Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure:
Key Issues for Congress

Paul W. Parfomak
Specialist in Energy and Infrastructure Policy
March 17, 2011
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R41536
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Summary
Nearly half a million miles of pipeline transporting natural gas, oil, and other hazardous liquids
crisscross the United States. While an efficient and fundamentally safe means of transport, many
pipelines carry materials with the potential to cause public injury and environmental damage. The
nation’s pipeline networks are also widespread and vulnerable to accidents and terrorist attack.
The 2006 partial shutdown of the Prudhoe Bay, AK, oil field, and the 2010 pipeline accidents in
San Bruno, CA, and Marshall, MI, have heightened congressional concern about pipeline risks.
Both government and industry have taken numerous steps to improve pipeline safety and security
over the last 10 years. While many stakeholders agree that federal pipeline safety programs have
been on the right track, recent pipeline incidents suggest there continues to be room for
improvement. Likewise, the threat of terrorist attack on U.S. pipelines remains a concern.
The federal pipeline safety program was authorized through the fiscal year ending September 30,
2010, and is currently operating under a continuing resolution. The Pipeline Transportation Safety
Improvement Act of 2011 (S. 275) would reauthorize the program through FY2014.
The 112th Congress is considering new legislation to improve the safety and security of the U.S.
pipeline network. The Strengthening Pipeline Safety and Enforcement Act of 2011 (S. 234) would
increase the number of federal pipeline safety inspectors, would require automatic shutoff valves
for natural gas pipelines, and would mandate internal inspections of transmission pipelines,
among other provisions. S. 275 would increase federal pipeline safety inspectors, would require
automatic or remote controlled shutoff valves on new gas pipelines, would require public access
to pipeline emergency response plans, and would increase civil penalties for pipeline safety
violations, among other provisions. The Pipeline Safety and Community Empowerment Act of
2011 (H.R. 22) would require automatic or remote shut-off valves for many pipelines and public
disclosure of pipeline locations, among other provisions.
As Congress debates reauthorization of the federal pipeline safety program and oversees the
federal role in pipeline security, key questions may be raised concerning pipeline agency staff
resources, automatic pipeline shutoff valves, penalties for pipeline safety violations, and the
possible need for pipeline security regulations. In addition to these specific issues, Congress may
wish to assess how the various elements of U.S. pipeline safety and security activity fit together
in the nation’s overall strategy to protect transportation infrastructure. Pipeline safety and security
necessarily involve many groups: federal agencies, oil and gas pipeline associations, large and
small pipeline operators, and local communities. Reviewing how these groups work together to
achieve common goals could be an oversight challenge for Congress.

Congressional Research Service

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Safety and Security in the Pipeline Industry................................................................................. 1
Pipeline Safety Record.................................................................................................... 2
Pipeline Security Risks ................................................................................................... 3
Pipelines and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration ..................................................... 4
Pipeline Safety Improvement Act of 2002 ....................................................................... 6
Pipeline Inspection, Protection, Enforcement, and Safety Act of 2006 ............................. 6
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) San Bruno Hearings................................. 6
DOT Pipeline Security Activities..................................................................................... 7
Transportation Security Administration ................................................................................. 8
TSA Pipeline Security Activities ..................................................................................... 8
Security Incident Investigations..................................................................................... 11
GAO Study of TSA’s Pipeline Security Activities .......................................................... 11
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.............................................................................. 12
Key Policy Issues...................................................................................................................... 13
Staffing Resources for Pipeline Safety and Security............................................................. 13
PHMSA Inspectors........................................................................................................ 14
PHMSA Staffing Shortfalls ........................................................................................... 14
State Pipeline Inspector Funding ................................................................................... 16
TSA Pipelines Security Resources................................................................................. 16
Automatic Shutoff Valves for Transmission Pipelines .......................................................... 18
Previous Consideration ................................................................................................. 18
Remotely Controlled Valves for Liquids Pipelines ......................................................... 19
Valve Replacement Costs .............................................................................................. 20
SCADA and Leak Detection System Requirements ....................................................... 20
Public Perceptions......................................................................................................... 21
Natural Gas Distribution Excess Flow Valves ................................................................ 22
PHMSA Penalties and Pipeline Safety Enforcement ............................................................ 23
PHMSA Penalties in Perspective ................................................................................... 25
Pipeline Security Regulations.............................................................................................. 25
Additional Issues................................................................................................................. 26
Accuracy and Completeness of Pipeline System Records .............................................. 26
Mandatory Internal Inspection Requirements................................................................. 27
Emergency Response Plan Disclosure ........................................................................... 27
Mandatory Pipeline Assessment Intervals...................................................................... 28
Telephonic Notice of Pipeline Spills.............................................................................. 28
Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 29

Figures
Figure 1. PHMSA Pipeline Safety Staffing, Historical and Proposed under S. 234 ..................... 14

Congressional Research Service

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Tables
Table 1. TSA Pipeline Security Initiatives.................................................................................... 9
Table 2.Actual vs. Anticipated Pipeline Safety Staff in DOT Budget Requests ........................... 15

Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 29

Congressional Research Service

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Introduction
Nearly half a million miles of high-volume pipeline transport natural gas, oil, and other hazardous
liquids across the United States.1 These transmission pipelines are integral to U.S. energy supply
and have vital links to other critical infrastructure, such as power plants, airports, and military
bases. While an efficient and fundamentally safe means of transport, many pipelines carry
volatile, flammable, or toxic materials with the potential to cause public injury and environmental
damage. The nation’s pipeline networks are also widespread, running alternately through remote
and densely populated regions, some above ground, some below; consequently, these systems are
vulnerable to accidents and terrorist attack. The 2006 partial shutdown of the Prudhoe Bay, AK,
oil field due to pipeline leaks, and the 2010 pipeline accidents in San Bruno, CA, and Marshall,
MI, have demonstrated this vulnerability and have heightened congressional concern about
pipeline risks.
The federal program for pipeline safety resides primarily within the Department of Transportation
(DOT), although its inspection and enforcement activities rely heavily upon partnerships with
state pipeline safety agencies. The federal pipeline security program began with the DOT as well,
immediately after the terror attacks of September 11, 2001, but pipeline security authority was
subsequently transferred to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) when the latter
department was created. The DOT and DHS have distinct missions, but they cooperate to protect
the nation’s pipelines. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission is not operationally involved
in pipeline safety or security, but it can examine safety issues under its siting authority for
interstate natural gas pipelines, and can allow pipeline companies under its rate jurisdiction to
recover pipeline security costs. Collectively, these agencies administer a comprehensive and
complex set of regulatory authorities which has been changing significantly over the last decade
and continues to do so.
The federal pipeline safety program was authorized through the fiscal year ending September 30,
2010, and is currently operating under a continuing resolution. The Pipeline Transportation Safety
Improvement Act of 2011 (S. 275) would reauthorize the program through FY2014.
Safety and Security in the Pipeline Industry
Of the nation’s approximately half million miles of transmission pipeline, roughly 170,000 miles
carry hazardous liquids—over 75% of the nation’s crude oil and around 60% of its refined
petroleum products, along with other products.2 Within this network, there are nearly 200
interstate crude oil and liquid fuel pipelines, which account for roughly 80% of total pipeline
mileage and transported volume.3

1 Hazardous liquids primarily include crude oil, gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, home heating oil, propane, and butane.
Other hazardous liquids transported by pipeline include anhydrous ammonia, carbon dioxide, kerosene, liquefied
ethylene, and some petrochemical feedstocks.
2 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, “Natural Gas Transmission, Gas Distribution, and
Hazardous Liquid Pipeline Annual Mileage,” online table, September 21, 2010, http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/pipeline/
library/data-stats.
3 Richard A Rabinow, “The Liquid Pipeline Industry in the United States: Where It’s Been, Where It’s Going,”
Prepared for the Association of Oil Pipe Lines, April 2004, p. 4.
Congressional Research Service
1

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

The U.S. natural gas pipeline network consists of around 217,000 miles of interstate transmission,
and 89,000 miles of intrastate transmission.4 It also contains some 20,000 miles of field and
gathering pipeline, which connect gas extraction wells to processing facilities.5 Around 120
systems make up the interstate gas transmission network; another 90 or so systems operate
strictly within individual states.6 These interstate and intrastate gas transmission pipelines feed
around 1.2 million miles of regional pipelines in some 1,400 local distribution networks.7 Natural
gas pipelines also connect to 113 liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage sites, which augment
pipeline gas supplies during peak demand periods.8
Pipeline Safety Record
Taken as a whole, releases from pipelines cause few annual fatalities compared to other product
transportation modes. According to the Department of Transportation (DOT), hazardous liquid
pipelines reported an average of 2.2 deaths per year from 2006 through 2010. During the same
period, natural gas transmission and distribution pipelines reported an average of 3.0 and 10.4
deaths per year, respectively.9 Accidental pipeline releases result from a variety of causes,
including third-party excavation, corrosion, mechanical failure, control system failure, and
operator error. Natural forces, such as floods and earthquakes, can also damage pipelines. There
were 111 hazardous liquid pipeline accidents, 79 natural gas transmission (including gathering)
pipeline accidents, and 54 natural gas distribution accidents in 2010.10
Although pipeline releases have caused relatively few fatalities in absolute numbers, a single
pipeline accident can be catastrophic in terms of deaths and environmental damage. Notable
pipeline accidents in recent years include:
1999―A gasoline pipeline explosion in Bellingham, WA, killed three people and
caused $45 million in damage to a city water plant and other property.
2000―A natural gas pipeline explosion near Carlsbad, NM, killed 12 campers.
2006―Corroded pipelines on the North Slope of Alaska leaked over 200,000
gallons of crude oil in an environmentally sensitive area and temporarily shut
down Prudhoe Bay oil production.

4 Energy Information Administration, “Estimated Natural Gas Pipeline Mileage in the Lower 48 States, Close of 2008,”
online table, 2011, http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/natural_gas/analysis_publications/ngpipeline/mileage.html.
5 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Admin., “Natural Gas Transmission, Gas Distribution, and Hazardous
Liquid Pipeline Annual Mileage,” Web table, March 15, 2011, http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/portal/site/PHMSA/
menuitem.7c371785a639f2e55cf2031050248a0c/?vgnextoid=3b6c03347e4d8210VgnVCM1000001ecb7898RCRD&
vgnextchannel=3b6c03347e4d8210VgnVCM1000001ecb7898RCRD&vgnextfmt=print
6 Energy Information Administration, “About U.S. Natural Gas Pipelines,” June 2007, pp. 1, 29,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/natural_gas/analysis_publications/ngpipeline/fullversion.pdf.
7 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Admin., September 21, 2010, http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/pipeline/library/
data-stats.
8 There are also approximately 6,300 miles of offshore gathering pipelines. Gathering pipelines in on the Outer
Continental Shelf regulated by the Department of the Interior are outside the scope of this report.
9 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, “Significant Pipeline Incidents,” web page, March 15, 2011,
http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/reports/safety/SigPSI.html.
10 Ibid.
Congressional Research Service
2

