Libya: Unrest and U.S. Policy
Christopher M. Blanchard
Acting Section Research Manager
March 29, 2011
Congressional Research Service
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www.crs.gov
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CRS Report for Congress
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repared for Members and Committees of Congress

Libya: Unrest and U.S. Policy

Summary
Over forty years ago, Muammar al Qadhafi led a revolt against the Libyan monarchy in the name
of nationalism, self-determination, and popular sovereignty. Opposition groups citing the same
principles are now revolting against Qadhafi to bring an end to the authoritarian political system
he has controlled in Libya for the last four decades. The Libyan government’s use of force against
civilians and opposition forces seeking Qadhafi’s overthrow sparked an international outcry in
February and early March 2011, and a stalemate began to break in favor of the Qadhafi
government, threatening civilians in opposition-held areas. The United States and other European
and Arab states are now carrying out military operations in Libya to enforce United Nations
Security Council Resolution 1973, which was adopted on March 17 and authorizes “all necessary
measures” to protect Libyan civilians. Qadhafi and his supporters have described the uprising as a
foreign and Islamist conspiracy and are attempting to outlast their opponents. Qadhafi remains
defiant amid the dismantling of his military by coalition air strikes. His supporters threatened to
respond to attacks by striking civilian and military targets in the Mediterranean region.
Resolution 1973 calls for an immediate cease-fire and dialogue, declares a no-fly zone in Libyan
airspace, and authorizes robust enforcement measures for the arms embargo on Libya established
by Resolution 1970 of February 26, “while excluding a foreign occupation force of any form on
any part of Libyan territory.” As of March 28, U.S. military officials reported that U.S. and
coalition strikes on Libyan air defenses, air forces, and ground forces had neutralized the ability
of Muammar al Qadhafi’s military to control the country’s airspace and were increasingly focused
on targeting pro-Qadhafi ground forces found to be continuing to violate Resolution 1973 through
attacks on Libyan civilians. President Obama has said the United States will not introduce ground
forces and has called for Qadhafi to step down. The no-fly zone called for in Resolution 1973 is
in place and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is assuming command of coalition operations.
The United States and international partners are providing humanitarian assistance to displaced
persons in temporary camps in Tunisia and Egypt.
Until recently, the United States government was pursuing a policy of reengagement toward
Qadhafi after decades of confrontation, sanctions, and Libyan isolation. President Obama now
has joined some leaders in asserting that Muammar al Qadhafi must ultimately give up power,
although that outcome is not called for explicitly in Resolution 1973. Obama Administration
officials highlight a number of non-military steps the U.S. government has taken to achieve that
objective, while military operations to protect Libyan civilians continue. U.S. steps include new
targeted sanctions established in Executive Order 13566. Some Members of Congress expressed
support for U.S. military intervention prior to the adoption of Resolution 1973, while others
disagreed or called for the President to seek explicit congressional authorization prior to any use
of force. Some executive-legislative consultation occurred prior to the start of U.S. military
operations, and, on March 21, President Obama sent a letter to Congress outlining U.S. military
objectives and operations, but not explicitly seeking congressional authorization.
Many observers believe that Libya’s weak government institutions, potentially divisive political
dynamics, and current conflict suggest that security challenges could follow the current uprising,
regardless of its outcome. Some opposition figures have formed an Interim Transitional National
Council which claims to represent all areas of the country and is seeking recognition and material
support. In evaluating U.S. policy options, Congress may seek to better understand the roots and
nature of the conflict in Libya, the views and interests of key players, and the potential
consequences of the military action under way and other policy proposals under consideration.
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Libya: Unrest and U.S. Policy

Contents
Popular Revolution and Current Conflict..................................................................................... 1
Background .......................................................................................................................... 1
Status as of March 29, 2011 .................................................................................................. 3
Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 4
U.S. and International Responses ................................................................................................ 5
Current U.S. Policy ............................................................................................................... 6
Administration Views and Action .................................................................................... 6
President Obama’s Remarks on U.S. Military Operations and U.S. Policy ....................... 8
No-Fly Zone, Arms Embargo, and Civilian Protection Operations ................................... 9
U.S. Humanitarian Operations....................................................................................... 10
Congressional Action and Select Views ............................................................................... 10
U.N. Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973 .............................................................. 12
The Arab League and the African Union.............................................................................. 14
The European Union and EU Member States....................................................................... 16
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) ................................................................. 17
Russia and China ................................................................................................................ 18
Prospects and Challenges for U.S. Policy .................................................................................. 18
Possible Scenarios............................................................................................................... 19
Possible Questions .............................................................................................................. 21
Libyan Political Dynamics and Profiles ..................................................................................... 22
Political Dynamics .............................................................................................................. 22
Qadhafi and the Libyan Government ................................................................................... 23
Muammar al Qadhafi .................................................................................................... 23
The Qadhafi Family and Prominent Officials: Selected Profiles..................................... 23
Opposition Groups .............................................................................................................. 24
Interim Transitional National Council (ITNC) ............................................................... 25
Prominent ITNC and Opposition Figures....................................................................... 26
Opposition Military Forces............................................................................................ 27
Exiles and Al Sanusi Monarchy Figures ........................................................................ 29
The Muslim Brotherhood .............................................................................................. 29
Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG)/Libyan Islamic Movement for
Change (LIMC) ......................................................................................................... 30

Figures
Figure 1. Map of Libyan Military Facilities, Energy Infrastructure, and Conflict.......................... 2
Figure 2. Political Map of Libya................................................................................................ 33

Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 33

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Popular Revolution and Current Conflict
For a summary of recent events and conflict assessment, see “Status as of March 29, 2011”.
Background
Political change in neighboring Tunisia and Egypt helped bring long-simmering Libyan reform
debates to the boiling point in January and early February 2011. In recent years, leading Libyans
had staked out a broad range of positions about the necessary scope and pace of reform, while
competing for influence and opportunity under the watchful eye of hard-liners aligned with the
enigmatic leader of Libya’s 1969 revolution, Muammar al Qadhafi. Qadhafi has long insisted that
he holds no formal government position, but by all accounts he maintained his forty-plus year
hold on ultimate authority until recently as the “reference point” for Libya’s byzantine political
system. Ironically, that system cited “popular authority” as its foundational principle and
organizing concept, but it denied Libyans the most basic political rights. Tribal relations and
regional dynamics, particularly eastern regional resentments, also influence Libyan politics (see
“Political Dynamics” below).
Qadhafi government policy reversals on WMD and terrorism led to the lifting of most
international sanctions in 2003 and 2004, followed by economic liberalization, oil sales, and
international investment that brought new wealth to some in Libya. U.S. business gradually
reengaged amid continuing U.S.-Libyan tension over terrorism concerns that were finally
resolved in 2008. During this period of international reengagement, political change in Libya
remained elusive and illusory. Some observers argued that Qadhafi supporters’ suppression of
opposition had softened, as Libya’s international rehabilitation coincided with steps by some
pragmatists to maneuver within so-called “red lines.” The shifting course of those red lines had
been increasingly entangling reformers in the run-up to the outbreak of recent unrest. Government
reconciliation with imprisoned Islamist militants and the return of some exiled opposition figures
were welcomed by some observers. Ultimately, inaction on the part of the government to calls for
guarantees of basic political rights and for the drafting of a constitution suggested a lack of
consensus, if not outright opposition to meaningful reform among leading officials.
The current crisis was triggered in mid-February 2011 by a chain of events in Benghazi and other
eastern cities that quickly spiraled out of Qadhafi’s control. Although Libyan opposition groups
had called for a so-called “day of rage” on February 17 to commemorate protests that had
occurred five years earlier, localized violence erupted prior to the planned national protests. On
February 15 and 16, Libyan authorities used force to contain small protests demanding that police
release a legal advocate for victims of a previous crackdown who had been arrested. Several
protestors were killed. Confrontations surrounding their funerals and other protest gatherings
escalated severely when government officers reportedly fired live ammunition. In the resulting
chaos, Libyan security forces are alleged to have opened fire with heavy weaponry on protestors,
as opposition groups directly confronted armed personnel while reportedly overrunning a number
of security facilities. Popular control over key eastern cities became apparent, and broader unrest
emerged in other regions. A number of military officers, their units, and civilian officials
abandoned Qadhafi for the cause of the then-disorganized and amorphous opposition. Qadhafi
and his supporters denounced their opponents as drug-fueled traitors, foreign agents, and Al
Qaeda supporters. Amid an international outcry, Qadhafi has maintained control over the capital,
Tripoli, and other cities with the help of family-led security forces and regime supporters.
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Figure 1. Map of Libyan Military Facilities, Energy Infrastructure, and Conflict

Sources: The Guardian (UK), Graphic News, U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Global Security, The Making of Modern Libya (Ali
Abdullatif Ahmida, State University of New York Press, 1994). Edited by CRS.

