oil services firm Schlumberger, which in
incorporated in the Netherlands Antilles, has said it will wind down its business with Iran.
However, press reports citing company documents say all contracts with Iran might not be
terminated until at least 2013.54 Persuading other oil services firms to exit Iran was the intent of
Executive Order 13590 of November 21, 2011, which makes such activity sanctionable.
Concerns About “Backfill”
There has been a concern that some of the investment void might be “backfilled,” at least partly,
by Asian firms such as those from China, Malaysia, Vietnam, and countries in Eastern Europe.
However, many such deals are said to be in preliminary stages, and clear examples of
“backfilling” are few, to date. Most of the companies that might backfill abandoned projects are
perceived as not being as technically capable as those that have withdrawn from Iran. In July
2010, after the enactment of Resolution 1929 and CISADA, the Revolutionary Guard’s main
construction affiliate, Khatem ol-Anbiya, announced it had withdrawn from developing Phases 15
and 16 of South Pars—a project worth $2 billion.55 Khatem ol-Anbiya took over that project in
2006 when Norway’s Kvaerner pulled out of it. It is likely that the IRGC perceived its
involvement as likely to scare away foreign participation in the work because U.S. and U.N.
sanctions are targeting the IRGC and its corporate affiliates.
53 http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704569204575328851816763476.html.
54 Stockman, Farah. “Oil Firm Says It Will Withdraw From Iran.” Boston Globe, November 12, 2010.
55 “Iran Revolutionary Guards Pull Out of Gas Deal Over Sanctions.” Platts, July 19, 2010.
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Table 5. Post-1999 Major Investments/Major Development Projects
in Iran’s Energy Sector
Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value Output/Goal
February Doroud (oil)
Total (France)/ENI
$1 billion
205,000 bpd
1999
(Italy)
(Energy Information Agency, Department
of Energy, August 2006.)
Total and ENI exempted from sanctions on
September 30 because of pledge to exit
Iran market
April
Balal (oil)
Total/ Bow Valley
$300 million
40,000 bpd
1999
(Canada)/ENI
(“Balal Field Development in Iran
Completed,” World Market Research Centre,
May 17, 2004.)
Nov.
Soroush and Nowruz (oil)
Royal Dutch Shell
$800 million
190,000 bpd
1999
(Netherlands)/Japex
(“News in Brief: Iran.” Middle East Economic (Japan)
Digest, (MEED) January 24, 2003.)
Royal Dutch exempted from sanctions on
9/30 because of pledge to exit Iran market
April
Anaran bloc (oil)
Norsk Hydro and
$105 million
65,000
2000
Statoil (Norway) and
(MEED Special Report, December 16, 2005, Gazprom and Lukoil
pp. 48-50.)
(Russia) No production
to date; Statoil and
Norsk have left project.
July
Phase 4 and 5, South Pars (gas)
ENI
$1.9 billion
2 billion
2000
cu.ft./day (cfd)
(Petroleum Economist, December 1, 2004.)
Gas onstream as of
Dec. 2004
ENI exempted 9/30 based on pledge to exit
Iran market
March
Caspian Sea oil exploration—
GVA Consultants
$225 million
NA
2001
construction of submersible drilling rig for
(Sweden)
Iranian partner
(IPR Strategic Business Information
Database, March 11, 2001.)
June
Darkhovin (oil)
ENI
$1 billion
100,000 bpd
2001
(“Darkhovin Production Doubles.” Gulf
Field in production
Daily News, May 1, 2008.) ENI told CRS in
April 2010 it would close out all Iran
operations by 2013.
ENI exempted from sanctions on 9/30, as
discussed above
May
Masjid-e-Soleyman (oil)
Sheer Energy
$80 million
25,000 bpd
2002
(Canada)/China
(“CNPC Gains Upstream Foothold.”
National Petroleum
MEED, September 3, 2004.)
Company (CNPC).
Local partner is
Naftgaran Engineering
Sept.
Phase 9 + 10, South Pars (gas)
LG Engineering and
$1.6 billion
2 billion cfd
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Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
2002
(“OIEC Surpasses South Korean Company
Construction Corp.
in South Pars.” IPR Strategic Business
(now known as GS
Information Database, November 15,
Engineering and
2004.)
Construction Corp.,
South Korea)
On stream as of early
2009
October Phase 6, 7, 8, South Pars (gas)
Statoil (Norway)
$750 million
3 billion cfd
2002
(Source: Statoil, May 2011)
Field began producing late 2008;
operational control handed to NIOC in
2009. Statoil exempted from sanctions on
9/30/2010 because Statoil pledged to exit
Iran market.
January
Azadegan (oil)
Inpex (Japan) 10%
$200 million
260,000 bpd
2004
stake. CNPC agreed to
(Inpex stake);
(“Japan Mul s Azadegan Options.” APS
develop “north
China $1.76
Review Oil Market Trends, November 27,
Azadegan” in Jan. 2009
billion
2006.)
October 15, 2010: Inpex announced it
would exit the project by selling its stake;
“special rule” exempting it from ISA
investigation invoked November 17, 2010.
August
Tusan Block
Petrobras (Brazil)
$178 million
No
2004
production
Oil found in block in Feb. 2009, but not in
commercial quantity, according to the firm.
(“Iran-Petrobras Operations.” APS Review
Gas Market Trends, April 6, 2009; “Brazil’s
Petrobras Sees Few Prospects for Iran Oil,”
(http://www.reuters.com/article/
idUSN0317110720090703.)
October Yadavaran (oil)
Sinopec (China), deal
$2 billion
300,000 bpd
2004
finalized December 9,
Formal start of development of the field
2007
still delayed as of September 2011
(“China Curbs Iran Energy Work, Reuters,
September 2, 2011)
2005
Saveh bloc (oil)
PTT (Thailand)
?
?
GAO report, cited below
June
Garmsar bloc (oil)
Sinopec (China)
$20 million
?
2006
Deal finalized in June 2009
(“China’s Sinopec signs a deal to develop oil
block in Iran—report,” Forbes, 20 June
2009, http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/
2006/06/20/afx2829188.html.)
July
Arak Refinery expansion
Sinopec (China); JGC
$959 million
Expansion to
2006
(Japan). Work may have (major initial
produce
(GAO reports; Fimco FZE Machinery
been taken over or
expansion;
250,000 bpd
website; http://www.fimco.org/index.php?
continued by Hyundai
extent of
option=com_content&task=view&id=70&
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Iran Sanctions
Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
Itemid=78.)
Heavy Industries (S.
Hyundai work
Korea)
unknown)
Sept.
Khorramabad block (oil)
Norsk Hydro and
$49 million
?
2006
Statoil (Norway).
Seismic data gathered, but no production is
planned. (Statoil factsheet, May 2011)
Feb.
LNG Tanks at Tombak Port
Daelim (S. Korea)
$320 million
200,000 ton
2007
capacity
Contract to build three LNG tanks at
Tombak, 30 miles north of Assaluyeh Port.
(May not constitute “investment” as
defined in pre-2010 version of ISA, because
that definition did not specify LNG as
“petroleum resource” of Iran.)
“Central Bank Approves $900 Million for
Iran LNG Project.” Tehran Times, June 13,
2009.