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

2007―An accidental release from a propane pipeline and subsequent fire near
Carmichael, MS, killed two people, injured several others, destroyed four homes,
and burned over 70 acres of grassland and woodland.
2010―A pipeline spill in Marshall, MI, released 819,000 gallons of crude oil
into a tributary of the Kalamazoo River.
2010—A natural gas pipeline explosion in San Bruno, CA, killed 8 people,
injured 60 others, and destroyed 37 homes.
2011―A natural gas pipeline explosion in Allentown, PA, killed 5 people,
damaged 50 buildings, and caused 500 people to be evacuated.
Such accidents have generated persistent scrutiny of pipeline regulation and have increased state
and community activity related to pipeline safety.
Pipeline Security Risks
In addition to their vulnerability to accidents, pipelines may also be intentionally damaged by
vandals and terrorists. Some pipelines may also be vulnerable to “cyber-attacks” on computer
control systems or attacks on electricity grids and telecommunications networks.11 Oil and gas
pipelines, globally, have been a favored target of terrorists, militant groups, and organized crime.
In Colombia, for example, rebels have bombed the Caño Limón oil pipeline and other pipelines
over 950 times since 1993.12 In 1996, London police foiled a plot by the Irish Republican Army to
bomb gas pipelines and other utilities across the city.13 Militants in Nigeria have repeatedly
attacked pipelines and related facilities, including the simultaneous bombing of three oil pipelines
in May 2007.14 A Mexican rebel group similarly detonated bombs along Mexican oil and natural
gas pipelines in July and September 2007.15 In June 2007, the U.S. Department of Justice arrested
members of a terrorist group planning to attack jet fuel pipelines and storage tanks at the John F.
Kennedy (JFK) International Airport in New York.16 Natural gas pipelines in British Columbia,
Canada, were bombed six times between October 2008 and July 2009 by unknown perpetrators.17
In 2009, the Washington Post reported that over $1 billion of crude oil had been stolen directly
from Mexican pipelines by organized criminals and drug cartels.18

11 J.L. Shreeve, “Science & Technology: The Enemy Within,” The Independent. London, UK, May 31, 2006, p. 8.
12 Government Accountability Office (GAO), Security Assistance: Efforts to Secure Colombia’s Caño Limón-Coveñas
Oil Pipeline Have Reduced Attacks, but Challenges Remain
, GAO-05-971, September 2005, p. 15; Stratfor
Forecasting, Inc.,” Colombia: The FARC’s Low-Level Pipeline Campaign,” Stratfor Today, June 23, 2008.
http://www.stratfor.com/analysis/colombia_farcs_low_level_pipeline_campaign?ip_auth_redirect=1
13 President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection, Critical Foundations: Protecting America’s
Infrastructures
, Washington, DC, October 1997.
14 Katehrine Houreld, “Militants Say 3 Nigeria Pipelines Bombed,” Associated Press, May 8, 2007.
15 Reed Johnson, “Six Pipelines Blown Up in Mexico,” Los Angeles Times, September 11, 2007. p A-3.
16 U.S. Dept. of Justice, “Four Individuals Charged in Plot to bomb John F. Kennedy International Airport,” Press
release, June 2, 2007.
17 Ben Gelinas, “New Letter Threatens Resumption of ‘Action’ against B.C. Pipelines,” Calgary Herald, April 15,
2010.
18 Steve Fainaru and William Booth, “Mexico’s Drug Cartels Siphon Liquid Gold,” Washington Post, December 13,
2009.
Congressional Research Service
3

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Since September 11, 2001, federal warnings about Al Qaeda have mentioned pipelines
specifically as potential terror targets in the United States.19 One U.S. pipeline of particular
concern, and with a history of terrorist and vandal activity, is the Trans Alaska Pipeline System
(TAPS), which transports crude oil from Alaska’s North Slope oil fields to the marine terminal in
Valdez. TAPS runs some 800 miles and delivers nearly 17% of United States domestic oil
production.20 In 1999, Vancouver police arrested a man planning to blow up TAPS for personal
profit in oil futures.21 In 2001, a vandal’s attack on TAPS with a high-powered rifle forced a two-
day shutdown and caused extensive economic and ecological damage.22 In January 2006, federal
authorities acknowledged the discovery of a detailed posting on a website purportedly linked to
Al Qaeda that reportedly encouraged attacks on U.S. pipelines, especially TAPS, using weapons
or hidden explosives.23 In November 2007 a U.S. citizen was convicted of trying to conspire with
Al Qaeda to attack TAPS and a major natural gas pipeline in the eastern United States.24 To date,
there have been no known Al Qaeda attacks on TAPS or other U.S. pipelines, but such attacks
remain a possibility.
Pipelines and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
The Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act of 1968 (P.L. 90-481) and the Hazardous Liquid Pipeline Act
of 1979 (P.L. 96-129) are two of the principal early acts establishing the federal role in pipeline
safety. Under both statutes, the Transportation Secretary is given primary authority to regulate
key aspects of interstate pipeline safety: design, construction, operation and maintenance, and
spill response planning. Pipeline safety regulations are covered in Title 49 of the Code of Federal
Regulations
.25 The DOT administers pipeline regulations through the Office of Pipeline Safety
(OPS) within the Pipelines and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA). The OPS
is funded for 206 full-time equivalent staff in 2010, based in Washington, DC; Atlanta; Kansas
City; Houston; and Denver.26 This includes funding for 137 inspectors, although the agency
actually employed 110 inspectors as of September 15, 2010.27 In addition to its own staff,
PHMSA’s enabling legislation allows the agency to delegate authority to intrastate pipeline safety
offices, and allows state offices to act as “agents” administering interstate pipeline safety