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Status as of March 29, 2011
The adoption of Security Council Resolution 1973 on the evening of March 17 was greeted with
euphoria by the encircled opposition movement in Libya, in spite of their dire security situation
and apparent inability to independently fend off better armed and better organized ground forces
loyal to Muammar al Qadhafi (see “U.N. Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973” below).
From March 10 through March 17, a reversal in the opposition’s fortunes and a dramatic shift in
momentum in favor of Qadhafi hastened regional and international deliberations about potential
intervention. Limited air operations by pro-Qadhafi forces continued, and pro-Qadhafi forces
began an assault on the main opposition base in Benghazi.
The no-fly zone and civilian protection provisions of Resolution 1973 authorize foreign military
intervention, which some in the beleaguered opposition had been calling for to ease the pressure
on their ranks (see “No-Fly Zone, Arms Embargo, and Civilian Protection Operations” below).
On March 18, President Obama outlined nonnegotiable demands to Qadhafi and his government
for an end to violence and indicated the United States was prepared to act militarily as part of a
coalition to enforce Resolution 1973 and protect Libyan civilians (see “President Obama’s
Remarks on U.S. Military Operations”). In response, Libyan Foreign Minister Musa Kusa stated
that Qadhafi’s government had been “obliged to accept the Security Council resolution that
permits the use of force to protect the civilian population” and announced that Libya’s
government had “decided an immediate cease-fire and the stoppage of all military operations.” In
spite of Kusa’s claim, Libyan military ground force operations against opposition held areas
continued in violation of cease-fire pledges, and U.S. and coalition military operations began on
March 19.
Since March 19, coalition sea-launched cruise missile attacks and air strikes have targeted Libyan
air defenses, air forces, command and control infrastructure, and ground forces involved in
attacks on civilians, including south of the opposition stronghold of Benghazi. As of March 28,
U.S. and coalition officials stated that coalition military operations had destroyed the ability of
the Libyan military to control Libyan airspace. The no-fly zone called for in Resolution 1973 is in
place and is being enforced (see Figure 1 above). Coalition attacks are ongoing against those
Libyan ground force units that continue to besiege opposition-held towns and against targets
supporting operations by those Libyan military units. Coalition officials continue to reiterate their
calls for Libyan government forces to stand down amid missile and air strikes of persistent
frequency and intensity.
Over the weekend of March 26, opposition forces renewed their advances westward in parallel
with coalition airstrikes against Libyan government forces in Ajdabiyah, retaking the coastal
towns of Burayqah and Ra’s Lanuf. Press reports and U.S. military briefings describe operations
by relatively lightly armed and disorganized volunteer opposition forces who have advanced
westward from their formerly-threatened bases in eastern Libya, through areas they formerly
held, to within 80 miles of the city of Sirte, the birthplace of Muammar al Qadhafi. Government
forces reportedly have prepared an organized defense of Sirte, and reports suggest that pro-
Qadhafi forces continued to target civilians and opposition volunteers in some urban areas,
including the western cities of Misurata and Az Zintan.
Precise, verifiable information about the current strength, leadership, equipment, training, and
readiness of pro- and anti-Qadhafi forces is not publicly available. Most comprehensive open
source assessments of the Libyan military and security services predate the current fighting and
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are now of limited use given the apparent fracturing of Libyan forces during the crisis and the
lack of full detail regarding the specific targets and outcomes of coalition military operations.
Reports that sizeable mercenary forces are aiding Qadhafi’s cause have drawn some scrutiny, and
Resolution 1973 has authorized new measures to combat the introduction of new mercenary
forces to the conflict. Qadhafi has issued calls for local civilian volunteers and has announced
efforts to arm civilian supporters across the country.
Press accounts of recent fighting indicate that the Libyan military has deployed its equipment,
including tanks, artillery, fighter aircraft, anti-aircraft weapons, mortars, snipers, and helicopters,
in attacks on opposition forces and opposition-held cities. Opposition forces continue to deploy
military equipment seized during the initial uprising and as a result of subsequent fighting,
including small arms, rocket propelled grenades, multiple rocket launchers, and anti-aircraft
weaponry, in support of their advances westward.
Assessment
The fast-moving developments and the relatively limited presence of international media in Libya
have combined to impose a degree of uncertain drama on the unfolding conflict. Important
questions about the identities, capabilities, and goals of key actors and forces are largely
unanswered amid ongoing coalition operations (see “Opposition Groups” below). The call for a
cease-fire in U.N. Security Council Resolution 1973 has yet to be heeded by either side, and
likely paths toward a nonviolent political resolution of the conflict are not immediately apparent.
Observers who initially expressed doubt about the ability of Qadhafi and his supporters to outlast
popular opposition forces enjoying international moral support saw the opposition pushed back
on its heels as it waited for consensus to coalesce about the need for and necessary scope of
international military intervention.
Although some observers are now warning of the potential for a protracted civil war, spokesmen
on both sides in Libya continue to express confidence in their ability to prevail. Multinational
military operations to enforce Resolution 1973 and protect civilians are now destroying pro-
Qadhafi military forces that threaten civilians across Libya, but official U.S. statements
underscore that these operations are not directly coordinated with or designed to directly support
opposition military plans or operations. Many outside observers presume the air strikes are
creating powerful disincentives to continued loyalty to Qadhafi. However, outside military
intervention may motivate Qadhafi loyalists and some nationalist supporters. Qadhafi’s
committed base of supporters may be relatively small, but if faced with limited options and
determined enemies, they may prove dangerous, both to their opponents within Libya and
possibly to coalition partners abroad. From the perspective of opposition leaders, the potential
benefits of foreign military intervention may be considered alongside an appreciation for the
strong nationalist, anti-imperialist sentiments held by many Libyans.
How effective have U.S. and coalition military operations been?
U.S. civilian and military leaders, including President Barack Obama, have characterized U.S.
and coalition military operations to date as having successfully achieved limited military
objectives in support of Resolution 1973. President Obama insists that he does not plan to order
the use of military force to achieve the political objective of removing Qadhafi from power. On
March 25, U.S. Joint Staff Director Vice Admiral Bill Gortney stated that, as a result of coalition
military strikes, Qadhafi had “no air defense left to him and a diminishing ability to command
and sustain his forces on the ground. His air force cannot fly, his warships are staying in port, his
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ammunition stores are being destroyed, communication towers are being toppled, and his
command bunkers are being rendered useless.” 1 On March 28, Vice Adm. Gortney updated his
assessment by adding that coalition forces had struck the headquarters of the 32nd Brigade regime
security unit, which has been commanded by Qadhafi’s son Khamis, because the unit remained at
the forefront operations against civilians.2 He also indicated that the coalition had struck
command and control targets around the Qadhafi stronghold of Sirte on Libya’s central coast. On
March 29, coalition strikes reportedly targeted Libyan navy vessels off the coast of Misurata
Are opposition military advances since March 19 sustainable?
Serious questions remain about the potential success of the opposition counteroffensive now
unfolding, given that previous opposition volunteer-led advances westward along the Libyan
coastal road toward the town of Sirte in early March were easily disrupted and reversed by the
Libyan military.3 On March 28, U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM) Commander General Carter
Ham warned that, “The regime still vastly overmatches opposition forces militarily. The regime
possesses the capability to roll them back very quickly. Coalition air power is the major reason
that has not happened.”4 In a separate interview, he added, “Among my concerns right now is that
the opposition will over-reach in their haste to move west. They are not a match for the regime
forces. If they move hastily and get destroyed, then there’s nothing to stop the regime from
moving right back down the coast road.”5 For more information on opposition forces, see
“Opposition Military Forces” below.
U.S. and International Responses
The United States, the European Union, Russia, the Arab League, and the African Union have
joined other international actors in condemning Qadhafi supporters’ violent attacks on civilians.
Some parties, including the United States and the European Union have called for Qadhafi to step
down. The United States, the European Union, Russia, Japan, South Korea, and other countries
have enacted their own targeted sanctions on Qadhafi and have limited financial transactions with
Libya and arms shipments to the country. On February 26, 2011, the United Nations Security
Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1970, placing targeted financial and travel sanctions on
Qadhafi and certain individuals and imposing an arms embargo on Libya. The Resolution did not
authorize the use of force by third-parties.

1 DOD News Briefing with Vice Adm. Gortney from the Pentagon on Libya Operation Odyssey Dawn, March 25,
2011.
2 DOD News Briefing with Vice Adm. Gortney from the Pentagon on Libya Operation Odyssey Dawn, March 28,
2011.
3 In early March, opposition military leaders reportedly asked popular volunteer forces to reconsider an immediate
campaign against pro-Qadhafi strongholds until new supplies could be obtained and training and organization
completed. Their advice appears not to have been heeded, and basic counterattacks by government forces stifled
opposition advances. It is unclear whether the current opposition advance is being directed more efficiently or
cautiously by experienced military officers. See U.S. Open Source Center (OSC) Report GMP20110308825013,
“Libya: National Council Asks Revolutionaries To Wait Before Moving Toward Sirte,” March 8, 2011.
4 Kareem Fahim and David D. Kirkpatrick, “Rebel Advance Halted Outside Qaddafi’s Hometown,” New York Times,
March 28, 2011.
5 ABC News Online, Excerpt of Martha Raddatz Interview with Gen. Carter F. Ham, March 28, 2011.
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Debate over further action culminated in the adoption of Resolution 1973 on March 17, which
calls for an immediate cease-fire and dialogue, declares a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace,
authorizes robust enforcement measures for the arms embargo established by Resolution 1970,
and authorizes member states “to take all necessary measures … to protect civilians and civilian
populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, including Benghazi, while
excluding a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan territory.” The passage of
the resolution reflected sufficient, if not universal international recognition of a need for
intervention. Nevertheless, differences of opinion persist among key outside parties over the
legitimacy and utility of specific policy options, including military operations to protect Libyan
civilians (see “No-Fly Zone, Arms Embargo, and Civilian Protection Operation” below).
The United States began military operations against Libyan military targets on March 19. As of
March 28, a coalition consisting of the United States, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain,
Greece, Denmark, Norway, the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, Qatar, Kuwait, Jordan, and Canada
were supporting military operations to protect civilians, enforce the arms embargo, and/or enforce
the no-fly zone in support of Resolution 1973. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
has announced that it will assume command for all three components of the coalition operations
under the guise of Operation Unified Protector (see “The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO)” below).
The U.S. government and its allies are working to respond to the difficult humanitarian conditions
facing thousands who have fled Libya and remain in temporary Tunisian and Egyptian border
transit camps. Over 200,000 people have fled the country since the fighting began, and as of
March 28, approximately 10,000 people remained in transit camps. Humanitarian needs inside
Libya are not fully known, and may change as the conflict continues.
Current U.S. Policy
Administration Views and Action
President Obama ordered U.S. military forces to begin strikes against Libyan military targets on
March 19 in support of Resolution 1973. Since March 19, U.S. forces and their coalition partners
have succeeded in dismantling Libya’s air defenses and striking pro-Qadhafi units that continue
to target opposition held areas and threaten Libyan civilians. The immediate U.S. response to the
outbreak of unrest in Libya in February reflected standing U.S. calls for regional parties to avoid
violent confrontation and prioritized efforts to evacuate U.S. citizens and ensure the security of
U.S. diplomatic facilities and personnel in Libya.6 Air and sealift arrangements eventually
secured the departure of hundreds of U.S. citizens, and the State Department withdrew all U.S.
government personnel and suspended activity at its temporary embassy facilities for the duration
of the crisis. A series of strong statements, diplomatic consultations, and targeted actions followed
in the wake of the initial response.

6 Libyan demonstrators attacked and burned the former U.S. Embassy in December 1979, without apparent Libyan
government intervention.
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• On February 23, President Barack Obama called the bloodshed in Libya
“outrageous” and “unacceptable” and said that his Administration was looking at
the “full range of options we have to respond to this crisis.”7
• On February 25, President Obama formally reversed the policy of rapprochement
that he and President George W. Bush had pursued with Libya since late 2003.
Executive Order 13566, released that day, declares a new national emergency
stemming from the threat posed by the situation in Libya, imposes new targeted
financial sanctions on Qadhafi and other Libyan officials, blocks certain Libyan
funds under U.S. jurisdiction, and restricts U.S. persons’ financial transactions
with certain Libyan individuals and entities.8 The Administration expanded the
list of designated entities and individuals on March 15.9
• On March 3, President Obama summarized his views at a joint press appearance
with Mexican President Felipe Calderón, stating
The violence must stop. Muammar Gaddafi has lost the legitimacy to lead and he must
leave. Those around him have to understand that violence that they perpetrate against
innocent civilians will be monitored and they will be held accountable for it. …And so
to the extent that they are making calculations in their own minds about which way
history is moving, they should know history is moving against Colonel Gaddafi.10
• On March 7, President Obama reiterated his “very clear message to those who
are around Colonel Qaddafi. It is their choice as to how to operate moving
forward. They will be held accountable for whatever violence will continue to
take place there.”11 He added that the United States “will stand with [the Libyan
people] in the face of unwarranted violence and the continued suppression of
democratic ideals that we’ve seen there.” The president did not specifically
describe what support the United States planned to provide inside Libya.
• On March 14, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton met privately with
opposition Interim Transitional National Council (ITNC) foreign affairs
representative Mahmoud Jibril in Paris. The United States has not formally
recognized the ITNC or publicly signaled its intent to provide material support to
the group, although the Administration will allow the Council to establish a
representative office in Washington, DC. (see “Interim Transitional National
Council (ITNC),” below) On March 28, U.S. Vice Adm. Bill Gortney stated his
view that “the opposition is not well organized, and it is not a very robust
organization.” He further indicated that the United States “would like a much

7 Full text of President Obama’s remarks at http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2011/02/23/president-obama-speaks-
turmoil-libya-violence-must-stop.
8 Executive Order 13566 of February 25, 2011, Blocking Property and Prohibiting Certain Transactions Related to
Libya, Federal Register, Presidential Documents, March 2, 2011 (Volume 76, Number 41, pp. 11315-8. Full text
available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/02/25/executive-order-libya.
9 U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Press Release: Moving to Further Isolate Qadhafi Regime, Treasury Designates
Libyan Foreign Minister and Identifies 16 State-Owned Companies,” March 15, 2011.
10 Video available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/photos-and-video/video/2011/03/03/president-obama-s-press-
availability-president-calder-n-statement-
11 Steve Hendrix, Leila Fadel and Debbi Wilgoren, “Gaddafi forces attack rebels anew, even as regime appears to seek
talks,” Washington Post, March 7, 2011.
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better understanding of the opposition,” and that U.S. officials are “trying to fill
in” what he characterized as “knowledge gaps.”
• On March 14, President Obama reiterated his call for Qadhafi to step down, but
did not elaborate on the specific steps his Administration was prepared to take
beyond those already announced to support that outcome.
President Obama’s Remarks on U.S. Military Operations and U.S. Policy
As indicated above, the advance of Muammar al Qadhafi’s military forces toward the opposition-
held cities of eastern Libya raised the prospect that Libyan civilians could be targeted and a
humanitarian crisis could ensue. The Obama Administration engaged in an intense flurry of
diplomatic consultation that contributed to the passage of U.N. Security Council Resolution
1973on March 17. On March 18, President Obama made a statement on U.S. policy in light of the
new resolution.12 The President stated that “a cease-fire must be implemented immediately,” and
“all attacks against civilians must stop.” He specified that “Qaddafi must stop his troops from
advancing on Benghazi, pull them back from Ajdabiya, Misrata, and Zawiya, and establish water,
electricity and gas supplies to all areas. Humanitarian assistance must be allowed to reach the
people of Libya.” President Obama underscored that the terms were “not negotiable” and warned
Qadhafi that if he did not “comply with the resolution, the international community will impose
consequences, and the resolution will be enforced through military action.” He identified the
“focus” of U.S. policy as “protecting innocent civilians within Libya, and holding the Qaddafi
regime accountable.” Lastly, President Obama stated that “the United States is not going to
deploy ground troops into Libya. And we are not going to use force to go beyond a well-defined
goal—specifically, the protection of civilians in Libya.”
On March 21, in a letter to Congress, President Obama wrote to congressional leaders announcing
that U.S. military forces had commenced operations in Libya on March 19 “to prevent a
humanitarian catastrophe and address the threat posed to international peace and security by the
crisis in Libya” and “for the purposes of preparing a no-fly zone.”13 The President stated that the
“strikes will be limited in their nature, duration, and scope” and that “their purpose is to support
an international coalition as it takes all necessary measures to enforce the terms of U.N. Security
Council Resolution 1973.” He added that, “United States military efforts are discrete and focused
on employing unique U.S. military capabilities to set the conditions for our European allies and
Arab partners to carry out the measures authorized by the U.N. Security Council Resolution.”
President Obama cited his “constitutional authority to conduct U.S. foreign relations and as
Commander in Chief and Chief Executive,” and stated he was reporting to Congress “to keep the
Congress fully informed, consistent with the War Powers Resolution.”14
In an address to the nation on March 28, President Obama identified important strategic interests
in “preventing Qadhafi from overrunning those who oppose him,” including preventing a