March
Esfahan refinery upgrade
Daelim (S. Korea)
NA
2007
(“Daelim, Others to Upgrade Iran’s Esfahan
Refinery.” Chemical News and Intelligence,
March 19, 2007.)
Dec.
Golshan and Ferdows onshore and
SKS Ventures,
$16 billion
3.4 billion cfd
2007
offshore gas fields and LNG plant
Petrofield Subsidiary
(Malaysia)
contract modified but reaffirmed December
2008
(GAO report; Oil Daily, January 14, 2008.)
2007
Jofeir Field (oil)
Belarusneft (Belarus)
$500 million
40,000 bpd
(unspec.)
under contract to
GAO report cited below. Belarusneft, a
Naftiran.
subsidiary of Belneftekhim, sanctioned
under ISA on March 29, 2011. Naftiran
No production to date
sanctioned on September 29, 2010, for this
and other activities.
2008
Dayyer Bloc (Persian Gulf, offshore,
Edison (Italy)
$44 million
?
oil)
GAO report cited below
February Lavan field (offshore natural gas)
PGNiG (Poland)
$2 billion
2008
GAO report cited below
Status unclear
March
Danan Field (on-shore oil)
Petro Vietnam
? ?
2008
Exploration and
“PVEP Wins Bid to Develop Danan Field.”
Production Co.
Iran Press TV, March 11, 2008
(Vietnam)
April
Moghan 2 (onshore oil and gas,
INA (Croatia)
$40-$140
?
2008
Ardebil province)
million
(dispute over
GAO report cited below
size)
?
Kermanshah petrochemical plant
Uhde (Germany)
300,000
(new construction)
metric tons/yr
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50
Iran Sanctions
Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
GAO report cited below
January
“North Azadegan”
CNPC (China)
$1.75 billion
75,000 bpd
2009
(Chinadaily.com. “CNPC to Develop
Azadegan Oilfield,”
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/
2009-01/16/content_7403699.htm.)
January
Bushehr Polymer Plants
Sasol (South Africa)
?
Capacity is 1
2009
million tons
Production of polyethelene at two polymer
per year.
plants in Bushehr Province
Products are
(GAO August 2011 report)
exported
from Iran.
Oct.
South Pars Gas Field—Phases 6-8,
G and S Engineering
$1.4 billion
2009
Gas Sweetening Plant
and Construction
(South Korea)
CRS conversation with Embassy of S. Korea
in Washington, D.C, July 2010
Contract signed but then abrogated by S.
Korean firm
Nov.
South Pars: Phase 12—Part 2 and
Daelim (S. Korea)—
$4 billion ($2
2009
Part 3
Part 2; Tecnimont
bn each part)
(Italy)—Part 3
(“Italy, South Korea To Develop South Pars
Phase 12.” Press TV (Iran), November 3,
2009, http://www.presstv.com/pop/Print/?
id=110308.)
February South Pars: Phase 11
CNPC (China)
$4.7 billion
2010
Drilling was to begin in March 2010, but
drilling still delayed as of September 2011.
(“China Curbs Iran Energy Work,” Reuters,
September 2, 2011)
Totals: $41 billion investment
Other Pending/Preliminary Deals
North Pars Gas Field (offshore gas). Includes gas
China National
$16 billion
3.6 billion cfd
purchases (December 2006)
Offshore Oil Co.
Work crews reportedly pul ed from the project in
early-mid 2011. (“China Curbs Iran Energy Work”
Reuters, September 2, 2011)
Phase 13, 14—South Pars (gas); (Feb. 2007).
Royal Dutch Shell,
$4.3 billion
?
Repsol (Spain)
Deadline to finalize as May 20, 2009, apparently not
met; firms submitted revised proposals to Iran in
June 2009. (http://www.rigzone.com/news/article.asp?
a_id=77040&hmpn=1.)
State Department said on September 30, 2010, that
Royal Dutch Shel and Repsol have ended negotiations
with Iran and will not pursue this project any further
Phase 22, 23, 24—South Pars (gas), incl. transport
Turkish Petroleum
$12. billion
2 billion cfd
Iranian gas to Turkey, and on to Europe and building
Company (TPAO)
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Iran Sanctions
Company(ies)/Status
Date Field/Project
(If Known)
Value
Output/Goal
three power plants in Iran. Initialed July 2007; not
finalized to date.
Iran’s Kish gas field (April 2008) Includes pipeline
Oman (co-financing of
$7 billion
1 billion cfd
from Iran to Oman
project)
(http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=112062&
sectionid=351020103.)
Phase 12 South Pars (gas)—part 1. Incl. LNG
Taken over by Indian
$8 billion
20 million
terminal construction and Farzad-B natural gas bloc
firms (ONGC, Oil India from Indian
tonnes of
(March 2009). Financing stal ed due to sanctions;
Ltd., Hinduja, Petronet
firms/$1.5
LNG annually
Tehran gave ONGC and Hinduja until January 31, 2011, in 2007). May also
billion
by 2012
to line up financing or the bid wil be considered
involve Sonanagol
Sonangol/$780
abandoned.
(Angola) and PDVSA
million
(Venezuela)
PDVSA
Abadan refinery
Sinopec
up to $6
billion if new
Upgrade and expansion; building a new refinery at
refinery is
Hormuz on the Persian Gulf coast (August 2009)
built
Sources: As noted in table, as wel as CRS conversations with officials of the State Department Bureau of
Economics, and officials of embassies of the parent government of some of the listed companies (2005-2009).
Some information comes: March 2010 GAO report, “Firms Reported in Open Sources as Having Commercial
Activity in Iran’s Oil, Gas, and Petrochemical Sectors.” GAO-10-515R Iran’s Oil, Gas, and Petrochemical Sectors.
http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10515r.pdf. The GAO report lists 41 firms with “commercial activity in Iran’s
energy sector; several of the listed agreements do not appear to constitute “investment,” as defined in ISA. That
report was updated on August 3, 2011, in GAO-11-855R. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d11855r.pdf.
Note: CRS has neither the mandate, the authority, nor the means to determine which of these projects, if any,
might constitute a violation of the Iran Sanctions Act. CRS has no way to confirm the precise status of any of the
announced investments, and some investments may have been resold to other firms or terms altered since
agreement. In virtual y all cases, such investments and contracts represent private agreements between Iran and
its instruments and the investing firms, and firms are not necessarily required to confirm or publicly release the
terms of their arrangements with Iran. Reported $20 million+ investments in oil and gas fields, refinery upgrades,
and major project leadership are included in this table. Responsibility for a project to develop Iran’s energy
sector is part of ISA investment definition.
Effect on Gasoline Availability and Importation
In March 2010, well before the enactment of CISADA on July 1, 2010, several gas suppliers to
Iran, anticipating this legislation, announced that they had stopped or would stop supplying
gasoline to Iran.56 Others have ceased since the enactment of CISADA. Some observers say that
gasoline deliveries to Iran fell from about 120,000 barrels per day before CISADA to about
30,000 barrels per day immediately thereafter,57 although importation had recovered somewhat to
about 80,000 barrels per day by September 2011. That suggests that Iran has lined up additional
supplies from those still willing to do business with Iran. As noted in a New York Times report of
56 Information in this section derived from, Blas, Javier. “Traders Cut Iran Petrol Line.” Financial Times, March 8,
2010.