19 “Already Hard at Work on Security, Pipelines Told of Terrorist Threat,” Inside FERC, McGraw-Hill Companies,
January 3, 2002.
20 Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., Internet page, Anchorage, AK, February 8, 2009, http://www.alyeska-pipe.com/
about.html.
21 David S. Cloud, “A Former Green Beret’s Plot to Make Millions Through Terrorism,” Ottawa Citizen, December 24,
1999, p. E15.
22 Y. Rosen, “Alaska Critics Take Potshots at Line Security,” Houston Chronicle, February 17, 2002.
23 Wesley Loy, “Web Post Urges Jihadists to Attack Alaska Pipeline,” Anchorage Daily News, January 19, 2006.
24 U.S. Attorney’s Office, Middle District of Pennsylvania, “Man Convicted of Attempting to Provide Material Support
to Al-Qaeda Sentenced to 30 Years’ Imprisonment,” Press release, November 6, 2007; A. Lubrano and J. Shiffman,
“Pa. Man Accused of Terrorist Plot,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 12, 2006, p. A1.
25 Safety and security of liquefied natural gas (LNG) facilities used in gas pipeline transportation is regulated under
CFR Title 49, Part 193.
26 U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 2011: Appendix,
February 2010, p. 989.
27 John D. Porcari, Dep. Secretary, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Testimony before the House Committee on
Transportation and Infrastructure, Hearing on the Enbridge Pipeline Oil Spill in Marshall, MI, September 15, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
4

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

programs (excluding enforcement) for those sections of interstate pipelines within their
boundaries.28 Over 400 state pipeline safety inspectors are available in 2011.
PHMSA’s pipeline safety program is funded primarily by user fees assessed on a per-mile basis
on each regulated pipeline operator (49 U.S.C. § 60107). P.L. 109-468 authorized annual pipeline
safety program expenditures of $79.0 million in FY2007, $86.2 million in FY2008, $91.5 million
in FY2009, and $96.5 million in FY2010. The President’s FY2011 budget request included
$111.1 million.29 The FY2010 request is for $119.9 million.30 S. 275 would authorize annual
pipeline safety program expenditures of $111.1 million in FY2011, $115.8 million in FY2012,
$119.9 million in FY2013, and $122.8 million in FY2014. The bill would also authorize $2.0
million annually through FY2014 for grants to state pipeline damage prevention programs.
PHMSA uses a variety of strategies to promote compliance with its safety standards. The agency
conducts programmatic inspections of management systems, procedures, and processes; conducts
physical inspections of facilities and construction projects; investigates safety incidents, and
maintains a dialogue with pipeline operators. The agency clarifies its regulatory expectations
through published protocols and regulatory orders, guidance manuals, and public meetings.
PHMSA relies upon a range of enforcement actions, including administrative actions such as
corrective action orders (CAOs) and civil penalties, to ensure that operators correct safety
violations and take measures to preclude future safety problems. From 2006 through 2010,
PHMSA initiated approximately 1,100 enforcement actions against pipeline operators.31 Civil
penalties proposed by PHMSA for safety violations during this period totaled approximately
$14.7 million.32 PHMSA also conducts accident investigations and system-wide reviews focusing
on high-risk operational or procedural problems and areas of the pipeline near sensitive
environmental areas, high-density populations, or navigable waters.
Since 1997, PHMSA has increasingly required industry’s implementation of “integrity
management” programs on pipeline segments near “high consequence areas.” Integrity
management provides for continual evaluation of pipeline condition; assessment of risks to the
pipeline; inspection or testing; data analysis; and followup repair, as well as preventive or
mitigative actions. High consequence areas include population centers, commercially navigable
waters, and environmentally sensitive areas, such as drinking water supplies or ecological
reserves. The integrity management approach directs priority resources to locations of highest
consequence rather than applying uniform treatment to the entire pipeline network. PHMSA made
integrity management programs mandatory for most oil pipeline operators with 500 or more miles
of regulated pipeline as of March 31, 2001 (49 C.F.R. § 195).

28 49 U.S.C. 601. States may recover up to 50% of their costs for these programs from the federal government.
29 U.S. Office of Management and Budget, February 2010, p. 988.
30 U.S. Office of Management and Budget, February 2011, p. 953.
31 Pipeline and Hazardous Material Safety Administration (PHMSA), “PHMSA Pipeline Safety Program: Summary of
Enforcement Actions,” Web page, March 15, 2011, http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/reports/enforce/
Actions_opid_0.html?nocache=8828.
32 Pipeline and Hazardous Material Safety Administration (PHMSA), “PHMSA Pipeline Safety Program: Summary of
Cases Involving Civil Penalties,” Web page, March 15, 2011. http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/reports/enforce/
CivilPenalty_opid_0.html?nocache=9288#_TP_1_tab_2.
Congressional Research Service
5