12 President Barack Obama, Remarks by the President on the Situation in Libya, March 18, 2011. Available at
http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/03/18/remarks-president-situation-libya.
13 President Barack Obama, Letter from the President Regarding the Commencement of Operations in Libya, March
21, 2011. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/03/21/letter-president-regarding-
commencement-operations-libya.
14 For information about the War Powers Resolution, see CRS Report R41199, The War Powers Resolution:
After Thirty-Six Years
, by Richard F. Grimmett.
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massacre that would could have created refugee flows that would destabilize Tunisia or Egypt.15
He also cited the possibility that regional leaders would assume violent repression was acceptable
and that the U.N Security Council would not uphold peace and security. President Obama
emphasized his view that “broadening our military mission to include regime change would be a
mistake.”
No-Fly Zone, Arms Embargo, and Civilian Protection Operations
For detailed information about U.S. and coalition military operations, including congressional
authorization debates and potential costs, see CRS Report R41725, Operation Odyssey Dawn
(Libya): Background and Issues for Congress
, coordinated by Jeremiah Gertler, and CRS Report
R41701, No-Fly Zones: Strategic, Operational, and Legal Considerations for Congress,
coordinated by Jeremiah Gertler.
Since early March, U.S. military forces have been deployed in the Mediterranean region to
participate in humanitarian relief operations and served in a reserve capacity pending decisions
about military intervention. U.S. and coalition military operations to enforce U.N. Security
Council Resolution 1973 began on March 19 and continued through March 29. The civilian
protection provisions of Resolution 1973 authorize “all means necessary” short of foreign
military occupation, which, given the security situation described above, has to date included a
wide range of military action, including air strikes on pro-Qadhafi ground forces. The no-fly zone
provisions of Resolution 1973 ban “all flights in the airspace of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in
order to help protect civilians” with the exception of humanitarian flights, evacuation flights,
flights authorized for the protection of civilians, and “other flights which are deemed necessary
by States acting under the authorization… to be for the benefit of the Libyan people.” Member
states are authorized to act nationally or “through regional organizations” to enforce the ban and
are now doing so. All authorized flights are to be coordinated with the U.N. Secretary General
and the Arab League Secretary General. The resolution calls on U.N. member states to “to
provide assistance, including any necessary over-flight approvals, for the purposes of
implementing” the no-fly zone and civilian protection operations.
The U.S. military forces now on station have a broad range of offensive and defensive assets at
their disposal, in addition to the ability to assist in medical and relief operations. The U.S.
military’s newest combatant command, U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM) took the lead on
Operation Odyssey Dawn, the initial U.S. contribution to a multilateral military effort to provide
humanitarian relief, enforce a no-fly zone and arms embargo, and protect civilians in Libya in line
with Resolution 1973. General Carter F. Ham, who assumed command of AFRICOM on March 9,
serves as theater commander for U.S. Libya operations and forces contributing to the NATO-led
Operation Unified Protector (see “The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)” below).
Tactical U.S. operations for Odyssey Dawn have been coordinated by a Joint Task Force under
Admiral Sam Locklear onboard the command-and-control ship U.S.S. Mount Whitney. Admiral
Locklear serves jointly as Commander of U.S. Naval Forces Europe and Africa, and as
Commander of Allied Joint Force Command, Naples, which now has operational responsibility
for the broader NATO mission in Libya and other NATO missions in the Mediterranean. The
Commander of U.S. Air Forces Africa, based in Ramstein, Germany, serves as Joint Force Air

15 President Barack Obama, Remarks by the President in Address to the Nation on Libya, March 28, 2011. Available at
http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/03/28/remarks-president-address-nation-libya.
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Component Commander for U.S. operations in Libya. Under the auspices of Operation Odyssey
Dawn, U.S. Africa Command, with support from Air Mobility Command and Naval Forces
Europe-Africa assets, has overseen airlift operations via military facilities in Greece, Italy, and
Germany to deliver U.S.-donated humanitarian relief supplies to the Libyan-Tunisian border and
repatriate Egyptian nationals from Tunisia.
U.S. Humanitarian Operations
The Administration also has deployed joint State Department/USAID humanitarian assessment
teams (HATs) to the Tunisia-Libya and Libya-Egypt borders.16 As of March 28, USAID had
provided $20 million to implementing partners for humanitarian relief purposes, while the State
Department had provided $27 million to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, and the International Committee of the Red
Cross to support the repatriation of third-country nationals, the establishment of transit camps,
and medical relief and other programs for those fleeing the conflict.17 On March 7, President
Obama authorized the issuance of up to $15 million from the U.S. Emergency Refugee and
Migration Assistance (ERMA) fund to support “contributions to international, governmental, and
nongovernmental organizations and payment of administrative expenses of the Bureau of
Population, Refugees, and Migration of the Department of State, related to the humanitarian crisis
resulting from the violence in Libya.”18
Congressional Action and Select Views
Since the uprising began in mid-February, many Members of Congress and Senators have spoken
out in condemnation of Qadhafi forces’ violence against civilians in Libya, and the Senate
adopted a resolution to that effect (S.Res. 85, see below). Some Members of Congress made
statements urging the imposition of a no-fly zone in support of the Libyan opposition, while
others have expressed doubt about the utility of such an operation or other military intervention.
Other Members have suggested that the Administration should seek explicit congressional
authorization for any use of U.S. armed forces with regard to the Libyan conflict. The views
described below reflect a selection of congressional statements for illustrative purposes and are
not exhaustive.
• On March 1, the Senate adopted by unanimous consent S.Res. 85, “strongly condemning
the gross and systematic violations of human rights in Libya, including violent attacks on
protesters demanding democratic reforms.”
• On March 15, 2011, Representative Ron Paul introduced H.Con.Res. 31, which cites the
war powers enumerated in Article One of the U.S. Constitution and cites the War Powers
Resolution (P.L. 93-148)19 in stating “the sense of Congress that the President is required

16 Updates on the humanitarian situation and U.S. civilian agencies activities are available from the U.S. Agency for
International Development, http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/disaster_assistance/countries/
libya/template/index.html.
17 USG Humanitarian Fact Sheet #14, Fiscal Year (FY) 2011, March 28, 2011.
18 Presidential Determination No. 2011-8, Unexpected Urgent Refugee and Migration Needs Related to Libya,
March 7, 2011.
19 For more information about the War Powers Resolution and its relation to recent U.S. military operations involving
no-fly zones, see CRS Report R41199, The War Powers Resolution: After Thirty-Six Years, by Richard F. Grimmett.
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to obtain in advance specific statutory authorization for the use of United States Armed
Forces in response to civil unrest in Libya.” The resolution specifically notes the possible
imposition of a no-fly zone as one of the possible actions that inspired the legislation.
• On March 15, 2011, Senator John McCain introduced S.Res. 102, which
calls on the President … to recognize the Libyan Transitional National Council, based in
Benghazi but representative of Libyan communities across the country, as the sole
legitimate governing authority in Libya; … to take immediate steps to implement a ‘no-
fly zone’ in Libya with international support; and … to develop and implement a
comprehensive strategy to achieve the stated United States policy objective of Qaddafi
leaving power.
• Senator Richard Lugar released a statement on March 15 that read, “It is doubtful that
U.S. interests would be served by imposing a no-fly zone over Libya. If the Obama
Administration is contemplating this step, however, it should begin by seeking a
declaration of war against Libya that would allow for a full Congressional debate on the
issue.” Senator Lugar raised these concerns directly with Undersecretary of State for
Political Affairs William Burns in a Senate Foreign Relations Committee meeting on
March 17.
• On March 16, Senate Foreign Relations Committee (SFRC) Chairman Senator John
Kerry said,
The international community cannot simply watch from the sidelines as this quest for
democracy is met with violence. The Arab League’s call for a U.N. no-fly zone over
Libya is an unprecedented signal that the old rules of impunity for autocratic leaders no
longer stand. Time is running out for the Libyan people. The world needs to respond
immediately to avert a humanitarian disaster. The Security Council should act now to
heed the Arab League’s call [for the imposition of a no-fly zone]. (See “The Arab
League and the African Union” below.)
Debate within the SFRC at a March 17 hearing on the Middle East revealed differences of
opinion among committee members and between some Senators and the Administration with
regard to the imperative to intervene, the likely benefits and drawbacks, the need for
congressional authorization for the use of U.S. military forces, and the likelihood that Al Qaeda or
other violent Islamists could take advantage of the current situation or future unrest to threaten
Libyan and international security. The range of views discussed in that hearing largely reflect the
range of views prevailing in the Congress as a whole, and the congressional response to the start
of U.S. military operations has featured expressions of support, expressions of opposition, and
calls for further consultation and clarity on the part of the President and his Administration.
On March 23, Speaker of the House John Boehner wrote a letter to President Obama, posing a
number of specific questions about the goals, command, funding, and metrics for U.S. military
operations in Libya and stating:20
I and many other members of the House of Representatives are troubled that U.S. military
resources were committed to war without clearly defining for the American people, the

20 Speaker Boehner Letter to President Obama on Military Action in Libya, March 23, 2011. Available at:
http://www.speaker.gov/UploadedFiles/POTUSLetter_032311.pdf.
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Congress, and our troops what the mission in Libya is and what America’s role is in
achieving that mission. In fact, the limited, sometimes contradictory, case made to the
American people by members of your Administration has left some fundamental questions
about our engagement unanswered. …It is regrettable that no opportunity was afforded to
consult with Congressional leaders, as was the custom of your predecessors, before your
decision as Commander-in-Chief to deploy into combat the men and women of our Armed
Forces.
The White House and executive branch agencies since have engaged in further consultations with
Congress regarding U.S. policy and military operations in Libya. Some Members of Congress
continue to debate the rationale, timing, authorization, goals, costs, and implications of ongoing
U.S. military operations and U.S. policy toward Libya more broadly.
U.N. Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973
On February 22, the U.N. Security Council (UNSC) met in private to discuss the situation in
Libya, and released a press statement that “condemned the violence and use of force against
civilians, deplored the repression against peaceful demonstrators, and expressed deep regret at the
deaths of hundreds of civilians.” Members of the Council further “called for an immediate end to
the violence and for steps to address the legitimate demands of the population, including through
national dialogue.”21
On February 26, the Security Council debated and unanimously adopted Resolution 1970, which
• Establishes an arms embargo prohibiting weapons transfers to Libya, while
providing for third party inspection of suspicious cargo and for consideration of
possible exemptions by the Committee established by paragraph 24 of the
resolution;
• Grants the International Criminal Court (ICC) jurisdiction over crimes committed
in Libya on or after February 15, 2011;
• Imposes targeted financial and travel sanctions on Muammar al Qadhafi, certain
family members, and some prominent supporters;
• Calls on member states to support humanitarian response efforts; and,
• Provides for further consideration of the situation in Libya, while not authorizing
the use of military force by member states with regard to the situation in Libya.
On March 1, the U.N. General Assembly, acting on the recommendation of the Human Rights
Council on February 25, considered the situation in Libya, and adopted, by consensus, a
resolution suspending Libya from “the rights of the membership” on the Human Rights Council.
This was the first time a member state has been removed from the Council since it replaced the
Commission on Human Rights in 2006.22 The General Assembly will review Libya’s future role
on the Council “as appropriate.” On March 11, the Human Rights Council established an