57 Information provided at Foundation for Defense of Democracies conference on Iran. December 9, 2010.
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Iran Sanctions
March 7, 2010,58 and a Government Accountability Office study released September 3, 2010,59
some firms that have supplied Iran have received U.S. credit guarantees or contracts.
The main suppliers to Iran over the past few years, and the GAO-reported status of their sales to
Iran are listed below (with the caveat that some reports say that partners or affiliates of these
firms may still sell to Iran in cases where the corporate headquarters have announced a halt):
• Vitol of Switzerland (notified GAO it stopped selling to Iran in early 2010);
• Trafigura of Switzerland (notified GAO it stopped selling to Iran in November
2009);
• Glencore of Switzerland (notified GAO it stopped selling in September 2009);
• Total of France (notified GAO it stopped sales to Iran in May 2010);
• Reliance Industries of India (notified GAO it stopped sales to Iran in May 2009).
Reliance has also told press outlets on April 1, 2010, that it would not import
Iranian crude oil in 2010;
• Petronas of Malaysia (said on April 15, 2010, it had stopped sales to Iran);60
• Lukoil of Russia (reportedly to have ended sales to Iran in in April 2010,61
although some reports continue that Lukoil affiliates are supplying Iran);
• Royal Dutch Shell of the Netherlands (notified GAO it stopped sales in October
2009);
• Kuwait’s Independent Petroleum Group told U.S. officials it is no longer selling
gasoline to Iran, as of September 2010;62
• Tupras of Turkey (according to the State Department on May 24, 2011);
• British Petroleum of United Kingdom, Shell, Q8, Total, and OMV are no longer
selling aviation fuel to Iran Air, according to U.S. State Department officials on
May 24, 2011;
• A UAE firm, Golden Crown Petroleum FZE, told the author in April 2011 that, as
of June 29, 2010, it no longer leases vessels for the purpose of shipping
petroleum products from or through Iran;
• Munich Re, Allianz, Hannover Re (Germany) were providing insurance and re-
insurance for gasoline shipments to Iran. However, they reportedly have exited
the market for insuring gasoline shipments for Iran;63
• Lloyd’s (Britain). The major insurer had been the main company insuring Iranian
gas (and other) shipping, but reportedly has ended that business as of July 2010
According to the State Department, key shipping associations have created
58 Becker, Jo and Ron Nixon. “U.S. Enriches Companies Defying Its Policy on Iran.” New York Times, March 7, 2010.
59 GAO-10-967R. Exporters of Refined Petroleum Products to Iran. September 3, 2010.
60 http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/009370f0-486e-11df-9a5d-00144feab49a.html.
61 http://www.defenddemocracy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11788115&Itemid=105.
62 http://www.defenddemocracy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11788115&Itemid=105.
63 http://www.defenddemocracy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11788115&Itemid=105.
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Iran Sanctions
clauses in their contracts that enable ship owners to refuse to deliver gasoline to
Iran;
• The State Department reported on September 30, 2010, that Hong Kong company
NYK Line Ltd. had ended shipping business with Iran (on any goods, not just
gasoline);
• According to the State Department on May 24, 2011, Linde of Germany has said
it had stopped supplying gas liquefaction technology to Iran, contributing to
Iran’s decision to suspend its LNG program.
Firms Believed to Still Be Supplying Gasoline or Related Equipment
• The firms sanctioned by the Administration on May 24, 2011 (discussed above):
PCCI (Jersey/Iran); Royal Oyster Group (UAE); Speedy Ship (UAE/Iran);
Tanker Pacific (Singapore); Ofer Brothers Group (Israel); Associated
Shipbroking (Monaco); and Petroleos de Venezuela (Venezuela);
• Zhuhai Zhenrong, Unipec, and China Oil of China are said by GAO to still be
selling to Iran and have not denied continuing sales to the GAO;
• Emirates National Oil Company of UAE was reported by GAO to still be selling
to Iran;
• Hin Leong Trading of Singapore was reported by GAO to still be selling gasoline
to Iran;
• Some refiners in Bahrain reportedly may still be selling gasoline to Iran.
Despite the reduction in gasoline sales to Iran, Iranian officials have largely coped with the
reduction in gasoline imports. The phaseout of gasoline subsidies discussed above has already
reportedly begun to reduce demand for gasoline. Iran has also increased domestic production by
converting at least two petrochemical plants to gasoline production, through a generally inferior
process that initially produces benzene. The gasoline produced reportedly has led to a large
increase in air pollution in Tehran, which was expected. Iran also says it has accelerated
renovations and other improvements to existing gasoline refineries, allocating $2.2 billion for that
purpose. Even before the subsidy reduction, there had not been gasoline shortages or gasoline
rationing, although some Iranian oppositionists have reported otherwise.
Building new refining capacity appears to be Iran’s long term effort to reduce its vulnerability to
gasoline supply reductions. Iran’s deputy oil minister said in July 2010 Iran would try to invest
$46 billion to upgrade its nine refineries and build seven new ones, a far larger amount than Iran
had previously allocated to oil refining capacity.
Additional Sanctions: Possible Legislation,
Administrative, and Multilateral Action
Some in the 112th Congress believe that the cumulative effect of U.S. and international
sanctions—even after the U.S. British, and Canadian steps taken on November 21, 2011—remain
insufficient to accomplish key U.S. policy goals toward Iran, and are advocating further steps.
Still, the Administration is said to prefer taking its own action rather than be bound by specific
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Iran Sanctions
congressional requirements, and in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on
December 1, 2011, Treasury Undersecretary Cohen expressed concern about congressional
initiatives that could raise world oil prices or cause U.S. partners to distance themselves from the
joint effort to isolate Iran.
A House bill, H.R. 1905, the “Iran Threat Reduction Act of 2011” was marked up by the House
Foreign Affairs Committee on November 2, 2011, along with H.R. 2105. As amended on
November 2, H.R. 1905, contains language restating provisions of ISA and would:
• Add two sanctions to the available ISA menu: a ban on visas for the principal
officers or controlling shareholders of sanctioned firms (and their subsidiaries,
parents, and affiliates); and apply any ISA sanction to the principal officers of a
sanctioned firm.
• Require the President to impose at least six out of the expanded ISA menu of 11
available sanctions on any sanctioned firm.
• Make subject to ISA sanctions (majority of the menu) any firm that helps Iran
issue sovereign debt.
• Prohibit U.S. persons, subject to penalty, from conducting any business with the
Revolutionary Guard of its affiliated entities, or with any foreign firm that
conducts such banned transactions with the Revolutionary Guard or its affiliates.
• Ban commerce between Iran and subsidiaries of U.S. firms, in cases where the
subsidiary is controlled or more than 50% owned by the parent firm.
• Ban previously permissible licensing of the sale to Iran of U.S. equipment to
provide for the safe operation of Iran’s civilian aircraft fleet.
• State that it is U.S. policy to support those in Iran seeking democracy, and rquire
an Administration submission to Congress of a comprehensive strategy to help
the Iranian people circumvent regime censorship and monitoring of their use of
the Internet or other media.
• Require an Administration report listing all persons who are members of named
Iranian government institutions, including high ranking Revolutionary Guard
officers—and ban visas for the named individuals.
• Ban contact between any U.S. official and any Iranian official who poses a threat
to the United States or is affiliated with terrorist organizations.