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Pipeline Safety Improvement Act of 2002
On December 12, 2002, President Bush signed into law the Pipeline Safety Improvement Act of
2002 (P.L. 107-355). The act strengthened federal pipeline safety programs, state oversight of
pipeline operators, and public education regarding pipeline safety.33 Among other provisions, P.L.
107-355 required operators of regulated natural gas pipelines in high-consequence areas to
conduct risk analysis and implement integrity management programs similar to those required for
oil pipelines.34 The act authorized the DOT to order safety actions for pipelines with potential
safety problems and increased violation penalties. The act streamlined the permitting process for
emergency pipeline restoration by establishing an interagency committee, including the DOT, the
Environmental Protection Agency, the Bureau of Land Management, the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission, and other agencies, to ensure coordinated review and permitting of
pipeline repairs. The act required DOT to study ways to limit pipeline safety risks from
population encroachment and ways to preserve environmental resources in pipeline rights-of-way.
P.L. 107-355 also included provisions for public education, grants for community pipeline safety
studies, “whistle blower” and other employee protection, employee qualification programs, and
mapping data submission.
Pipeline Inspection, Protection, Enforcement, and Safety Act of 2006
On December 29, 2006, President Bush signed into law the Pipeline Inspection, Protection,
Enforcement and Safety Act of 2006 (PIPES Act, P.L. 109-468). The main provisions of the act
address pipeline damage prevention, integrity management, corrosion control, and enforcement
transparency. The PIPES act created a national focus on pipeline damage prevention through
grants to states for improving damage prevention programs, establishing 811 as national “call
before you dig” one-call telephone number, and giving PHMSA limited “backstop” authority to
conduct civil enforcement against one-call violators in states that have failed to conduct such
enforcement. The act mandated the promulgation by PHMSA of minimum standards for integrity
management programs for natural gas distribution pipelines.35 It also mandated a review of the
adequacy of federal pipeline safety regulations related to internal corrosion control, and required
PHMSA to increase the transparency of enforcement actions by issuing monthly summaries,
including violation and penalty information, and a mechanism for pipeline operators to make
response information available to the public.
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) San Bruno Hearings
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is an independent federal agency charged with
determining the probable cause of transportation accidents, including pipeline accidents,

33 P.L. 107-355 encourages the implementation of state “one-call” excavation notification programs (§ 2) and allows
states to enforce “one-call” program requirements. The act expands criminal responsibility for pipeline damage to cases
where damage was not caused “knowingly and willfully” (§ 3). The act adds provisions for ending federal-state
pipeline oversight partnerships if states do not comply with federal requirements (§ 4).
34 A 2006 Government Accountability Office (GAO) report found that PHMSA’s gas integrity management program
benefitted public safety, although the report recommended revisions to PHMSA’s performance measures. See GAO,
“Natural Gas Pipeline Safety: Integrity Management Benefits Public Safety, but Consistency of Performance Measures
Should Be Improved,” GAO-06-946, September 8, 2006, pp. 2-3.
35 PHMSA issued final regulations requiring operators of natural gas distribution pipelines to adopt integrity
management programs similar to existing requirements for gas transmission pipelines on December 4, 2009.
Congressional Research Service
6

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

promoting transportation safety, and assisting accident victims and their families. In March 2011,
the NTSB held hearings as part of its investigation of the San Bruno pipeline accident.36 The
hearings included testimony from PG&E officials, government agency officials (PHMSA, state,
and local), as well as testimony from other pipeline experts and stakeholders. In addition to
specifics about the San Bruno incident, the hearing addressed more general pipeline issues
including public awareness initiatives, pipeline technology, and oversight of pipeline safety by
federal and state regulators. The NTSB has already issued initial safety recommendations
stemming from the San Bruno incident, discussed later in this report, but the board will likely
issue additional recommendations at the conclusion of its investigation. Although the board did
not announce a specific date for the completion of its San Bruno work, the chairman has charged
NTSB staff with delivering their final accident report by September 2011.
DOT Pipeline Security Activities
Presidential Decision Directive 63 (PDD-63), issued during the Clinton Administration, assigned
lead responsibility for pipeline security to the DOT.37 These responsibilities fell to the OPS, at
that time a part of the DOT’s Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA), since the
agency was already addressing some elements of pipeline security in its role as safety regulator.38
In 2002, the OPS conducted a vulnerability assessment to identify critical pipeline facilities and
worked with industry groups and state pipeline safety organizations “to assess the industry’s
readiness to prepare for, withstand and respond to a terrorist attack.”39 Together with the
Department of Energy and state pipeline agencies, the OPS promoted the development of
consensus standards for security measures tiered to correspond with the five levels of threat
warnings issued by the Office of Homeland Security.40 The OPS also developed protocols for
inspections of critical facilities to ensure that operators implemented appropriate security
practices. To convey emergency information and warnings, the OPS established communication
links to key staff at the most critical pipeline facilities throughout the country. The OPS also
began identifying near-term technology to enhance deterrence, detection, response, and recovery,
and began seeking to advance public and private sector planning for response and recovery.41
On September 5, 2002, the OPS circulated guidance developed in cooperation with the pipeline
industry defining the agency’s security program recommendations and implementation
expectations. This guidance recommended that operators identify critical facilities, develop
security plans consistent with prior trade association security guidance, implement these plans,
and review them annually.42 Although the guidance was voluntary, the OPS expected compliance

36 National Transportation Safety Board, “Public Hearing: Natural Gas Pipeline Explosion and Fire, San Bruno, CA,
September 9, 2010,” web page, March 15, 2011, http://www.ntsb.gov/Events/2011/San_Bruno_CA/default.htm.
37 Presidential Decision Directive 63, Protecting the Nation’s Critical Infrastructures, May 22, 1998.
38 In November 2004, the President signed the Norman Y. Mineta Research and Special Programs Improvement Act
(P.L. 108-426), which eliminated RSPA and placed the Office of Pipeline Safety under the new Pipeline and Hazardous
Material Safety Administration. This restructuring did not significantly alter the authorities or activities of the OPS.
39 Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA), RSPA Pipeline Security Preparedness, December 2001.
40 Ellen Engleman, Administrator, Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA), statement before the
Subcommittee on Energy and Air Quality, House Energy and Commerce Committee, March 19, 2002.
41 Ellen Engleman, Administrator, Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA), statement before the
Subcommittee on Highways and Transit, House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee, February 13, 2002.
42 James K. O’Steen, Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA), Implementation of RSPA Security
Guidance
, presentation to the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners, February 25, 2003.
Congressional Research Service
7