21 United Nations Security Council Department of Public Information, “SC/10180, AFR/2120: Security Council Press
Statement on Libya,” February 22, 2011.
22 United Nations General Assembly, A/RES/65/265, “Suspension of the rights of membership of the Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya in the Human Rights Council,” March 3, 2011.
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independent three-member Commission of Inquiry “to investigate alleged violations of
international human rights law in Libya.” The Commission is scheduled to report in June 2011.
United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has named former Jordanian Foreign Minister
Abdul Ilah Khatib as his Special Envoy for Libya. Khatib has completed a visit to Tripoli and
opposition controlled eastern Libya to assess the situation and meet with senior Libyan officials.
He reiterated calls for an end to violence. On March 24, the Secretary General reported on his
Special Envoy’s preliminary findings and said, “We continue to have serious concerns… about
the protection of civilians, abuses of human rights and violations of international humanitarian
law, and the access of civilian populations to basic commodities and services in areas currently
under siege.” He added that Khatib’s mission “was too brief to reach definitive conclusions about
the human rights situation, but they found many worrying signs, including threats and incitement
against the armed opposition.” U.N. Humanitarian Coordinator for Libya Rashid Khalikov also
visited Libya over the weekend of March 11 to March 13.
Resolution 1970 did not authorize the use of force by member states with regard to the conflict in
Libya or the enforcement of the arms embargo established by the resolution. As such, subsequent
debate focused on the relative necessity and implications of military intervention and the potential
for further authorization from the Security Council.
On March 17, the Security Council adopted Resolution 1973, which
• Demands the immediate establishment of a cease-fire and a complete end to
violence and all attacks against, and abuses of, civilians;
• Authorizes Member States that have notified the Secretary-General, acting
nationally or through regional organizations or arrangements, and acting in
cooperation with the Secretary-General, to take all necessary measures,
notwithstanding paragraph 9 of resolution 1970 (2011) [Note: paragraph 9
establishes an arms embargo on Libya], to protect civilians and civilian populated
areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, including Benghazi,
while excluding a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan
territory;
• Establishes a ban on all flights in the airspace of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in
order to help protect civilians,
• Authorizes robust enforcement inspection measures for the arms embargo
established by Resolution 1970, including measures to prevent the movement of
mercenary forces to Libya; and,
• Directs the U.N. Secretary General to convene an eight-person Panel of Experts
to monitor the situation in Libya and implementation of Resolutions 1970 and
1973;
• Signals the Security Council’s determination to ensure that assets frozen pursuant
to Resolution 1970 “shall, at a later stage, as soon as possible be made available
to and for the benefit of the people of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya;”
• Calls on member states to enforce a ban on flights by any aircraft registered in
the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya or owned or operated by Libyan nationals or
companies; and,
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• Expands targeted financial and travel sanctions on Libyan individuals and entities
and extends sanction provisions to persons found to be violating the arms
embargo established by Resolution 1970.
The Arab League and the African Union
International concern about the conflict in Libya is shared and in many senses amplified within
regional bodies such as the Arab League and the African Union, of which Libya and its neighbors
are members. The United States, the European Union, and other parties have looked to regional
actors as they seek to gauge the political ramifications of potential policy options, including
proposed military interventions. Both the Arab League and the African Union have taken strong
stands against Qadhafi supporters’ use of violence against civilians and opposition groups.
On February 22, the League of Arab States met in Cairo and suspended Libya from League
meetings.23 On March 12, the Arab League Council met again to discuss the situation in Libya
and endorsed on a consensus basis a request to the U.N. Security Council:
to take measures to impose a no-fly zone over the movement of Libyan military planes
immediately, and to establish safe areas in the places exposed to shelling as preventive
measures allowing to provide protection for the Libyan people and the residents in Libya
from different nationalities, taking into account the regional sovereignty and integrity of
neighboring countries.24
The Arab League Council further signaled its intent to contact and cooperate with the Libyan
opposition Interim Transitional National Council (ITNC). Pro-Qadhafi Libyan Foreign Ministry
officials rejected the move and called it “an unacceptable deviance from the charter of the Arab
League and its practices since its inception.”
The Arab League statement was welcomed by international observers who view regional support
as a prerequisite for any direct intervention, including any multilateral military operation to
impose a no-fly zone. The U.S. government referred to the decision as “important.” Other
observers cautioned that the apparent consensus at the Arab League meeting may mask
underlying dissension among regional governments with regard to specific types of military
intervention and strong opposition to any foreign military intervention among some regional
citizens.25
Those concerns appeared to be borne out when coalition military strikes against Libyan ground
forces appeared to cause some dissension among some Arab governments and leaders after the
start of operations on March 19. Some in the region strongly supported the Arab League
statement and have expressed concern that third parties, including the United States, have not

23 See Arabic original statement at: http://www.arableagueonline.org/lasimages/picture_gallery/bayan22-2-2011.doc.
24 OSC Report GMP20110314950010, “Arab League Urges U.N. to Impose No-Fly Zone Over Libya,” March 12,
2011.
25 There are conflicting reports from unnamed Arab official sources that some governments opposed the decision. On
March 17, Algerian diplomats informed CRS that their government did not oppose the Arab League Council decision,
contrary to some press reports. Algeria has urged coordination with the African Union, stressed that any no-fly zone
decision must be taken by the U.N. Security Council, and maintains its general “opposition to any foreign intervention
in Libya,” a position it maintained with regard to uprising in Tunisia and Egypt. Syria’s representative also is rumored
to have expressed reservations about the decision and has warned against foreign intervention in Libya.
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provided sufficient support to the Libyan opposition. On March 21, Arab League Secretary
General Amr Moussa said that, from the Arab League’s perspective, the purpose of military
operations and Resolution 1973 is “not to give the rebels support. It is not a question of
supporting a regime, a government or a council.”26 He predicted that if Muammar al Qadhafi
remains in control of some or all of Libya then the result could be “a prolonged case of civil war
and tension and destruction of Libya.”
Popular reactions to the new Security Council action in different countries vary, and popular
views and government positions could shift dramatically depending on the scope, course, and
outcome of military intervention, including the imposition of a no-fly zone and strikes on Libyan
ground forces. Resolution 1973 recognizes “the important role of the League of Arab States in
matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security in the region,” and
requests that the member states of the Arab League “cooperate with other Member States in the
implementation of” measures taken pursuant to the resolution to protect Libyan civilians.
The Obama Administration is seeking “active Arab partnership, both in the measures that would
be taken but also in the financial support for them.”27 Qatar has deployed six Mirage fighter
aircraft and two C-17A aircraft for the no-fly zone and relief operations. Qatari fighter aircraft are
now participating in no-fly zone patrols from Souda Bay, Crete. On March 28, Qatar announced
that it recognizes the ITNC as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people. The United
Arab Emirates has pledged six F-16 and six Mirage fighter aircraft for the no-fly zone operation.
Jordan and Morocco reportedly plan to provide non-combat support to coalition operations.
The African Union (AU) has condemned the use of violence against civilians in Libya and has
dispatched a fact-finding mission to investigate the crisis. The AU moves surprised some
observers given that Qadhafi has provided significant funding to support the AU budget in recent
years and Qadhafi had been elected to serve as AU President in 2009.28 However, the AU has
stopped short of taking collective punitive action against Libya or Qadhafi. The AU has named an
ad hoc high level committee to engage directly with Libyan parties and African governments. The
ad hoc committee is made up of the AU Commission president and the current presidents of Mali,
Uganda, the Republic of Congo, Mauritania, and South Africa. Resolution 1973 takes note of the
AU committee, and calls for intensified efforts “to find a solution to the crisis which responds to
the legitimate demands of the Libyan people.” The AU continues to call for an “immediate
cessation of all hostilities,” and participants at a high level consultative meeting on Libya in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on March 25 issued a roadmap calling for “the protection of civilians and
the cessation of hostilities; humanitarian assistance to affected populations…; initiation of a
political dialogue between the Libyan parties in order to arrive at an agreement on the modalities
for ending the crisis; establishment and management of an inclusive transitional period; and
adoption and implementation of political reforms necessary to meet the aspirations of the Libyan
people.”29

26 Raghida Dergham, “Interview with Amr Moussa: The Goal in Libya Is Not Regime Change,” International Herald
Tribune
, March 23, 2011.
27 Testimony of Undersecretary of State William Burns, before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, March 17,
2011.
28 African Union (AU), Communiqué of the 261st Meeting of the Peace and Security Council, February 23, 2011.
29 AU, Communiqué, Consultative Meeting on the Situation in Libya, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, March 25, 2011.
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The European Union and EU Member States
Like the United States, the European Union (EU) had pursued a policy of engagement with the
Qadhafi government in recent years, and several EU member states reestablished deep economic
ties with Libya. European states have long been important consumers of Libyan oil and natural
gas, although officials have expressed confidence in recent weeks that disruptions of Libyan
energy supplies to the European market will not have significant consequences. Until the
outbreak of violence in mid-February 2011, engagement efforts at the EU level were marked by
ongoing negotiations over the terms of an EU-Libya Framework Agreement and the conclusion of
a technical and financial cooperation agreement with Libya in conjunction with the European
Commission’s European Neighborhood Policy. These initiatives have been suspended in line with
an EU decision on February 28 to impose an arms embargo and targeted sanctions on Muammar
al Qadhafi, his family, and some of his prominent supporters.30
The EU sanctions now in place reflect the terms of the arms embargo and targeted sanctions
mandated in UNSC Resolutions 1970 and 1973 and expand them to include a visa ban and asset
freezes on additional individuals. The EU expanded its targeted sanctions list on March 10 and on
March 23 to include Libya’s National Oil Company and other oil institutions, Mustafa Zarti, the
director of the Libyan Investment Authority (LIA, the government’s sovereign wealth fund), and
five Libyan financial institutions, including the LIA and Libya’s Central Bank.31 The European
Council of Heads of State and Government met on March 11 and issued a “Declaration on the
EU’s Southern Neighborhood and Libya,” stating that “Colonel Qadhafi must relinquish power
immediately,” but stopping short of endorsing military action to achieve that goal.32 The Council
stated it considers the opposition ITNC “a political interlocutor.” Prior to the start of coalition
military operations, EU member states took a range of positions on the conditions under which
they might support military intervention and the necessary authorizations and proper mechanisms
for doing so. Some EU Member states such as the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Greece,
Denmark, and Italy have taken an active role in the military operations, while others, such as
Germany have declined to endorse military intervention.33 On March 25, European Council
President Herman Van Rompuy reiterated the joint European Union position by stating:
Kadhafi must go, and we want a political transition, led by the Libyans themselves, and
based on a broad based political dialogue. We also stand ready to help a new Libya, both
economically, and in building its new institutions. The humanitarian situation in Libya and at
its borders remains a source of serious concern and that’s why we will continue to provide
humanitarian assistance in Libya.
On the humanitarian front, as of March 28, the EU, acting through the European Commission,
and EU member states had committed €75.8 million (~$106.4 million) in cash and in-kind
donations to support the creation and maintenance of transit facilities, to provide relief to