• Contain elements similar to H.R. 740 on Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC) disclosures, discussed further below.
• Sanction Iran’s Central Bank if the President determines that it helped Iran
acquire WMD or facilitated transactions for the Revolutionary Guard or for
entities sanctioned by the United States.
• Set as U.S. policy to press Iraq not to close Camp Ashraf, an encampment in Iraq
which houses about 3,300 Iranian oppositionists, unless the residents can be
resettled. The Camp Ashraf issue is discussed in detail in CRS Report RL32048,
Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses, by Kenneth Katzman.
No date for a floor vote on H.R. 1905 has been announced. However some observers say that the
House might act on it before the end of 2011.
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Iran Sanctions
A Senate bill that focuses primarily on economic sanctions and proliferation sanctions is S. 1048,
introduced May 23, 2011, and titled the “Iran, North Korea, and Syria Sanctions Consolidation
Act of 2011.” (As noted above, a companion measure, H.R. 2105, was marked up on November
2, 2011.) Among other provisions, S.1048:
• States (Section 101) that it is the policy of the United States to prevent Iran from
acquiring a nuclear weapons capability.
• Primarily targets affiliates of the Revolutionary Guard for sanctions, and expands
the list of sanctions (adding a ban on financing, aid, or investment) to be imposed
on violators named under the Iran, Syria, North Korea Non-Proliferation Act,
discussed above.
• Like H.R. 1905, subjects to ISA sanctions purchases of Iranian oil or gas in
which the IRGC or its affiliates are involved. Unlike H.R. 1905, S. 1048 (Section
123) also mandates sanctions (ban on U.S. government contracts and ban on
imports to the United States) of any entity determined to have conducted any
commercial or financial transaction with the IRGC or its affiliates.
• Would sanction foreign firms that participate in energy-related joint ventures with
Iran outside Iranian territory.
• Would prohibit ships to put into port in the United States if the vessel entered a
port in Iran, North Korea, or Syria any time 180 days prior.
• Like H.R. 1905, would deny visas to senior officials of Iran, but extends that to
North Korea and Syria, and does not define specific government agencies in Iran
whose members shall be named by the Administration.
• Provides for sanctions against any person determined to be providing or
acquiring militarily useful equipment to/from Iran, North Korea, or Syria.
• Contains Iran human rights-related and SEC disclosure provisions similar to bills
discussed below.
Sanctioning Iran’s Central Bank
As demonstrated by other pending legislation, there appears to be growing support in Congress to
sanction Iran’s Central Bank. Currently, there are no mandatory sanctions against Iran’s Central
Bank (Bank Markazi) itself, although certain activities involving the Bank are potentially
sanctionable, as discussed above. In addition, as noted, on November 21, the Treasury
Department designated all of Iran’s financial sector, including the Central Bank (and all Iranian
banks) as “money laundering entities” for Iran-related transactions under Section 311 of the USA
Patriot Act. However, the Treasury Department has not imposed any specific sanctions against
Iran’s Central Bank for its efforts, discussed in numerous accounts, to help other Iranian banks
circumvent the U.S. and U.N. banking pressure. If there were evidence to support such
judgments, Treasury could potentially designate it as a proliferation entity under Executive order
13382 or a terrorism supporting entity under Executive Order 13224.
Some in Congress see sanctioning the Central Bank as an effective additional option to pressure
Iran and were not satisfied by the November 21 Treasury designation of the Iranian financial
sector as a money laundering entity. The amendment to H.R. 1905 that appears likely, if passed
and signed, to trigger sanctions against the Central Bank is discussed above. A separate effort was
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Iran Sanctions
introduced as an amendment to a FY2012 national defense authorization bill (S.1867). Introduced
by Senators Mark Kirk and Robert Menendez, the amendment would require the President to
prevent a foreign bank from opening an account in the United States if that bank processes
payments for oil (and not applicable to other transactions) through Iran’s Central Bank. The
amendment provides for a renewable waiver of 120 days duration if the President determines that
doing so is in the national interest. On December 1, 2011, the amendment passed 100-0, although
Administration opposition could lead to modifications to the provision in further legislative
action. The recent congressional initiatives built on an August 9, 2011, a letter signed by 92
Senators was sent to President Obama urging “a comprehensive strategy to pressure Iran’s
financial system by imposing sanctions” on the Central Bank of Iran.
Some in Congress appeared to believe that the Administration supports sanctioning the Central
Bank. In testimony before several congressional committees in October 2011, Treasury
Undersecretary Cohen had stated that the Administration is considering sanctioning the Central
Bank if the United States is able to get broad international acceptance for doing so.
Administration officials had also noted that sanctioning a Central Bank of a country, although
sensitive, is not unprecedented – the central banks of Sudan and Libya had been sanctioned in the
past. However, testimony by Undersecretary Cohen before the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee on December 2, 2011, but before the vote on the Kirk-Menendez amendment, stated
“strong opposition” to the amendment because it could lead to a rise in oil prices that would
actually benefit Iran. Others argue that Administration opposition might have been mitigated by
the inclusion in the amendment of the waiver provision.
The Administration opposition is in part because several European countries reportedly have
opposed such a sanction as an extreme step. If the Central Bank of Iran were cut off from the
international banking system, it is possible that all mechanisms for paying Iran for crude oil
would be shut down. That raises the potential for Iran to stop exporting oil, an action that would
undoubtedly cause a significant rise in world oil prices. Alternatively, Iran might accept payment
in goods or services, or in currencies that are non-convertible or difficult to convert.
In addition, one of the Central Bank’s roles is to keep Iran’s currency, the rial, stable. It does so
by using hard currency to buy rials to raise the currency value, or to sell rials to bring the value
down. An unstable currency could harm Iran’s ability to import some needed foodstuffs and
medical products, according to those opposing that sanction. However, suggesting possibly
eroding European opposition to sanctioning the Central Bank, Resolution 1929 references the
need for vigilance in dealing with the Bank, but did not mandate any new sanctions against it. In
addition, the EU discussions of a voluntary embargo on purchases of Iranian oil could also lead to
an acceptance of U.S. sanctions against Iran’s Central Bank.
Other Trends in the 112th Congress
Another apparent trend in the 112th Congress, based on introduced legislation, is to expand the
sanctioning of Iranians named as human rights abusers. This builds on the human rights
provisions of CISADA and the earlier Iran Freedom Support Act. In particular, the Iran Human
Rights and Democracy Promotion Act of 2011 (S. 879 and H.R. 1714) would: make mandatory
investigations of Iranian human rights abusers; sanction the sale to Iran of equipment that could
be used to suppress demonstrations; reauthorize the Iran Freedom Support Act (see below); and
create a “Special Representative” position at the Department of State to focus on highlighting
Iran’s human rights abuses and coordinate U.S. and international responses. As noted, portions of
H.R. 1905 and S. 1048, which mainly focus on economic sanctions, also contain measures to
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Iran Sanctions
further penalize Iranian human rights abusers or otherwise promote Internet freedom and
democracy in Iran.
Other economic sanctions-related measures introduced in the 112th Congress include S. 366 and
H.R. 740. These bills would require firms to declare in their required filings with the Securities
and Exchange Commission whether that firm had undertaken activity that could violate ISA,
CISADA, or executive orders (13224 or 13382) and regulations that bar dealings with designated
Iranian entities.