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

and informed operators of its intent to begin reviewing security programs within 12 months,
potentially as part of more comprehensive safety inspections.43 Federal pipeline security authority
was subsequently transferred outside of DOT, however, as discussed below, so the OPS did not
follow through on a national program of pipeline security program reviews.
Transportation Security Administration
In November 2001, President Bush signed the Aviation and Transportation Security Act (P.L. 107-
71) establishing the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) within the DOT. According to
TSA, the act placed the DOT’s pipeline security authority (under PDD-63) within TSA. The act
specified for TSA a range of duties and powers related to general transportation security, such as
intelligence management, threat assessment, mitigation, security measure oversight and
enforcement, among others. On November 25, 2002, President Bush signed the Homeland
Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296) creating the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).
Among other provisions, the act transferred to DHS the Transportation Security Administration
from the DOT (§ 403). On December 17, 2003, President Bush issued Homeland Security
Presidential Directive 7 (HSPD-7), clarifying executive agency responsibilities for identifying,
prioritizing, and protecting critical infrastructure.44 HSPD-7 maintains DHS as the lead agency
for pipeline security (par. 15), and instructs the DOT to “collaborate in regulating the
transportation of hazardous materials by all modes (including pipelines)” (par. 22h). The order
requires that DHS and other federal agencies collaborate with “appropriate private sector entities”
in sharing information and protecting critical infrastructure (par. 25). TSA joined both the Energy
Government Coordinating Council and the Transportation Government Coordinating Council
under provisions in HSPD-7. The missions of the councils are to work with their industry
counterparts to coordinate critical infrastructure protection programs in the energy and
transportation sectors, respectively, and to facilitate the sharing of security information.
HSPD-7 also required DHS to develop a national plan for critical infrastructure and key resources
protection (par. 27), which the agency issued in 2006 as the National Infrastructure Protection
Plan
(NIPP). The NIPP, in turn, required each critical infrastructure sector to develop a Sector
Specific Plan (SSP) that describes strategies to protect its critical infrastructure, outlines a
coordinated approach to strengthen its security efforts, and determines appropriate funding for
these activities. Executive Order 13416 further required the transportation sector SSP to prepare
annexes for each mode of surface transportation.45 In accordance with the above requirements the
TSA issued its Transportation Systems Sector Specific Plan and Pipeline Modal Annex in 2007.
TSA Pipeline Security Activities
Pipeline security activities at TSA are led by the Pipeline Security Division (PSD) within the
agency’s Office of Transportation Sector Network Management.46 According to the agency’s
Pipeline Modal Annex (PMA), TSA has been engaged in a number of specific pipeline security
initiatives since 2003 as summarized in Table 1.

43 Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS), personal communication, June 10, 2003.
44 HSPD-7 supersedes PDD-63 (par. 37).
45 Executive Order 13416, “Strengthening Surface Transportation Security,” December 5, 2006.
46 These offices were formerly known as the Pipeline Security Program Office and the Intermodal Security Program
Office, respectively.
Congressional Research Service
8

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Table 1. TSA Pipeline Security Initiatives
Initiative Description
Participantsa
Pipeline Policy and
Coordination, development, implementation, and monitoring of
TSA, DHS, DOT,
Planning
pipeline security plans
DOE
Sector Coordinating
Government partners coordinate interagency and cross-
TSA, DOE, Other
Councils and Joint
jurisdictional implementation of critical infrastructure security
agencies, Industry
Sector Committee
Corporate Security
On-site reviews of pipeline operator security
TSA, Industry
Reviews (CSR)
Pipeline System Risk
Statistical tool used for relative risk ranking and prioritizing CSR
TSA, Industry
Tool
findings
Pipeline Cross-Border
U.S. and Canadian security assessment and planning for critical
TSA, Canada
Vulnerability
cross-border pipeline
Assessment
Regional Gas Pipeline
Regional supply studies for key natural gas markets
TSA, DOE, INGAA,
Studies
GTI, NETL, Industry
Cyber Attack
Training/presentations on Supervisory Control and Data
TSA, GTI
Awareness
Acquisition (SCADA) system vulnerabilities
Landscape Depiction
Incorporates depiction of the pipeline domain with risk analysis
TSA
and Analysis Tool
components
International Pipeline
International forums for U.S. and Canadian governments and
TSA, Canada, Other
Security Forums
pipeline industry officials convened annual y
agencies, Industry
“G8” Multinational
Multinational-sharing of pipeline threat assessment methods,
TSA, DHS, State
Security Assessment and advisory levels, effective practices, and vulnerability information;
Dept., G8 Nations
Planning
also develops a G8-based contingency planning guidance
document
Pipeline Security Drills
Facilitation of pipeline security drills and exercises
TSA, Industry
Security Awareness
Informational compact discs about pipeline security issues and
TSA
Training
improvised explosive devices
Stakeholder Conference Periodic information-sharing conference calls between key
TSA, Other agencies,
Calls
pipeline security stakeholders
Industry
Pipeline Blast Mitigation
Explosives tests on various pipe configurations to determine
TSA, DOD, Other
Studies
resiliency characteristics
agencies
Virtual Library Pipeline
Development of TSA information-sharing Web portal
TSA
Site
Sources: Transportation Security Administration, Pipeline Modal Annex, June 2007, pp. 10-11,
http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/Transportation_Pipeline_Modal_Annex_5_21_07.pdf; Jack Fox,
Transportation Security Administration, Testimony before the House Committee on Homeland Security,
Subcommittee on Management, Investigations, and Oversight, April 19, 2010
a. Key: DHS = Dept. Of Homeland Security, DOE = Dept. of Energy, G8 = Group of Eight (U.S., U.K.,
Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Russia),GTI = Gas Technology Institute, INGAA = Interstate
Natural Gas Association of America, NETL = National Energy Technology Laboratory, TSA =
Transportation Security Administration.
In 2003, TSA initiated its Corporate Security Review (CSR) program, wherein the agency visits
the largest pipeline and natural gas distribution operators to review their security plans and
inspect their facilities. During the reviews, TSA evaluates whether each company is following the
intent of the OPS security guidance, and seeks to collect the list of assets each company had
Congressional Research Service
9