30 See European Council Decision 2011/137/CFSP, February 28, 2011; and, Council Regulation (EU) 204/2011,
“Concerning restrictive measures in view of the situation in Libya,” March 2, 2011.
31 See Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No 233/2011, March 10, 2011, implementing Article 16(2) of
Regulation (EU) No 204/2011 concerning restrictive measures in view of the situation in Libya; and, Council Decision
2011/178/CFSP of 23 March 2011 amending Decision 2011/137/CFSP concerning restrictive measures in view of the
situation in Libya.
32 Extraordinary European Council Declaration on the EU’s Southern Neighborhood and Libya, March 11, 2011.
33 On March 17, German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle said, “we won't take part in any military operation and I
will not send German troops to Libya.”
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individuals, and to repatriate EU and third-country nationals. An EU civil protection team is
operating in Tunisia, and a team of humanitarian affairs experts has been deployed to Tunisia,
Egypt, and Libya in support of U.N. and EU operations. Several EU member states continue to
carry out their own bilateral responses to the humanitarian emergency and are providing material
and financial support to international organizations and regional entities in coordination with the
United States and other donors. Member states such as Italy and Malta are particularly concerned
that the situation could result in large numbers of refugees and asylum-seekers fleeing Libya for
EU territory. Qadhafi has attempted to leverage these fears in public statements as a means of
influencing EU decisions.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)34
On March 27, after just over a week of coalition air operations under U.S. command, the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) announced that it would take over command and control of
all ongoing military operations in Libya. According to NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh
Rasmussen, the goal of NATO’s Operation Unified Protector (OUP) is “to protect civilians and
civilian-populated areas under threat of attack from the Gaddafi regime.” This entails: (1)
enforcing a UN-mandated arms embargo; (2) enforcing a no-fly zone over Libyan territory; and
(3) protecting civilians and civilian population areas from being attacked by military forces from
the Qadhafi regime. OUP is commanded by Canadian Air Force Lt. Gen. Charles Bouchard,
headquartered at the Allied Joint Force Command in Naples, Italy. He reports to Joint Force
Commander U.S. General Sam Locklear, who in turn reports to NATO Supreme Allied
Commander U.S. Admiral James Stavridis. As of March 28, eleven NATO member states,
including the United States, had committed military forces to the new NATO mission.35
The decision to bring coalition military operations under NATO command and control capped
several weeks of increasing allied involvement in the mission. Since March 8, NATO has been
conducting 24-hour air surveillance of Libyan territory and the Central Mediterranean, using
AWACS aircraft deployed as part of NATO’s Operation Active Endeavor, NATO’s longstanding
counterterrorism and maritime security operation in the Mediterranean Sea.36 On March 23,
NATO launched a maritime operation to enforce the arms embargo against the Libyan regime.
Naval vessels and aircraft participating in the operation are charged with monitoring the Central
Mediterranean off the Libyan coast and, if necessary, intercepting and diverting any vessels
suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries in violation of the arms embargo. On March 24,
the allies agreed to take command of air operations to enforce the no-fly zone over Libya. The
first no-fly zone missions under NATO command began on Sunday, March 27. Finally, also on
March 27, NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen announced that NATO would
expand the scope of its mission to include implementing all military aspects of UNSCR 1973,
including the protection of civilians and civilian areas through possible air strikes on ground
forces loyal to Qadhafi.
In spite of statements underscoring NATO unity on steps announced to date, the initial planning
and operational phases were also marked by significant levels of discord within Europe and

34 Prepared by Paul Belkin, Analyst in European Affairs, ext. 7-0220.
35 Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Spain, and the United Kingdom have deployed fighter planes to
the region. Turkey and Greece have committed naval assets to enforce the UN arms embargo.
36 For more information on NATO’s Operation Active Endeavor see
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_7932.htm.
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NATO on the aims and future direction of the mission. A key point of contention was reportedly
the amount of flexibility that NATO forces would be granted to protect civilians and civilian
areas, as called for in paragraph 4 of UNSCR 1973. Reports indicate that French officials insisted
on maintaining the ability to strike ground forces that threatened civilian areas, while their
Turkish counterparts vocally opposed any targeting of ground forces.37 Adding to the strain within
NATO, NATO ally Germany abstained from UNSCR 1973 and, opposed to any potential combat
operation, on March 23, withdrew its naval assets in the Mediterranean from NATO command.38
Throughout the first week of operations, other European allies contributing to the mission,
including Italy and Norway, expressed increasing frustration with the lack of agreement within
NATO, with Norway refusing to deploy its fighter jets unless under they were under NATO
command and control. Although the allies appear to have come to agreement on the terms of their
military engagement moving forward, some of the aforementioned tensions could reemerge over
the course of the mission.
Russia and China
Russia and China abstained from the vote on Security Council Resolution 1973. Russia’s
representative stated that “any attacks against civilians and other violations of international
humanitarian law and human rights must immediately and unconditionally cease,” and noted
Russia’s view that the quickest solution would be to demand an “immediate cease-fire.”39 China
called for an end to attacks on civilians but linked its abstention to its opposition to “the use of
force in international relations” and the views of Arab and African governments. Since March 19,
both governments have criticized coalition military operations, reiterated calls for an immediate
cease-fire, and warned of the potential for continued conflict to destabilize neighboring countries.
On March 28, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said, “We consider that intervention by the
coalition in what is essentially an internal civil war is not sanctioned by the U.N. Security Council
resolution.”40
Prospects and Challenges for U.S. Policy
Fast-moving events and independent decisions by a range of Libyan actors and U.S. coalition
partners shape the context in which U.S. officials are pursuing U.S. national security interests
with regard to Libya. Administration officials and some Members of Congress continue to debate
U.S. goals and the best means for ensuring that U.S. policy actions achieve short and long-term
objectives. President Obama has outlined short and long term policy goals with regard to Libya
and has identified distinct policy tools for achieving them. In the short term, U.S. military

37 See, for example, Ian Traynor and Nicholas Watt, “Libya no-fly zone leadership squabbles continue within NATO,”
The Guardian, March 23, 2011; and “Still No Decision Who Will Oversee Libya Strikes,” Agence France-Presse,
March 22, 2011.
38 On March 28, German officials reportedly signaled that at least two German navy vessels would be placed back
under NATO command, but would not be available for use in Operation Unified Protector. The vessels will continue to
participate in Operation Active Endeavor. Also, on March 25, in what was portrayed as an effort to ease the allied
burden in other NATO operations, the German parliament authorized German forces to take over command of
AWACS surveillance operations in Afghanistan with a deployment of up to 300 additional military personnel to the
country.
39 United Nations Security Council Meeting Record, S/PV.6498, March 17, 2011.
40 Steve Gutterman, “No UN mandate to attack Gaddafi forces: Russia,” Reuters, March 28, 2011.
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operations continue in support of the civilian protection, arms embargo, and no-fly zone
provisions of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1973. Administration officials believe that U.S.
targeted financial sanctions and U.S. support for the U.N.-mandated multilateral arms embargo
and financial and travel sanctions will contribute toward the longer term goal of pressuring
Qadhafi to leave power. However, U.S. officials have stated that a range of scenarios are possible
and that U.S. policy must remain flexible in order to effectively shape and respond to
developments.41 Administration officials have declined to offer firm predictions for the time
frame of U.S. military operations or deadlines for the achievement political objectives.
President Obama has ruled out the use of U.S. military forces to overthrow Qadhafi’s government
or to provide coordinated military support to the Libyan opposition, even as U.S. and coalition
military operations continue to create conditions that have facilitated opposition military
advances. Libyan opposition figures are adamant that they will not accept an outcome that leaves
Muammar al Qadhafi in power in Tripoli. Armed opposition volunteers have advanced on areas
held by pro-Qadhafi military forces and supporters, and civilians and volunteers in Misurata and
Az Zintan continue to defend themselves from attacks by pro-Qadhafi forces. Some opposition
elements are focused on maintaining law and order in opposition controlled areas, and some
opposition media sources are encouraging civilians to refrain from taking advantage of the unrest
to commit crimes, seek retribution, or settle personal disputes violently.
President Obama’s address to the nation March 28 signaled his Administration’s concern that the
conflict in Libya could have direct security implications and intangible political implications for
the broader Middle East as that region continues to grapple with widespread upheaval. The
apparent proliferation of small arms, man-portable air defense missile systems (MANPADS), and
some heavy weaponry among fighters on both sides has leading some outside counterterrorism
and arms trafficking experts to express concern about the conflict’s longer term implications for
regional security.42 Given these circumstances, Administration officials and Members of Congress
may seek to better understand the range of possible outcomes and discuss their potential
implications and the authorization for and costs of potential U.S. responses in advance.
Possible Scenarios
Continued Opposition Advances. Some observers highlight what they view as inherent tension
between the benefits that opposition forces are deriving from coalition operations and the
provisions of Resolution 1973 that call for an immediate cease-fire and protection of all Libyan
civilians. For the United States, reconciling a long-term objective of regime change with short
term military action to enforce a UN resolution that does not expressly endorse that goal is a
particular challenge. The retreat westward of pro-Qadhafi forces and the advance of opposition
volunteers in their wake from March 19 through March 28 appeared to be a direct result of
coalition air operations, and some opposition military figures credited the change in their fortunes

41 On March 27, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates said, “The idea that [Qadhafi] needs to go… goes without
saying. But how long it takes, how it comes about, remains to be seen. Whether elements of the army decide to go to
the other side, as some small elements have, whether the family cracks—who knows how this is going to play out.”
Bret Stephens, “The Libya Mission Was ‘Never About Regime Change’” Wall Street Journal, March 27, 2011.
42 For example, these concerns were raised in C. J. Chivers, “Experts Fear Looted Libyan Arms May Find Way to
Terrorists,” New York Times, March 3, 2011. African Union communiqués have expressed concern about regional
stability, and some Sahel region governments have specifically warned about Al Qaeda supporters seizing control of
specific types of weapons and exploiting the weakness of government forces in Libya to expand their areas of operation
and sanctuary.
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directly to coalition air strikes against their pro-Qadhafi adversaries. Some U.S. military officers
shared this assessment, but stressed that direct coordination was not occurring.43
It is unclear if coalition forces are prepared to militarily target opposition military forces if
opposition fighters attack or threaten pro-Qadhafi civilians. On March 27, an unnamed senior
Administration official responded to reporters’ questions about how the coalition would respond
if the opposition advance threatens civilians in areas held by Qadhafi supporters, including Sirte,
by saying that “our mission is to protect civilians against the threat or actual use of military force.
So when civilians are being attacked or threatened to be attacked, those who are doing the
attacking or threatening are the ones who are going to be subject to military action.”44 On March
29, U.S. Admiral James Stavridis stated in Senate testimony that, “In terms of whether or not we
would parse through civilians versus rebels versus opposition leaders versus Gadhafi forces, we
would have to rely on our intelligence, particularly our signals intelligence, to have a sense of
what's occurring on the ground and then make conditions-based decisions at that time.”45
Stalemate and Backlash. Skeptics who have highlighted Qadhafi’s decades of cunning and
survival in the face of armed domestic opponents and determined international adversaries now
express concern about how he and his hard-line supporters may react to the tightening regional
and international noose. U.S. military sources believe that pro-Qadhafi forces retain significant
ground-based military capacity, in spite of ongoing coalition strikes. Qadhafi and some of his
supporters have threatened attacks against civilian and military targets outside Libya in response
to the intervention. A stalemate or Qadhafi-sponsored attack outside Libya might increase
pressure on the United States and other outside parties to expand military operations or otherwise
provide assistance to opposition forces. At the same time, international military operations that
provide direct, coordinated protection to any armed advance by opposition forces may jeopardize
the fragile regional and international consensus that allowed the U.N. Security Council to act in
the first place. Intra-NATO concerns, Arab League views, and the views of Security Council
members, including Russia and China have proven particularly relevant thus far.
Cease-fire and Political Negotiations. A cease-fire that freezes the status quo as of March 29
may leave Qadhafi in power and his forces in control of significant amounts of territory and
energy infrastructure. This may present a long-term, if unpredictable threat to pro-opposition
civilians or to those countries participating in the coalition. Similarly, opposition forces may
retain control over much of eastern Libya and key energy infrastructure without being able to
assert broader control. The multilateral arms embargo and sanctions in place would have to be
adapted to reflect any cease-fire that resulted in competing authorities in Libya or led to a
negotiated settlement. The United States and European governments have made general
statements about providing political and potentially economic support to ease any post-Qadhafi
transition. However, practical implementation of those pledges may be challenged by apparent
gaps in intelligence about the makeup and goals of the opposition. Competition among tribal or
regional groups that are not now apparent could emerge during any post-conflict political