Possible Additional Multilateral Sanctions
Although there do not appear to be active discussions among the P5+1 on specific new United
Nations actions to pressure Iran, there are a number of other possible sanctions that might receive
consideration – either in a multilateral framework or for U.S. unilateral action targeting foreign
firms and entities.
Comprehensive Oil Embargo
Most experts believe that the most effective sanction would be a mandated, worldwide embargo
on the purchase of Iranian crude oil. There are no indications that such a step is to be proposed at
the United Nations in the near term or that doing so would achieve consensus. However, as noted
above, a voluntary ban on importing Iranian oil is under consideration by the EU, at French and
British urging. Were such a voluntary ban to be adopted, there would likely be pressure on Japan
and South Korea to follow suit. That could potentially leave China alone as a very large buyer of
Iranian oil, conceivably enabling China to force down the price it pays for Iranian oil. However,
some might argue that if this trend turned into a comprehensive, worldwide voluntary embargo,
world oil prices might rise significantly. Ideas to mitigate such effects include a delay period to
allow for re-adjustment of the oil market.
A U.S. unilateral move to compel others to cease purchasing Iranian oil does not appear under
consideration. Short of imposing a military quarantine on Iran, the United States does not have
the ability, by itself, to prevent Iran from exporting oil. However, as in the case of the Iran
Sanctions Act, U.S. law could be used to force international energy firms to choose between
buying Iranian oil or continuing their “business as usual” in the very large U.S. market. This step
does not appear under consideration in the Administration.
Some in Congress do want to compel other countries to stop buying Iranian oil or to limit such
purchases. In the 111th Congress, Representative Sherman introduced H.R. 6296, which, in
Section 202, would amend ISA to make sanctionable “long term agreements” to buy oil from
Iran—agreements that would involve large, up-front payments to Iran for purchases of oil over a
long period of time. A provision of that bill would have extended ISA sanctionability to any
energy project conducted with NIOC, anywhere in the world. An amended version of the bill was
introduced in the 112th Congress (H.R. 1655, introduced April 15, 2011).
Iran “Oil-Free Zone”
There reportedly has been discussion among experts of closing the loophole in the U.S. trade ban
under which Iranian crude oil, when mixed with other countries’ oils at foreign refineries in
Europe and elsewhere, can be imported as refined product. The basis of the proposal, outlined by
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Iran Sanctions
a think-tank called the Foundation of Defense of Democracies, is that restricting Iranian oil to use
by only a limited number of refineries would force down the price received by Iran for its oil,
although without raising the world price of oil significantly, if at all.
Other Possibilities
Other possible international steps would likely have less of an adverse economic effect on the
countries imposing those sanctions on Iran but would, if enacted in a U.N. Security Council
resolution, be binding on U.N. member states and presumably have greater effect than would
such steps by the United States alone or in concert with its allies.
• Mandating Reductions in Diplomatic Exchanges with Iran or Prohibiting Travel
by Iranian Officials. Some have suggested a worldwide ban on travel to Iranian
civilian officials, such as those involved in suppressing democracy activists.
Some have called on countries to reduce their diplomatic presence in Iran, or to
expel some Iranian diplomats from Iranian embassies in their territories.
However, the EU came one steps closer to this option after the November 29
attack on the British Embassy in Tehran: Britain closed the Iranian embassy in
Britain, and Norway, France, Germany, and the Netherlands withdrew their
ambassadors. The EU, as noted, on December 1 named numerous Iranian persons
as subject to a visa ban.
• Barring Iran from International Sporting Events. A further option is to limit
sports or cultural exchanges with Iran, such as Iran’s participation in the World
Cup soccer tournament. However, many experts oppose using sporting events to
accomplish political goals.
• Banning Passenger Flights to and from Iran. Bans on flights to and from Libya
were imposed on that country in response to the finding that its agents were
responsible for the December 21, 1988, bombing of Pan Am 103 (now lifted).
There are no indications that a passenger aircraft flight ban is under consideration
among the P5+1.
• A Ban on Exports to Iran of Refined Oil Products and Energy Equipment and
Services. As noted, the EU sanctions formalized July 27, 2010, did not ban sales
of gasoline but did ban the sale to Iran of equipment or services for Iran’s energy
sector (refineries as well as exploration and drilling). Another possibility would
be to make such a general ban on sales of energy equipment or services universal
in a new U.N. resolution. U.N. sanctions against Libya for the Pan Am 103
bombing banned the sale of energy equipment to Libya.
• Limiting Lending to Iran by International Financial Institutions. Resolution 1747
calls for restraint on but does not outright ban international lending to Iran. An
option is to make a ban on such lending mandatory.
• Banning Trade Financing or Official Insurance for Trade Financing. Another
option is to mandate a ban on official trade credit guarantees. This was not made
mandatory by Resolution 1929, but several countries imposed this sanction (as
far as most trade financing) subsequently. In discussions that led to Resolution
1929, a ban on investment in Iranian bonds reportedly was considered but deleted
to attract China and Russia’s support.
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• Banning Worldwide Investment in Iran’s Energy Sector. This option would
represent an “internationalization” of the U.S. “Iran Sanctions Act,” which is
discussed in CRS Report RS20871, Iran Sanctions, by Kenneth Katzman. Such a
step is authorized, not mandated, by Resolution 1929, and a growing number of
countries have used that authority to impose these sanctions on Iran.
• Restricting Operations of and Insurance for Iranian Shipping. One option,
reportedly long under consideration, has been to ban the provision of insurance,
or reinsurance, for any shipping to Iran. A call for restraint is in Resolution 1929,
but is not mandatory. The EU and other national measures announced
subsequently did include this sanction (IRISL) to operate. (The United States has
imposed sanctions on IRISL.)
• Imposing a Worldwide Ban on Sales of Arms to Iran. Resolution 1929 imposes a
ban on sales of major weapons systems to Iran, but another option is to extend
that ban to all lethal equipment.
Table 6. Entities Sanctioned Under U.N. Resolutions and
U.S. Laws and Executive Orders
(Persons listed are identified by the positions they held when designated; some have since changed.)