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

identified meeting the criteria established for critical facilities. In 2004, the DOT reported that the
plans reviewed to date (approximately 25) had been “judged responsive to the OPS guidance.”47
As of August 2010, TSA had completed CSR’s covering the largest 100 pipeline systems (84% of
total U.S. energy pipeline throughput) and was in the process of conducting second CSR’s of
these systems.48 According to TSA, CSR results indicate that the majority of U.S. pipeline
systems “continue to do a good job in regards to pipeline security” although there are areas in
which pipeline security can be improved.49 Past CSR reviews have identified inadequacies in
some company security programs such as not updating security plans, lack of management
support, poor employee involvement, inadequate threat intelligence, and employee apathy or
error.50 In 2008, the TSA initiated its Critical Facility Inspection Program (CFI), under which the
agency conducts in-depth inspections of all the critical facilities of the 100 largest pipeline
systems in the United States. By the end of 2011, TSA expects to complete CFIs for all 373
critical facilities identified by pipeline operators.51
In addition to the initiatives in Table 1, TSA has worked to establish qualifications for personnel
applying for positions with unrestricted access to critical pipeline assets and has developed its
own inventory of critical pipeline infrastructure.52 The agency has also addressed legal issues
regarding recovery from terrorist attacks, such as FBI control of crime scenes and eminent
domain in pipeline restoration. In October 2005, TSA issued an overview of recommended
security practices for pipeline operators “for informational purposes only ... not intended to
replace security measures already implemented by individual companies.”53 The agency released
revised pipeline security guidelines at the end of 2006, and again in 2010. The guidelines include
a section on cybersecurity developed with the assistance of the Applied Physics Laboratory of
John Hopkins University as well as other government and industry stakeholders.54
The mission of TSA’s Pipeline Security Division (PSD) currently includes developing security
standards; implementing measures to mitigate security risk; building and maintaining stakeholder
relations, coordination, education and outreach; and monitoring compliance with security
standards, requirements, and regulations. The President’s FY2012 budget request for DHS does
not include a separate line item for TSA’s pipeline security activities. The budget request does
include a $134.7 million line item for “Surface Transportation Security,” which encompasses
security activities in non-aviation transportation modes, including pipelines.55 The PSD has
traditionally received from the agency’s general operational budget an allocation for routine

47 Department of Transportation (DOT), “Action Taken and Actions Needed to Improve Pipeline Safety,” CC-2004-
061, June 16, 2004, p. 21.
48 Government Accountability Office (GAO), Pipeline Security: TSA Has Taken Actions to Help Strengthen Security,
but Could Improve Priority-Setting and Assessment Processes
, GAO-10-867, August, 2010, Executive Summary.
49 Transportation Security Administration, Personal communication, November 5, 2010.
50 Mike Gillenwater, TSA, “Pipeline Security Overview,” presented to the Alabama Public Service Commission Gas
Pipeline Safety Seminar, Montgomery, AL, December 11, 2007.
51 GAO, August 2010, p. 32.
52 TSA, TSA Multi-Modal Criticality Evaluation Tool, TSA Threat Assessment and Risk Management Program, slide
presentation, April 15, 2003.
53 TSA, Intermodal Security Program Office, Pipeline Security Best Practices, October 19, 2005, p. 1.
54 Transportation Security Administration, Personal communication, February 2, 2010.
55 U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 2011: Appendix,
February 2011, p. 508.
Congressional Research Service
10

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

operations such as regulation development, travel, and outreach. According to the PSD, the
budget funds 13 full-time equivalent staff within the office.56
In 2007 the TSA Administrator testified before Congress that the agency intended to conduct a
pipeline infrastructure study to identify the “highest risk” pipeline assets, building upon such a
list developed through the CSR program. He also stated that the agency would use its ongoing
security review process to determine the future implementation of baseline risk standards against
which to set measurable pipeline risk reduction targets.57 Provisions in the Implementing
Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-53) require TSA, in
consultation with PHMSA, to develop a plan for the federal government to provide increased
security support to the “most critical” pipelines at high or severe security alert levels and when
there is specific security threat information relating to such pipeline infrastructure (§ 1558(a)(1)).
The act also requires a recovery protocol plan in the event of an incident affecting the interstate
and intrastate pipeline system (§ 1558(a)(2)). TSA published this plan in 2010.58
Security Incident Investigations
In addition to the above pipeline security initiatives, the TSA Pipeline Security Division has
performed a limited number of vulnerability assessments and has supported investigations for
specific companies and assets where intelligence information has suggested potential terrorist
activity. The PSD, along with PHMSA, was involved in the investigation of an August 2006
security breach at an LNG peak-shaving plant in Lynn, MA.59 Although not a terrorist incident,
the security breach involved the penetration of intruders through several security barriers and
alert systems, permitting them to access the main LNG storage tank at the facility. The PSD also
became aware of the JFK airport terrorist plot in its early stages and supported the Federal Bureau
of Investigation’s associated investigation. The PSD engaged the private sector in helping to
assess potential targets and determine potential consequences. The PSD worked with the pipeline
company to keep it informed about the plot, discuss its security practices, and review its
emergency response plans.60
GAO Study of TSA’s Pipeline Security Activities
In December 2008, the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation requested a
study by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) examining TSA’s efforts to ensure
pipeline security. GAO’s report, released in August 2010, focused on TSA’s use of risk
assessment and risk information in securing pipelines, actions the agency has taken to improve
pipeline security under guidance in the 9/11 Commission Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-53), and the
agency’s efforts to measure such security improvement efforts.61 Among other findings, GAO