43 On March 28, U.S. Joint Staff Director Vice Admiral Bill Gortney stated, “clearly, [opposition forces are] achieving
a benefit from the actions that we're taking.” He emphasized that the U.S. had no contact with front-line opposition
military figures and were not coordinating operations. The announcement that AC-130 gunships and A-10 aircraft were
being used for “precision effect” operations against Libyan military targets raised questions about the potential for U.S.
operations to be seen as providing close air support to opposition fighters.
44 U.S. Department of State, “Transcript: NATO Enforcing All Aspects of UNSCR 1973 in Libya,” Brussels, Belgium,
March 27, 2011.
45 Testimony of Admiral James Stavridis before the Senate Armed Services Committee, March 29, 2011.
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negotiations. The political ascendance of nonviolent Islamist opposition forces or the emergence
of an armed organized Islamist faction also may create unique challenges.
Competition or Collapse among Opposition Forces. Some expert observers of Libya’s
domestic politics have emphasized the general weakness and fractured condition of Libya’s
political landscape after forty years of idiosyncratic abuse by Qadhafi and his supporters.
Competition among the opposition might emerge under any conditions, and U.S. military officers
cite the relative weakness of opposition military forces in warning that yet another reversal of the
opposition forces could occur. Opposition ranks might split in the short term over differences in
opinion about a cease-fire and a negotiated settlement or in the long term over the goals and
shape of any post-Qadhafi political arrangements. The United States and Europe have expressed
concern about violent Islamist groups in Libya and were pursuing counterterrorism cooperation
with the Qadhafi government prior to the unrest. Should serious infighting develop on the
opposition side or if advancing volunteer elements break against Qadhafi defenses, the United
States and others may face competing demands to withdraw or redouble their efforts.
Possible Questions
Possible questions that Members of Congress may wish to consider when assessing the ongoing
no-fly zone, arms embargo enforcement, or civilian protection operations include:
• What is the ultimate political goal of current U.S. policy in Libya? What U.S.
national interests are at stake? How are no-fly zone operations or other U.S. or
multilateral military interventions contributing to or detracting from that goal?
What domestic authorization exists for the use of U.S. military forces for such an
operation? How might a cease-fire in Libya change these calculations?
• What regional or international political support and legal authorization exists for
military operations and how might such support and authorization or lack thereof
affect the political ramifications of intervention? How might these factors affect
the operational considerations for the success of current operations, including
basing and over-flight rights and contributions? How should events unfolding in
the broader Middle East and North Africa affect decision making in the Libyan
case?
• What key operational objectives need to be achieved in order to consider the no-
fly zone and civilian protection operations successful? What geographic or time
parameters should be imposed on the no-fly zone and civilian protection
operations? What are the operational requirements of no-fly zone and civilian
protection operations in terms of costs, troop deployments, and equipment needs?
How are these requirements affecting ongoing U.S. military operations and
readiness elsewhere?
• What unintended consequences may result from current military operations?
What are the prospects for the United States or its allies being dragged into a
broader conflict? What precedents have U.S. or multilateral military intervention
in the Libyan conflict set and how might those precedents affect the context in
which U.S. decision makers must respond to other regional crises and events?
• When and on what terms should U.N. or U.S. sanctions on Libyan entities be
removed? In the event of a stalemate or negotiated cease-fire, what sanctions
should be maintained? Why and on what terms?
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Libyan Political Dynamics and Profiles
Political Dynamics
In recent years, Libya’s political dynamics have been characterized by competition among
interest groups seeking to influence policy within the confines of the country’s authoritarian
political system and amid Libya’s emergence from international isolation. Economic reforms
embraced changes to Libya’s former socialist model to meet current needs, even as political
reforms languished amid disputes between hard-line political forces and reform advocates. In
general, the legacies of Italian colonial occupation and Libya’s struggle for independence
continue to influence Libyan politics. This is reflected in the celebration of the legacy of the anti-
colonial figure Omar al Mukhtar during the current uprising. Prior to the recent unrest, rhetorical
references to preserving sovereignty and resistance to foreign domination were common in
political statements from all parties. Most Libyans also accept a prominent role for Islamic
tradition in public life: Islam is the official religion and the Quran is the basis for the country’s
law and its “social code.”
Tribal relationships have remained important, particularly with regard to the distribution of
leadership roles in government ministries, in some economic relationships between some social
groups and families, and in political-military relations. Tribal loyalties reportedly remain strong
within and between branches of the armed services, and members of Qadhafi’s tribe, the Qadhafa,
have held many high-ranking government positions. Some members of larger tribes, such as the
Magariha, Misurata, and the Warfalla, have sought to advance their broad interests through
control of official positions of influence and some of their members have opposed the regime on
grounds of tribal discrimination. Some Libyan military and security officials staged limited,
unsuccessful coup attempts against Qadhafi in 1993 and 1996 based in part on tribal and familial
rivalries. Unsuccessful plotters were sentenced to death.
Prior to the current conflict, the Qadhafi government had performed periodic reassignments and
purges of the officer corps to limit the likelihood of organized opposition reemerging from within
the military. However, these political considerations were largely seen to have affected the
military’s preparedness and war fighting capability and in any case appear not to have prevented
the defection of some military officers and units. Competition for influence among Libya’s
regions characterized the pre-Qadhafi period and some saw the 1969 Qadhafi-led revolution as
having been partly facilitated by western and southern Libyan resentments of the Al Sanusi
monarchy based in eastern Libyan region of Cyrenaica. Contemporary Libyan politics have not
been dominated by overt inter-regional tension, although pro-Qadhafi forces have accused the
organizers and leaders of the current opposition as having, inter alia, an eastern regional separatist
agenda. The opposition ITNC has denied these accusations.
Political parties and all opposition groups are banned in Libya under law number 71 of 1972.
Formal political pluralism has been frowned upon by many members of the ruling elite, even as
in the period preceding the unrest some regime figures had advocated for greater popular
participation in existing government institutions. The lack of widespread experience in formal
political organization, competition, and administration is likely to remain a challenge, regardless
of the military outcome.
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Qadhafi and the Libyan Government
Muammar al Qadhafi
Muammar al Qadhafi was born in 1942 near the central coastal city of Sirte. His family belongs
to one of five branches of the relatively small Qadhafa tribe, and his upbringing was modest. As a
young man Qadhafi identified strongly with Arab nationalist and socialist ideologies espoused by
leaders such as Egypt’s Gamal Abdel Nasser. Although he was excluded from the elite Cyrenaica
Defense Forces on a tribal basis during the Libyan monarchy period, Qadhafi was commissioned
as a regular army captain following stints at the Libyan military academy in Benghazi and the
United Kingdom’s Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst. Following his return to Libya, he led
the September 1, 1969, overthrow of the Libyan monarchy with a group of fellow officers. He
was 27 years old. His subsequent partnerships and disputes with fellow coup plotters have helped
define Libya’s political dynamics during his rule and are shaping events during the current unrest.
Qadhafi has proven to be a controversial, complex, and contradictory political survivor during his
long reign in Libya, in spite of numerous internal and external challenges to his rule. He has
exercised nearly complete, if, at times, indirect political control over Libya over the last 40-plus
years by carefully balancing and manipulating complex patronage networks, traditional tribal
structures, and byzantine layers of national, regional, and local governance. Libya’s foreign and
domestic policies nominally have been based on his personal ideology. In the past, Qadhafi and
his supporters have imposed his theories with realistic purpose and precision, not hesitating to
crush coup attempts, assassinate dissidents abroad, or sponsor violent movements and terrorist
attacks against Libya’s perceived external enemies. His use of force in response to the 2011
uprising reflects his responses to previous challenges to his continued “guidance.” Opposition
forces and citizens of various political orientations and various levels of capability consistently
have failed to dislodge Qadhafi over the last forty years, often with terminal results. He remains
defiant in the face of coalition military operations and has sought to rally and arm his supporters.
The Qadhafi Family and Prominent Officials: Selected Profiles
Personally, Muammar al Qadhafi often is described as mercurial, charismatic, shrewd, and
reclusive. He has been married twice and has eight children: seven sons and one daughter.
Qadhafi’s children play various formal and informal roles in Libyan politics, and some are taking
active public roles in efforts to crush the ongoing revolt.
Sayf al Islam Al Qadhafi.46 The eldest of Qadhafi’s sons from his current
marriage, Sayf al Islam was viewed until recently as a strong proponent of
political reform in Libya, amid some unverified claims about his involvement in
corrupt business practices. During the crisis he has rallied strongly to the defense
of the government and his family to the dismay of some of his former
international interlocutors, including some in the United States. Images of Sayf al
Islam rallying Qadhafi supporters and threatening opposition forces have
overshadowed his continuing references to the pursuit of a reform agenda

46 For a detailed profile of Sayf al Islam al Qadhafi and an example of the pre-uprising discussion about the possibility
of his succeeding his father, see Yehudit Ronen, “Libya’s Rising Star: Said Al-Islam and Succession,” Middle East
Policy
, Vol. XII, No. 3, Fall 2005, pp. 136-44.
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following any resolution of the conflict. Skepticism appears to have replaced
hope in the minds of those outside observers who felt that he could emerge as a
figure able to lead Libya toward a more open political future. The U.S.
government has designated Sayf al Islam pursuant to E.O.13566 and he is named
in the targeted sanctions Annex to U.N. Security Council Resolution 1970.
Mutassim Al Qadhafi. Qadhafi’s fifth eldest son, the 33-year old Mutassim Al
Qadhafi is a former military officer and serves as National Security Advisor to
his father. He visited the United States in late-2009 for consultations with Obama
Administration officials, including Secretary of State Clinton, with whom he
appeared publicly. He reportedly has engaged in competition with his brothers
and other regime figures for influence within Qadhafi’s inner circle. The U.S.
government has designated him pursuant to E.O.13566 and he is named in the
targeted sanctions Annex to Resolution 1970.
Khamis Al Qadhafi. Qadhafi’s sixth eldest son, Khamis al Qadhafi commands
an elite military unit known as the 32nd Brigade that often bears his name in press
reporting. The unit is rumored to have been on the front line of pro-Qadhafi
forces counterattacks against opposition held areas. The U.S. government has
designated him pursuant to E.O.13566 and he is named in the targeted sanctions
Annex to Resolution 1970.
Former intelligence chief and current Foreign Minister Musa Kusa has remained supportive of
Qadhafi during the crisis, as have National Oil Company chairman Shoukri Ghanem and Prime
Minister Al Baghdadi al Mahmoudi. Kusa is designated pursuant to Executive Order 13566. The
status of some members of Qadhafi’s security establishment and founding members of the
Revolution Command Council that overthrew the monarchy is unclear. Some are reported to be
under house arrest or to have fled Tripoli, including Military Intelligence and External Security
Organization director Abdullah Al Sanusi, General Mustafa al Kharrubi, and Defense Minister
General Abu Bakr Younis Jaber.
Opposition Groups
Prior to the 2011 uprising, Libya’s opposition movements were often categorized broadly as
Islamist, royalist, or secular nationalist in orientation. Their activities and effectiveness had been
largely limited by disorganization, rivalry, and ideological differences. New efforts to coordinate
opposition activities had begun in response to Libya’s reintegration to the international
community and the emergence of a broader political reform debate in the Arab world, and gained
momentum with the outbreak of region-wide protests and political change in late 2010 and early
2011. The infusion of popular support and regime defectors to the general opposition cause inside
Libya was welcomed by many established opposition groups, even if the specific political
demands of newly active opposition supporters and their compatibility with the agendas of the
established groups were not clear.
Key current questions for U.S. policymakers include determining the identities and backgrounds
of various opposition leaders and groups, assessing the capabilities of armed opposition
supporters, and determining the intentions, goals, and legitimacy of opposition elements. On
March 28, U.S. Vice Adm. Bill Gortney stated his view that “the opposition is not well organized,
and it is not a very robust organization.” He further indicated that the United States “would like a
much better understanding of the opposition,” and that U.S. officials are “trying to fill in” what he
characterized as “knowledge gaps.”
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Interim Transitional National Council (ITNC)
Opposition groups have formed an Interim Transitional National Council (ITNC) that is seeking
international recognition as the representative of the Libyan people from its base in Benghazi.47
The full extent of the group’s domestic political legitimacy and authority are unclear, although its
stated aspirations and appeals are addressed to all Libyans and its claims have been endorsed by
some Libyans abroad, including opposition groups in Europe and the United States. Domestically,
the ITNC claims that local and regional citizen councils formed in the wake of the uprising have
endorsed it, and the group’s website features reports and videos of some communities recognizing
the council. Overseas, the ITNC has endorsed former Libyan diplomats willing to join the
opposition cause. In the United States, former Ambassador to the United Nations and Foreign
Minister Abd al Rahman Shalgam and former Ambassador to Washington Ali Aujali have
represented the ITNC in meetings with Administration officials and Congress.
Public reports suggest that a military council has been formed to support the ITNC’s efforts. Its
full make-up is not publicly known, although some prominent figures who have defected from the
security forces apparently are members.48 ITNC representatives have been vague about their
relationships to leading defectors and the role of military forces in the opposition’s efforts to date.
Rebel advances westward toward central Libya do not appear to have featured regular military
units, and regular units have not been prominent in international media coverage of opposition
forces’ retreat eastward in the face of an ongoing counterattacks by pro-Qadhafi forces. ITNC
leaders continue to call for the establishment of a no-fly zone and publicly reject direct military
intervention by foreign ground forces.
In a March 10 interview with a Spanish newspaper, ITNC chairman Mustafa Abdeljalil outlined
the Council’s plans for a post-Qadhafi political arrangement as follows:
As soon as the regime falls, we will have six or seven months to call elections. Until then, we
will respect all international agreements. After the elections, everything will be left in the
hands of the new leaders. We will leave. None of the current members of the Council will
run in the elections. Libya is in need of new faces and there will be no room for officials
from the old regime. Our basic text is the 1951 Constitution to which we are of course
introducing changes.49
A Council statement released on March 22 states:
The Interim National Council is committed to the ultimate goal of the revolution; namely to
build a constitutional democratic civil state based on the rule of law, respect for human rights