Entities Named for Sanctions Under Resolution 1737
Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEIO) Mesbah Energy Company (Arak supplier)
Kalaye Electric (Natanz supplier))
Pars Trash Company (centrifuge program) Farayand Technique (centrifuge program)
Defense Industries Organization (DIO)
7th of Tir (DIO subordinate)
Shahid Hemmat Industrial Group (SHIG)—missile program
Shahid Bagheri Industrial Group (SBIG)—missile program
Fajr Industrial Group (missile program)
Mohammad Qanadi, AEIO Vice President
Behman Asgarpour (Arak manager)
Ehsan Monajemi (Natanz construction manager)
Jafar Mohammadi (Adviser to AEIO)
Gen. Hosein Salimi (Commander, IRGC Air Force)
Dawood Agha Jani (Natanz official)
Ali Hajinia Leilabadi (director of Mesbah Energy)
Lt. Gen. Mohammad Mehdi Nejad Nouri (Malak Ashtar University of Defence Technology rector)
Bahmanyar Morteza Bahmanyar (AIO official)
Reza Gholi Esmaeli (AIO official)
Ahmad Vahid Dastjerdi (head of Aerospace Industries Org., AIO)
Maj. Gen. Yahya Rahim Safavi (Commander in Chief, IRGC)
Entities/Persons Added by Resolution 1747
Ammunition and Metallurgy Industries Group (controls 7th of Tir)
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Parchin Chemical Industries (branch of DIO)
Karaj Nuclear Research Center
Novin Energy Company
Cruise Missile Industry Group
Sanam Industrial Group (subordinate to AIO)
Ya Mahdi Industries Group
Kavoshyar Company (subsidiary of AEIO)
Sho’a Aviation (produces IRGC light aircraft for asymmetric warfare)
Bank Sepah (funds AIO and subordinate entities)
Esfahan Nuclear Fuel Research and Production Center and Esfahan Nuclear Technology Center
Qods Aeronautics Industries (produces UAV’s, para-gliders for IRGC asymmetric warfare)
Pars Aviation Services Company (maintains IRGC Air Force equipment)
Gen. Mohammad Baqr Zolqadr (IRGC officer serving as deputy Interior Minister
Brig. Gen. Qasem Soleimani (Qods Force commander)
Fereidoun Abbasi-Davani (senior defense scientist)
Mohasen Fakrizadeh-Mahabai (defense scientist)
Seyed Jaber Safdari (Natanz manager)
Mohsen Hojati (head of Fajr Industrial Group)
Ahmad Derakshandeh (head of Bank Sepah)
Brig. Gen. Mohammad Reza Zahedi (IRGC ground forces commander)
Amir Rahimi (head of Esfahan nuclear facilities)
Mehrdada Akhlaghi Ketabachi (head of SBIG)
Naser Maleki (head of SHIG)
Brig. Gen. Morteza Reza’i (Deputy commander-in-chief, IRGC)
Vice Admiral Ali Akbar Ahmadiyan (chief of IRGC Joint Staff)
Brig. Gen. Mohammad Hejazi (Basij commander)
Entities Added by Resolution 1803
Thirteen Iranians named in Annex 1 to Resolution 1803; al reputedly involved in various aspects of nuclear program. Bans travel
for five named Iranians.
Electro Sanam Co.
Abzar Boresh Kaveh Co. (centrifuge production)
Barzaganin Tejaral Tavanmad Saccal
Jabber Ibn Hayan
Khorasan Metallurgy Industries
Niru Battery Manufacturing Co. (Makes batteries for Iranian military and missile systems)
Ettehad Technical Group (AIO front co.)
Industrial Factories of Precision
Joza Industrial Co.
Pshgam (Pioneer) Energy Industries
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Tamas Co. (involved in uranium enrichment)
Safety Equipment Procurement (AIO front, involved in missiles)
Entities Added by Resolution 1929
Over 40 entities added; makes mandatory a previously nonbinding travel ban on most named Iranians of previous resolutions.
Adds one individual banned for travel—AEIO head Javad Rahiqi
Amin Industrial Complex
Armament Industries Group
Defense Technology and Science Research Center (owned or control ed by Ministry of Defense)…….
Doostan International Company
Farasakht Industries
First East Export Bank, PLC (only bank added by Resolution 1929)
Kaveh Cutting Tools Company
M. Babaie Industries
Malek Ashtar University (subordinate of Defense Technology and Science Research Center, above)
Ministry of Defense Logistics Export (sells Iranian made arms to customers worldwide)
Mizan Machinery Manufacturing
Modern Industries Technique Company
Nuclear Research Center for Agriculture and Medicine (research component of the AEIO)
Pejman Industrial Services Corp.
Sabalan Company
Sahand Aluminum Parts Industrial Company
Shahid Karrazi Industries
Shahid Sattari Industries
Shahid Sayyade Shirazi Industries (acts on behalf of the DIO)
Special Industries Group (another subordinate of DIO)
Tiz Pars (cover name for SHIG)
Yazd Metallurgy Industries
The following are Revolutionary Guard affiliated firms, several are subsidiaries of Khatam ol-Anbiya, the main Guard construction
affiliate:
Fater Institute
Garaghe Sazendegi Ghaem
Gorb Karbala
Gorb Nooh
Hara Company
Imensazan Consultant Engineers Institute
Khatam ol-Anbiya
Makin
Omran Sahel
Oriental Oil Kish
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Rah Sahel
Rahab Engineering Institute
Sahel Consultant Engineers
Sepanir
Sepasad Engineering Company
The fol owing are entities owned or control ed by Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines (IRISL):
Irano Hind Shipping Company
IRISL Benelux
South Shipping Line Iran
Entities Designated Under U.S. Executive Order 13382
(many designations coincident with designations under U.N. resolutions)
Entity Date
Named
Shahid Hemmat Industrial Group (Iran)
June 2005, September 2007
Shahid Bakeri Industrial Group (Iran)
June 2005, February 2009
Atomic Energy Organization of Iran
June 2005
Novin Energy Company (Iran)
January 2006
Mesbah Energy Company (Iran)
January 2006
Four Chinese entities: Beijing Alite Technologies, LIMMT Economic
June 2006
and Trading Company, China Great Wall Industry Corp, and China
National Precision Machinery Import/Export Corp.
Sanam Industrial Group (Iran)
July 2006
Ya Mahdi Industries Group (Iran)
July 2006
Bank Sepah (Iran)
January 2007
Defense Industries Organization (Iran)
March 2007
Pars Trash (Iran, nuclear program)
June 2007
Farayand Technique (Iran, nuclear program)
June 2007
Fajr Industries Group (Iran, missile program)
June 2007
Mizan Machine Manufacturing Group (Iran, missile prog.)
June 2007
Aerospace Industries Organization (AIO) (Iran)
September 2007
Korea Mining and Development Corp. (N. Korea)
September 2007
Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)
October 21, 2007
Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces Logistics
October 21, 2007
Bank Melli (Iran’s largest bank, widely used by Guard); Bank Melli Iran October 21, 2007
Zao (Moscow); Melli Bank PC (U.K.)
Bank Kargoshaee
October 21, 2007
Arian Bank (joint venture between Melli and Bank Saderat). Based in
October 21, 2007
Afghanistan
Bank Mellat (provides banking services to Iran’s nuclear sector);
October 21, 2007
Mellat Bank SB CJSC (Armenia). Reportedly has $1.4 billion in assets
in UAE
Persia International Bank PLC (U.K.)
October 21, 2007
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Khatam ol Anbiya Gharargah Sazendegi Nooh (main IRGC
October 21, 2007
construction and contracting arm, with $7 billion in oil, gas deals)
Oriental Oil Kish (Iranian oil exploration firm)
October 21, 2007
Ghorb Karbala; Ghorb Nooh (synonymous with Khatam ol Anbiya)
October 21, 2007
Sepasad Engineering Company (Guard construction affiliate)
October 21, 2007
Omran Sahel (Guard construction affiliate)
October 21, 2007
Sahel Consultant Engineering (Guard construction affiliate)
October 21, 2007
Hara Company
October 21, 2007
Gharargahe Sazandegi Ghaem
October 21, 2007
Bahmanyar Morteza Bahmanyar (AIO, Iran missile official, see above
October 21, 2007
under Resolution 1737)
Ahmad Vahid Dastjerdi (AIO head, Iran missile program)
October 21, 2007
Reza Gholi Esmaeli (AIO, see under Resolution 1737)
October 21, 2007
Morteza Reza’i (deputy commander, IRGC) See also Resolution 1747 October 21, 2007
Mohammad Hejazi (Basij commander). Also, Resolution 1747
October 21, 2007
Ali Akbar Ahmadian (Chief of IRGC Joint Staff). Resolution 1747
October 21, 2007
Hosein Salimi (IRGC Air Force commander). Resolution 1737
October 21, 2007
Qasem Soleimani (Qods Force commander). Resolution 1747
October 21, 2007
Future Bank (Bahrain-based but allegedly control ed by Bank Melli)
March 12, 2008
Yahya Rahim Safavi (former IRGC Commander in Chief
July 8, 2008
Mohsen Fakrizadeh-Mahabadi (senior Defense Ministry scientist)
July 8, 2008
Dawood Agha-Jani (head of Natanz enrichment site)
July 8, 2008
Mohsen Hojati (head of Fajr Industries, involved in missile program)
July 8, 2008
Mehrdada Akhlaghi Ketabachi (heads Shahid Bakeri Industrial Group)
July 8, 2008
Naser Maliki (heads Shahid Hemmat Industrial Group)
July 8, 2008
Tamas Company (involved in uranium enrichment)
July 8, 2008
Shahid Sattari Industries (makes equipment for Shahid Bakeri)
July 8, 2008
7th of Tir (involved in developing centrifuge technology)
July 8, 2008
Ammunition and Metallurgy Industries Group (partner of 7th of Tir)
July 8, 2008
Parchin Chemical Industries (deals in chemicals used in ballistic
July 8, 2008
missile programs)
Karaj Nuclear Research Center
August 12, 2008
Esfahan Nuclear Fuel Research and Production Center (NFRPC)
August 12, 2008
Jabber Ibn Hayyan (reports to Atomic Energy Org. of Iran, AEIO)
August 12, 2008
Safety Equipment Procurement Company
August 12, 2008
Joza Industrial Company (front company for Shahid Hemmat
August 12, 2008
Industrial Group, SHIG)
Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines (IRISL) and 18 affiliates,
September 10, 2008
including Val Fajr 8; Kazar; Irinvestship; Shipping Computer Services;
Iran o Misr Shipping; Iran o Hind; IRISL Marine Services; Iriatal
Shipping; South Shipping; IRISL Multimodal; Oasis; IRISL Europe; IRISL
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Benelux; IRISL China; Asia Marine Network; CISCO Shipping; and
IRISL Malta
Firms affiliated to the Ministry of Defense, including Armament
September 17, 2008
Industries Group; Farasakht Industries; Iran Aircraft Manufacturing
Industrial Co.; Iran Communications Industries; Iran Electronics
Industries; and Shiraz Electronics Industries
Export Development Bank of Iran. Provides financial services to
October 22, 2008
Iran’s Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces Logistics
Banco Internacional de Desarollo, C.A., Venezuelan-based Iranian bank,
sanctioned as an affiliate of the Export Development Bank.
Assa Corporation (alleged front for Bank Melli involved in managing
December 17, 2008
property in New York City on behalf of Iran)
11 Entities Tied to Bank Melli: Bank Melli Iran Investment (BMIIC);
March 3, 2009
Bank Melli Printing and Publishing; Melli Investment Holding; Mehr
Cayman Ltd.; Cement Investment and Development; Mazandaran
Cement Co.; Shomal Cement; Mazandaran Textile; Melli
Agrochemical; First Persian Equity Fund; BMIIC Intel. General
Trading
IRGC General Rostam Qasemi, head of Khatem ol-Anbiya
February 10, 2010 (see also October 21, 2007)
Construction Headquarters (key corporate arm of the IRGC)
Fater Engineering Institute (linked to Khatem ol-Anbiya)
February 10, 2010
Imensazen Consultant Engineers Institute (linked to Khatem ol-
February 10, 2010
Anbiya)
Makin Institute (linked to Khatem ol-Anbiya)
February 10, 2010
Rahab Institute (linked to Khatem on-Anbiya)
February 10, 2010
Entities sanctioned on June 16, 2010
- Post Bank of Iran
- IRGC Air Force
- IRGC Missile Command
- Rah Sahel and Sepanir Oil and Gas Engineering (for ties to Khatem ol-Anibya IRGC construction affiliate)
- Mohammad Ali Jafari—IRGC Commander-in-Chief since September 2007
- Mohammad Reza Naqdi—Head of the IRGC’s Basij militia force that suppresses dissent (since October 2009)
- Ahmad Vahedi—Defense Minister
- javedan Mehr Toos, Javad Karimi Sabet (procurement brokers or atomic energy managers)
- Naval Defense Missile Industry Group (controlled by the Aircraft Industries Org that manages Iran’s missile programs)
- Five front companies for IRISL: Hafiz Darya Shipping Co.; Soroush Sarzamin Asatir Ship Management Co.; Safiran Payam Darya;
and Hong Kong-based Seibow Limited and Seibow Logistics.
Also identified on June 16 were 27 vessels linked to IRISKL and 71 new names of already designated IRISL ships.
Several Iranian entities were also designated as owned or control ed by Iran for purposes of the ban on U.S. trade with Iran.
Entities sanctioned on November 30, 2010
- Pearl Energy Company (formed by First East Export Bank , a subsidiary of Bank Mel at
- Pearl Energy Services, SA
- Ali Afzali (high official of First East Export Bank)
- IRISL front companies: Ashtead Shipping, Byfleet Shipping, Cobham Shipping, Dorking Shipping, Effingham Shipping, Farnham
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Shipping, Gomshall Shipping, and Horsham Shipping (all located in the Isle of Man).
- IRISL and affiliate officials: Mohammad Hosein Dajmar, Gholamhossein Golpavar, Hassan Jalil Zadeh, and Mohammad Haji Pajand.
Entities sanctioned on December 21, 2010:
- Bonyad (foundation) Taavon Sepah, for providing services to the IRGC
- Ansar Bank (for providing financial services to the IRGC)
- Mehr Bank (same justification as above)
- Moallem Insurance Company (for providing marine insurance to IRISL, Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines)
Bank of Industry and Mine (BIM)
May 17, 2011
- Tidewater Middle East Company
June 23, 2011
- Iran Air
- Mehr-e Eqtesad Iranian Investment Co.