47 Limited, basic information from the ITNC can be found on its website, http://ntclibya.org/english/.
48 On March 10 and 11, INTC representatives deflected press questions about the military council and indicated its
makeup and plans were “secret” in spite of previous public reports on its makeup. On March 2, London-based Arabic
language newspaper Al Sharq Al Awsat published the following list of the makeup of the military council: “Military
Police: Brigadier General Yusuf Lusayfir; Military Intelligence:Col. Hasan Faraj al-Majrisi; Air Force: Brig. Gen.
Miftah Fannush; Air Defense: Col. Muhammad Hammad al-Kazzah; Electronic Communications and Support: Col.
Izz-al-Din al-Isawi; Naval Forces: Capt. Faraj al-Mahdawi; Special Forces: Col. Wanis Bukhamadah; Vehicles and
Technical Affairs: Col. Engineer Najib I'maysh; Supplies and Provisions: Col. Fathi al-Mismari; Missiles: Col.
Muhammad Abd-al-Qadir Salih; Infantry Units: Col. Tariq al-Darsi; Public Security: Brig. Gen. Ashur Shawayil;
Military Prosecution: Col. Salih al-Bishari; and Military Judiciary: Col Al-Amin Abd-al-Wahhab.” See OSC Report
GMP20110302825014, “Report Names Members of Benghazi’s Military Council,” March 2, 2011.
49 OSC Report EUP20110311178003, “Libyan Rebel Leader Accuses EU of Worrying More About Oil Than Libyans’
Lives” March 10, 2011.
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and the guarantee of equal rights and opportunities for all its citizens including full political
participations by all citizens and equal opportunities between men and women and the
promotion of women empowerment. The Interim national council will vow to encourage a
state where its people enjoy the right to live in safety and security and within an environment
of stability.
Libya will become a state which respects universal core values that are embedded in the rich
cultural diversities around the globe which includes justice, freedom, human rights, and non-
violence. A state that is responsive to its citizen’s needs, delivers basic services effectively,
and creates an enabling environment for a thriving private sector in an open economy to
other markets around the world.
The Interim National Council reaffirms that Libya’s foreign policy will be based on both
mutual respect and common interests. Libya will be a state that fully respects the
International law and International declarations on human rights and one which will
participate in international relations responsibly, constructively and with good faith.
Prominent ITNC and Opposition Figures50
Mustafa Abdeljalil Fadl. Serves as Chairman of the Interim Transitional
National Council. He served as Libya’s Justice Minister from 2007 through the
onset of the uprising. He is known for having been supportive of some reform
initiatives advanced by Sayf al Islam al Qadhafi and for challenging Muammar al
Qadhafi and his supporters regarding due process and incarceration of prisoners
in some prominent legal cases during 2009 and 2010. He attempted to resign
from his position in early 2010.51 He is a native of Bayda, where he once served
as chief judge. He is 59 years old. In February, Abdeljalil claimed to have
evidence that Qadhafi ordered the terrorist attack on Pan Am Flight 103. Libyan
State Television carried a report on March 9 from the government General
Bureau for Criminal Investigation offering, “A reward of half a million Libyan
dinars [about $400,000] …to whoever captures the spying agent called Mustafa
Muhammad Abdeljalil Fadl and turns him in.”
Mahmoud Jibril Ibrahim Al Warfali. Serves as a foreign affairs representative
for the Council and some reports suggest he has taken a leadership role in a new
executive body attached to the Council. He travelled to Europe via Cairo, Egypt,
the week of March 7 and has worked to secure recognition of the ITNC in
meetings with European and U.S. officials, including Secretary of State Clinton.
He is 59 years old, and studied political science in the United States at the
University of Pittsburgh. He was serving as Libya’s ambassador to India and
resigned when the uprising began. He formerly served as head of the Libyan
National Planning Council and chairman of the National Economic Development
Board (NEDB).

50 This section reflects material found in David Gritten, “Key figures in Libya’s rebel council,” BBC News, March 10,
2011 and is supplemented with information derived from other international media and academic sources. Public
profile information remains incomplete or limited for many leading opposition figures and regime defectors.
51 OSC Report GMP20100128950040, “Libyan Minister of Justice Resigns Over ‘Harsh’ Criticism in People’s
Congress,” January 28, 2010.
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Ali Al Issawi. Serves as a foreign affairs representative for the Council. He was
born in Benghazi and is 45 years old. He served as Minister of Economy, Trade,
and Investment from 2007 to 2009.
Fathi Terbil. Serves as the youth representative to the Council. He is a legal
advocate from Benghazi who represented some families of victims of the 1996
Abu Salim prison massacre in which Libyan security forces are alleged to have
murdered over 1,000 prisoners to put down an uprising. His arrest and release on
February 15, 2011 sparked an initial series of protests and confrontations that
eventually fueled the broader uprising. In subsequent interviews, he has claimed
that he was arrested five times prior to the recent unrest and has been tortured by
Libyan security forces.
Abdel Hafez Ghoga. Serves as Vice-Chairman and spokesman for the Council.
He is described in the Libyan press as a “human rights lawyer and community
organizer.” Reports suggest that Ghoga had been working to organize a national
transitional council at the same time as Mustafa Abdeljalil and others were
working to form the ITNC. The two figures reportedly agreed to cooperate.
Dr. Salwa Fawzi al Deghali. Serves as the Council representative for women.
She is a lawyer and a native of Benghazi. She described her view of the
challenges facing the opposition in a March 11 interview with an Egyptian
newspaper: “We have never had any real organizational experience in Libya,
through parties or independent professional associations. Suddenly, we have an
entire city to run.”52
Ahmed al Zubayr al Sanusi. Serves as a Council member. He is known as
“Libya’s longest-serving ‘prisoner of conscience’” because he was jailed on
accusations of plotting a coup in 1970 and not released until 2001. He is a
relative of former King Idris.
Opposition Military Forces
Public reports suggest that a military council has been formed to support the ITNC’s efforts. Its
full make-up is not publicly known, although some prominent figures who have defected from the
security forces apparently are members. ITNC representatives have been vague about their
relationships to key security officers who have defected. The role of former government military
forces in the opposition’s efforts to date has been unclear. Regular military forces that have
defected to the opposition cause have not been consistently visible in leadership roles in
operations thus far, although some media reports suggest that some officers are providing
guidance and training to the lightly armed and predominantly young volunteers who appear to
make up the core of the opposition forces. Coordination among these different elements is not
apparent. One Libya-based reporter’s current account describes the opposition forces as follows:
“The hard core of the fighters has been the shabab—the young people whose protests in
mid-February sparked the uprising. They range from street toughs to university students
(many in computer science, engineering, or medicine), and have been joined by unemployed
hipsters and middle-aged mechanics, merchants, and storekeepers. There is a contingent of
workers for foreign companies: oil and maritime engineers, construction supervisors,

52 OSC Report GMP20110311966049, “Benghazi’s lawyers, Libya’s revolutionaries,” March 11, 2011.
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translators. There are former soldiers, their gunstocks painted red, green, and black—the
suddenly ubiquitous colors of the pre-Qaddafi Libyan flag. And there are a few bearded
religious men, more disciplined than the others, who appear intent on fighting at the
dangerous tip of the advancing lines. … With professional training and leadership
(presumably from abroad), the rebels may eventually turn into something like a proper army.
But, for now, they have perhaps only a thousand trained fighters, and are woefully
outgunned.”53
Key opposition military and security figures reportedly include:
Omar al Hariri. Serves as the military affairs representative on the ITNC. Hariri
participated in 1969 anti-monarchy coup alongside Qadhafi, but later was
imprisoned and sentenced to death on suspicion of plotting an uprising in 1975.
He was moved to Tobruk and placed under house arrest in 1990. He is 67 years
old. He has been quoted as calling for “a multi-party system” in the event that
Qadhafi is deposed.
Abdelfattah Younis al Ubaydi. Participated in the 1969 anti-monarchy coup
alongside Qadhafi. He had been serving as Minister for Public Security and a
Special Forces commander, which put him in charge of some internal security
forces through the start of the uprising. His resignation and defection came just
hours after Muammar al Qadhafi specifically named him as one of his key
supporters in a February 22 speech. Human rights concerns prior to and
potentially during the beginning of the unrest could have involved forces under
his command. His relationship to the ITNC military council is unclear. Some
reports suggest he has an unspecified leadership role, and he has been an
outspoken advocate for the opposition cause in interviews with international
media outlets.
Colonel Khalifah Belqasim Haftar. A veteran of the ill-fated Libyan invasion of
Chad during the 1980s, he turned against Qadhafi. Colonel Haftar recently
returned to Libya from exile—some reports suggest from the United States—to
support the current uprising.54 In the past, Haftar has been mentioned as a leader
of the Libyan Movement for Change and Reform and the Libyan National Army,
an armed opposition group reported to have received support from foreign
intelligence agencies and alleged to have been involved in past attempts to
overthrow Qadhafi.55 Press reports suggest Haftar is now contributing to
opposition training efforts.
Major Abdelmoneim Al Huni. An original member of the Revolution
Command Council, Al Huni had been serving as Libya’s representative to the
Arab League and resigned in protest of the use of force against protestors.
Regional press accounts from the 1990s describe Al Huni as having coordinated
with the opposition efforts of Colonel Haftar and others, before Al Huni
reconciled with Qadhafi in 2006.

53 Jon Lee Anderson, “Who are the Rebels?” The New Yorker, April 4, 2011.
54 Chris Adams, “Libyan rebel leader spent much of past 20 years in suburban Virginia,” McClatchy Newspapers,
March 26, 2011.
55 OSC Report FTS19960821000373, “U.S.-Based Oppositionist Has ‘Secret Meetings’ Near Tripoli,” August 21,
1996.
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Exiles and Al Sanusi Monarchy Figures
Complex relationships among former regime figures, competing heirs to the former monarchy,
and longstanding opposition leaders may evolve as the conflict unfolds and if specific
arrangements begin to be made for reconciliation and/or a new government.
Opposition groups in exile have included the National Alliance, the Libyan National Movement
(LNM), the Libyan Movement for Change and Reform, the Islamist Rally, the National Libyan
Salvation Front (NLSF), and the Republican Rally for Democracy and Justice. These groups and
others held an opposition conference—known as the National Conference for the Libyan
Opposition (NCLO)—in July 2005 in London and issued a “national accord,” calling for the
removal of Qadhafi from power and the establishment of a transitional government.56 A follow-up
meeting was held in March 2008.57 The NCLO reportedly helped lead the call for the February
17, 2011, “day of rage” that helped catalyze protests into a full-blown uprising against the
Qadhafi regime.
A royalist contingent based on the widely recognized claim to the leadership of the royal family
by Mohammed al Rida al Sanusi, the son of the former crown prince, has been based in London.58
On March 2, he answered a newspaper interviewer’s question about his intent with regard to
pursuing the restoration of the Al Sanusi monarchy by saying, “It is too early to answer such
questions. This will all be revealed in time.”59 His claim is disputed by a distant relative, whose
family members also have given interviews to international media outlets.
In a September 2005 interview, then-Foreign Minister Abd al Rahman Shalgam characterized
some of the regime’s expatriate opponents as individuals who fled the country after committing
economic crimes or collaborating with foreign intelligence services. He then invited any
expatriate dissidents who had not committed crimes to return to Libya.60 Shalgam has now joined
the opposition movement and is speaking as a representative of the ITNC in Washington, DC and
at the United Nations in New York.
The Muslim Brotherhood
A statement attributed to the Libyan Muslim Brotherhood in late February 2011 welcomed the
formation of the ITNC but called for a future, non-tribal government to “be formed by those who

56 May Youssef, “Anti-Gaddafists Rally in London,” Al Ahram Weekly (Cairo), No. 749, June 30 - July 6, 2005; Al
Jazeera (Doha)
, “Opposition Plans to Oust Al Qadhafi,” June 25, 2005; Middle East Mirror, “Libya’s Fractured
Opposition,” July 29, 2005.
57 “Libyan Opposition Groups Meet in London To Reiterate Commitment To Save Libya,” OSC Report
GMP20080329825012, March 29, 2008.
58 Immediately prior to his departure for medical treatment in August 1969, the late King Idris signaled his intent to
abdicate and pass authority to his crown prince and nephew, Hasan al Rida al Mahdi al Sanusi. Crown Prince Hasan
was serving as regent during the Qadhafi coup, and he and his family were imprisoned and placed under house arrest
until being allowed to leave Libya in the late 1980s. Each of King Idris’s potential direct heirs died as children. Upon
Prince Hasan’s death in 1992, he passed the title of head of the Al Sanusi royal house to his son, Prince Mohammed al
Rida al Sanusi.
59 OSC Report GMP20110302869002, “Former Libyan Crown Prince Says 2,000 Die in Anti-al-Qadhafi Revolt,”
March 2, 2011.
60 “Libya’s Shalgam on Ties With US, S. Arabia, Opposition,” OSC Report GMP20050924512001, September 24,
2005.
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actually led the revolution on the ground” and to exclude supporters of the original Qadhafi coup
or officials involved in human rights violations.61 This would seem to implicate some original
Qadhafi allies and security officials who have defected to the opposition cause. In the past, the
controller general of the Libyan Muslim Brotherhood, Suleiman Abdel Qadir, has described the
Brotherhood’s objectives as peaceful and policy-focused, and has long called for the cancellation
of laws restricting political rights.62
Like other political organizations and opposition groups, the Muslim Brotherhood is banned in
Libya under law number 71 of 1972. Since the late 1940s, when members of the Egyptian
Muslim Brotherhood first entered Libya following a crackdown on their activities, the Libyan
Muslim Brotherhood has existed as a semi-official organization. Hundreds of Brotherhood
members and activists were jailed in 1973, although the Brotherhood eventually reemerged and
operated as a clandestine organization for much of the following two decades. In 1998, a second
round of mass arrests took place, and 152 Brotherhood leaders and members were arrested.
Several reportedly died in custody, and, following trials in 2001 and 2002, two prominent
Brotherhood leaders were sentenced to death and over 70 were sentenced to life in prison. The
government announced a retrial for the imprisoned Brotherhood activists in October 2005, and in
March 2006, the group’s 84 remaining imprisoned members were released.63
Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG)/Libyan Islamic Movement for
Change (LIMC)

Prior to the 2011 uprising that began in eastern Libya, some reports examined whether the region
was a stronghold for Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) members and other extremist groups
that might pose a threat to Libya’s security and potentially to regional security.64 Some Members
of Congress have expressed concern that violent Islamists may seek to exploit the conflict in
Libya or any post-conflict transition. On March 29, NATO Supreme Allied Commander, Europe
U.S. Admiral James Stavridis said in Senate testimony that, at present, he does not have “detail
sufficient to say that -- that there’s a significant Al Qaida presence or any other terrorist presence
in and among” the Libyan opposition.65 The full effect of the ongoing unrest on the views,
positions, and activities of former-LIFG personnel and other potentially armed Islamist groups
has not yet been determined, although some former LIFG members appear to be providing
security in opposition held areas and engaging in fighting against pro-Qadhafi forces.

61 OSC Report GMP20110228405001, “Libyan Muslim Brotherhood Group Supports ‘Glorious Revolution,’” February
28, 2011.
62 In 2007, Abdel Qadir responded to political reform statements by Sayf al Islam al Qadhafi with calls for more
inclusive, consultative decision making. In a November 2008 interview, Abdel Qadir noted that reform outreach was
taking place under the auspices of the Qadhafi Foundation and not through official state organs, which in his view
undermined the significance of the outreach. He also repeated calls for reform and reconciliation aimed at creating a
constitution and protecting civil rights for Libyans. See OSC Report GMP20050803550006, “Al Jazirah TV Interviews
Libyan Muslim Brotherhood Leader on Current Situation,” August 3, 2005; OSC Report GMP20070830282001,
“Libyan MB Concerned Over Sayf al-Islam’s Statements Regarding New Constitution,” August 30, 2007; and, OSC
Report GMP20081111635001, “Libyan Muslim Brotherhood Official on Libya’s Foreign, Domestic Politics,”
November 10, 2008.
63 Afaf El Geblawi, “Libya Frees All Jailed Muslim Brotherhood Members,” Agence France Presse, March 3, 2006.
64 Peraino, “Destination Martyrdom,” Newsweek, April 19, 2008.
65 Testimony of Admiral James Stavridis before the Senate Armed Services Committee, March 29, 2011.
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The LIFG is a violent Islamist movement opposed to the Qadhafi government. In recent years, its
then-imprisoned leaders engaged in a dialogue and reconciliation process with the Qadhafi
Foundation, and over 200 LIFG members were released, including senior leaders and former
commanders.66 Qadhafi announced the release of the final 110 “reconciled” LIFG members at the
outset of the 2011 uprising. Some Libya-based members of the LIFG responded to the release of
leading figures on February 16 by announcing the reorganization of the group as the Libyan
Islamic Movement for Change (LIMC). The LIMC demands political change and an end to
corruption, and has underscored its decision to “enter a new stage of struggle in which we do not
adopt an armed program but a belief in the Libyan people’s ability to bring about the change to
which we are aspiring.”67 Muammar al Qadhafi has both blamed Al Qaeda and violent Islamists
for instigating the uprising, and, on March 15, he threatened to join them if the United States or
European countries intervene militarily in the conflict.68
In spite of these developments, Libyan government officials claim that some LIFG members
previously released as part of the government-approved reconciliation process participated in
violence at the beginning of the recent uprising and the government has accused some individuals
of seeking to establish “Islamic emirates” in eastern Libya.69 Some opposition figures have
decried the government accusations as scare tactics. One such former LIFG figure, Abdelhakim
Al Hasadi, is leading ad hoc security arrangements in the eastern city of Darnah, which was home
to several dozen Libyan recruits who travelled to Iraq to fight U.S. and coalition forces.70 Al
Hasadi claims to have recruited Libyans to fight in Iraq, but has publicly denied accusations he is
affiliated with Al Qaeda or is seeking to establish Islamist rule in Darnah or on a national basis.71
Al Qaeda Affiliation and Recantations
In 2009, some of the LIFG’s imprisoned leaders issued a lengthy series of writings, referred to as
“the recantations,” outlining their rejection of the use of violence (see below). However, Libyan
and U.S. concerns about LIFG’s domestic and international activities persisted. According to the
Department of State, the LIFG has attempted to assassinate Qadhafi, most recently in 1996, and
may have participated in the planning of the May 2003 suicide bombings in Casablanca,
Morocco.72

66 Prominent prisoners released under the auspices of the reconciliation program include former LIFG leader
Abdelhakim al Khuwaylidi Belhadj, former military director Khaled Sharif, and leading LIFG ideologue Sami Sa’idi.
OSC Report GMP20100323950045, “Three leaders of Libyan Fighting Group freed – paper,” March 23, 2010.
67 OSC Report GMP20110217825017, “Libya: IFG Elements Establish New Group Aiming for Peaceful Regime
Change,” February 17, 2011.
68 OSC Report EUP20110315058001, “'Exclusive’ Interview With Al-Qadhafi on Insurgency, Western Ties, US, Al-
Qa'ida,” March 15, 2011.
69 Libyan authorities specifically named Abdelkarim Ahsadi, Khayrallah Barasi, Mohamed Darnawi, and Abou Sofian
Ben Guemou, a former U.S. detainee at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, who Libyan officials released in September 2010.
Libyan government claims have not been independently verified. OSC Report GMP20110223950040, “Senior Libyan
Security Official Gives Details on Unrest in Benghazi Tripoli,” February 22, 2011.
70 Kevin Peraino, “Destination Martyrdom,” Newsweek, April 19, 2008.
71 Al Hasadi appeared on Al Jazeera and read a statement denying the Libyan government’s accusations. See OSC
Report GMP20110225648002, “Libya: Former LIFG Leader Denies Plan To Establish 'Islamic Emirate' in Darnah,”
February 25, 2011; and, OSC Report EUP20110322025008, “Libya: Rebel Leader in Derna Denies Local Presence of
Extremists, Al-Qa'ida,” March 22, 2011.
72 U.S. Department of State, “Libya,” Country Reports on Terrorism 2004, April 2005.
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The group’s reported ties with Al Qaeda came under scrutiny in July 2009 after group members
based in Britain reportedly renounced the group’s affiliation with Al Qaeda, and contrasted the
LIFG with others who use indiscriminate bombing and target civilians. In November 2007, Al
Qaeda figures Ayman al Zawahiri and Abu Layth al Libi announced the merger of the LIFG with
Al Qaeda, which many terrorism analysts viewed at the time as having political rather than
operational relevance.73 Abu Layth Al Libi was killed in an air strike in Pakistan in February
2008. The February 2011 LIFG release by Libyan authorities reportedly included Abdelwahhab
Muhammad Qayid, who has been identified in some sources as the brother of prominent Al
Qaeda ideologue Abu Yahya al Libi. In March 2011, Abu Yahya Al Libi released a video
condemning Qadhafi and calling on Libyans to use arms against Qadhafi supporters, but to
refrain from violence or criminality against each other.
In a July 2009 statement, LIFG members in Britain characterized the November 2007 Al Qaeda
affiliation announcement from the late Abu Layth Al Libi as “a personal decision that is at
variance with the basic status of the group,” and sought to “clearly emphasize that the group is
not, has never been, and will never be, linked to the Al Qaeda organization.”74 The statement
stressed that LIFG members abroad supported “the dialogue underway between the group’s
leadership and the Libyan regime if it should lead to an end to bloodletting, the release of
prisoners, the spreading of security and justice, the reunion of families, and to permitting
preaching, educational, and political activities.” The statement warned that the group would
“preserve [its] lawful and natural right to oppose the regime if it does not turn its back on its
previous policy that has led to tension and deadlock.” In 2009, the government and the LIFG
reached an agreement in which LIFG leaders renounced violence against the Libyan state, and,
later in 2009, the dialogue resulted in the issuance of written “recantations” of the LIFG’s former
views on religion and violence.75 In October 2009, over 40 LIFG prisoners were released,
alongside other Islamists.
The United States froze the LIFG’s U.S. assets under Executive Order 13224 in September 2001,
and formally designated the LIFG as a Foreign Terrorist Organization in December 2004. In
February 2006, the U.S. Department of the Treasury designated five individuals and four entities
in the United Kingdom as Specially Designated Global Terrorists for their role in supporting the
LIFG.76 On October 30, 2008, Treasury designated three more LIFG financiers.77 Some observers
characterized the designations as a U.S. gesture of solidarity with the Libyan government and
argued that the ability and willingness of the LIFG to mount terror attacks in Libya may have
been limited. Others claimed that some LIFG fighters were allied with other violent Islamist
groups operating in the trans-Sahara region, and cited evidence of Libyan fighters joining the

73 “Al-Zawahiri, Al-Libi: Libyan Islamic Fighting Group Joins Al-Qa’ida,” OSC Report - FEA20071104393586,
November 3, 2007.
74 “Libyan Islamic Fighting Group Abroad Issues Statement Supporting Regime Dialogue.” OSC Report -
GMP20090703825003, July 3, 2009.
75 “Report on ‘Seething Anger’ in Libya Over Dismantling Al Qa’ida-Linked Cells,” OSC Report
GMP20080630825001 June 30, 2008; “Libya: Jailed Islamic Group Leaders ‘Preparing’ To Renounce Armed
Violence,” OSC Report GMP20080706837002, July 6, 2008; “Libyan Islamic Fighting Group Source Announces
Ideology Revision Nearly Complete,” OSC Report GMP20090615825012, June 15, 2009; and OSC Reports,
GMP20090911452001, GMP20090911452002, GMP2009091145200, GMP20090910488004, GMP20090911452004,
GMP20090915452001, “Libyan Newspaper Publishes Libyan Fighting Group Retractions,” September 2009.
76 U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Treasury Designates UK-Based Individuals, Entities Financing Al Qaida-
Affiliated LIFG,” JS-4016, February 8, 2006.
77 U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Three LIFG Members Designation for Terrorism,” HP-1244, October 30, 2008.
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Iraqi insurgency as an indication of ongoing Islamist militancy in Libya and a harbinger of a
possible increase in violence associated with fighters returning from Iraq.78
Figure 2. Political Map of Libya

Source: Map Resources. Adapted by CRS.

Author Contact Information

Christopher M. Blanchard

Acting Section Research Manager
cblanchard@crs.loc.gov, 7-0428



78 Alison Pargeter, “Militant Groups Pose Security Challenge for Libyan Regime,” Janes Intelligence Review, Vol. 17,
No. 8, August 2005, pp. 16-19.
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