Entities Sanctioned Under Executive Order 13224 (Terrorism Entities)
Qods Force
October 21, 2007
Bank Saderat (al egedly used to funnel Iranian money to Hezbol ah,
October 21, 2007
Hamas, PIJ, and other Iranian supported terrorist groups)
Al Qaeda Operatives in Iran: Saad bin Laden; Mustafa Hamid;
January 16, 2009
Muhammad Rab’a al-Bahtiyti; Alis Saleh Husain
Qods Force senior officers: Hushang Allahdad, Hossein Musavi,Hasan August 3, 2010
Mortezavi, and Mohammad Reza Zahedi
Iranian Committee for the Reconstruction of Lebanon, and its
August 3, 2010
director Hesam Khoshnevis, for supporting Lebanese Hizbal ah
Imam Khomeini Relief Committee Lebanon branch, and its director
August 3, 2010
Ali Zuraik, for providing support to Hizbal ah
Razi Musavi, a Syrian based Iranian official allegedly providing support
August 3, 2010
to Hizballah
Liner Transport Kish (for providing shipping services to transport
December 21, 2010
weapons to Lebanese Hizbal ah)
For alleged plot against Saudi Ambassador to the U.S.:
October 11, 2011
Qasem Soleimani (Qods Force commander)
Hamid Abdollahi (Qods force)
Abdul Reza Shahlai (Qods Force)
Ali Gholam Shakuri (Qods Force)
Manssor Arbabsiar (al eged plotter)
Mahan Air (for transportation services to Qods Force)
October 12, 2011
Entities Sanctioned Under the Iran North Korea Syria Non-Proliferation Act or Executive Order 12938
The designations are under the Iran, North Korea, Syria Non-Proliferation Act (INKSNA) unless specified. These designations
expire after two years, unless re-designated
Baltic State Technical University and Glavkosmos, both of Russia
July 30, 1998 (E.O. 12938). Both removed in 2010—
Baltic on Jan. 29, 2010, and Glavkosmos on March 4,
2010
D. Mendeleyev University of Chemical Technology of Russia and
January 8, 1999 (E.O. 12938). Both removed on May 21,
Moscow Aviation Institute
2010
Norinco (China). For alleged missile technology sale to Iran.
May 2003
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Taiwan Foreign Trade General Corporation (Taiwan)
July 4, 2003
Tula Instrument Design Bureau (Russia). For alleged sales of laser-
September 17, 2003 (also designated under Executive
guided artillery shells to Iran.
Order 12938), removed May 21, 2010
13 entities sanctioned including companies from Russia, China,
April 7, 2004
Belarus, Macedonia, North Korea, UAE, and Taiwan.
14 entities from China, North Korea, Belarus, India (two nuclear
September 29, 2004
scientists, Dr. Surendar and Dr. Y.S.R. Prasad), Russia, Spain, and
Ukraine.
14 entities, mostly from China, for al eged supplying of Iran’s missile
December 2004 and January 2005
program. Many, such as North Korea’s Changgwang Sinyong and
China’s Norinco and Great Wall Industry Corp, have been
sanctioned several times previously. Newly sanctioned entities
included North Korea’s Paeksan Associated Corporation, and
Taiwan’s Ecoma Enterprise Co.
9 entities, including those from China (Norinco yet again), India (two
December 26, 2005
chemical companies), and Austria. Sanctions against Dr. Surendar of
India (see September 29, 2004) were ended, presumably because of
information exonerating him.
7 entities. Two Indian chemical companies (Balaji Amines and Prachi
August 4, 2006 (see below for Rosobornexport removal)
Poly Products); two Russian firms (Rosobornexport and aircraft
manufacturer Sukhoi); two North Korean entities (Korean Mining
and Industrial Development, and Korea Pugang Trading); and one
Cuban entity (Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology).
9 entities. Rosobornexport, Tula Design, and Komna Design Office
January 2007 (see below for Tula and Rosoboronexport
of Machine Building, and Alexei Safonov (Russia); Zibo Chemical,
removal)
China National Aerotechnology, and China National Electrical
(China). Korean Mining and Industrial Development (North Korea)
for WMD or advanced weapons sales to Iran (and Syria).
14 entities, including Lebanese Hezbol ah. Some were penalized for
April 23, 2007
transactions with Syria. Among the new entities sanctioned for
assisting Iran were Shanghai Non-Ferrous Metals Pudong
Development Trade Company (China); Iran’s Defense Industries
Organization; Sokkia Company (Singapore); Challenger Corporation
(Malaysia); Target Airfreight (Malaysia); Aerospace Logistics Services
(Mexico); and Arif Durrani (Pakistani national).
13 entities: China Xinshidai Co.; China Shipbuilding and Offshore
October 23, 2008. Rosoboronexport removed May 21,
International Corp.; Huazhong CNC (China); IRGC; Korea Mining
2010.
Development Corp. (North Korea); Korea Taesong Trading Co.
(NK); Yolin/Yul in Tech, Inc. (South Korea); Rosoboronexport
(Russia sate arms export agency); Sudan Master Technology; Sudan
Technical Center Co; Army Supply Bureau (Syria); R and M
International FZCO (UAE); Venezuelan Military Industries Co.
(CAVIM);
16 entities: Belarus: Belarusian Optical Mechanical Association;
May 23, 2011
Beltech Export; China: Karl Lee; Dalian Sunny Industries; Dalian
Zhongbang Chemical Industries Co.; Xian Junyun Electronic; Iran:
Milad Jafari; DIO; IRISL; Qods Force; SAD Import-Export; SBIG;
North Korea: Tangun Trading; Syria: Industrial Establishment of
Defense; Scientific Studies and Research Center; Venezuela: CAVIM.
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Entities Designated as Threats to Iraqi Stability under Executive Order 13438
Ahmad Forouzandeh. Commander of the Qods Force Ramazan
January 9, 2008
Headquarters, accused of fomenting sectarian violence in Iraq and of
organizing training in Iran for Iraqi Shi te militia fighters
Abu Mustafa al-Sheibani. Iran based leader of network that funnels
January 9, 2008
Iranian arms to Shiite militias in Iraq.
Isma’il al-Lami (Abu Dura). Shiite militia leader, breakaway from Sadr
January 9, 2008
Mahdi Army, alleged to have committed mass kidnapings and planned
assassination attempts against Iraqi Sunni politicians
Mishan al-Jabburi. Financier of Sunni insurgents, owner of pro-
January 9, 2008
insurgent Al-Zawra television, now banned
Al Zawra Television Station
January 9, 2008
Khata’ib Hezbollah (pro-Iranian Mahdi splinter group)
July 2, 2009
Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis
July 2, 2009
Iranians Sanctioned Under September 29, 2010, Executive Order 13553 on Human Rights Abusers
1. IRGC Commander Mohammad Ali Jafari
Al sanctioned on September 29, 2010
2. Minister of Interior at time of June 2009 elections Sadeq Mahsouli
3. Minister of Intelligence at time of elections Qolam Hossein
Mohseni-Ejei
4. Tehran Prosecutor General at time of elections Saeed Mortazavi
5. Minister of Intelligence Heydar Moslehi
6. Former Defense Minister Mostafa Mohammad Naj ar
7. Deputy National Police Chief Ahmad Reza Radan
8. Basij (security militia) Commander at time of elections Hossein
Taeb
9. Tehran Prosecutor General Abbas Dowlatabadi (appointed August Sanctioned on February 23, 2011
2009). Has indicted large numbers of Green movement protesters.
10. Basij forces commander (since October 2009) Mohammad Reza
Naqdi (was head of Basij intelligence during post 2009 election
crackdown)
11. Islamic Revolutionary Guad Corps (IRGC)
June 9, 2011.
12. Basij Resistance Force
13. Law Enforcement Forces (LEF)
14. LEF Commander Ismail Ahmad Moghadam
Iranians Sanctioned Under Executive Order 13572 (April 29, 2011) for Repression of the Syrian People
- Revolutionary Guard – Qods Force
April 29, 2011
- Qasem Soleimani (Qods Force Commander)
May 18, 2011
- Mohsen Chizari (Commander of Qods Force operations and
Same as above
training)
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Author Contact Information
Kenneth Katzman
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
kkatzman@crs.loc.gov, 7-7612
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