56 Transportation Security Administration, Pipeline Security Division, personal communication, November 5, 2010.
57 Kip Hawley, Asst. Secretary, Dept. of Homeland Security, Testimony before the Senate Committee on Commerce,
Science, and Transportation hearing on Federal Efforts for Rail and Surface Transportation Security, January 18, 2007.
58 Transportation Security Administration, personal communication, November 5, 2010.
59 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA), “Pipeline Safety: Lessons Learned From a
Security Breach at a Liquefied Natural Gas Facility,” Docket No. PHMSA-04-19856, Federal Register, Vol. 71, No.
249, December 28, 2006, p. 78269; TSA, Intermodal Security Program Office, personal communication, August 30,
2006.
60 Transportation Security Administration, personal communication, July 6, 2007.
61 Government Accountability Office, GAO Watchdog, “Transportation Security’s Efforts To Ensure Pipeline
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
11

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

concluded that, although TSA had begun to implement a risk management approach to prioritize
its pipeline security efforts, work remained to ensure that the highest risk pipeline systems would
get the necessary scrutiny. GAO also concluded that TSA was missing opportunities under its
CSR and CFI programs to better ensure that pipeline operators understand how they can enhance
the security of their pipeline systems. TSA could also make better use of CSR and CFI
recommendations for analyzing pipeline vulnerabilities and was not following up on these
recommendations. GAO found that linking TSA’s pipeline security performance measures and
milestones to the goals and objectives in its national security strategy for pipeline systems could
aid in achieving results within specific time frames and could facilitate more effective oversight
and accountability.62 TSA concurred with all of GAO’s recommendations for addressing the
issues and is in the process of implementing them.63
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
One area related to pipeline safety and security not under either PHMSA’s or TSA’s primary
jurisdiction is the siting approval of new gas pipelines, which is the responsibility of the Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). Companies building interstate natural gas pipelines
must first obtain from FERC certificates of public convenience and necessity. (FERC does not
oversee oil pipeline construction.) FERC must also approve the abandonment of gas facility use
and services. These approvals may include safety and security provisions with respect to pipeline
routing, safety standards and other factors.64 As a practical matter, however, FERC has
traditionally left these considerations to the other agencies.65
On September 14, 2001, FERC notified jurisdictional companies that it would “approve
applications proposing the recovery of prudently incurred costs necessary to further safeguard the
nation’s energy systems and infrastructure” in response to the terror attacks of 9/11. FERC also
committed to “expedite the processing on a priority basis of any application that would
specifically recover such costs from wholesale customers.” Companies could propose a surcharge
over currently existing rates or some other cost recovery method.66 In FY2005, the commission
processed security cost recovery requests from 14 oil pipelines and 3 natural gas pipelines.67
FERC’s FY2006 annual report stated that “the Commission continues to give the highest priority
to deciding any requests made for the recovery of extraordinary expenditures to safeguard the
reliability and security of the Nation’s energy transportation systems and energy supply
infrastructure.”68 FERC’s subsequent annual reports do not mention pipeline security.

(...continued)
Security,” Assignment No. 440768, Internet database, February 4, 2010.
62 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Pipeline Security: TSA Has Taken Actions to Help Strengthen
Security, but Could Improve Priority-Setting and Assessment Processes
, GAO-10-867, August, 2010, pp. 54-55.
63 Jerald E. Levine, Director, Departmental GAO/OIG Liaison Office, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, Letter to
GAO, July 23, 2010.
64 U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. 18 C.F.R. 157.
65 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), personal communication, May 22, 2003.
66 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), News release, R-01-38, Washington, DC, September 14, 2001.
67 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Annual Report FY2005,
2006, p. 19. These are the most recent specific figures reported.
68 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Annual Report FY2006,
2007, p. 23.
Congressional Research Service
12

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

In February 2003, FERC promulgated a new rule (RM02-4-000) to protect critical energy
infrastructure information (CEII). The rule defines CEII as information that “must relate to
critical infrastructure, be potentially useful to terrorists, and be exempt from disclosure under the
Freedom of Information Act.” According to the rule, critical infrastructure is “existing and
proposed systems and assets, whether physical or virtual, the incapacity or destruction of which
would negatively affect security, economic security, public health or safety, or any combination of
those matters.” CEII excludes “information that identifies the location of infrastructure.” The rule
also establishes procedures for the public to request and obtain such critical information, and
applies both to proposed and existing infrastructure.69
On May 14, 2003, FERC handed down new rules (RM03-4) facilitating the restoration of
pipelines after a terrorist attack. The rules allow owners of a damaged pipeline to use blanket
certificate authority to immediately start rebuilding, regardless of project cost, even outside
existing rights-of-way. Pipeline owners would still need to notify landowners and comply with
environmental laws. Prior rules limited blanket authority to $17.5 million projects and 45-day
advance notice.70
Key Policy Issues
The 112th Congress is overseeing the implementation of the Pipeline Inspection, Protection,
Enforcement, and Safety Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-468) and pipeline security provisions in the
Implementing Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-53). It is also
considering numerous new legislative proposals as the federal pipeline safety program requires
reauthorization in the wake of major pipelines accidents in 2010. In the context of its broader
oversight of federal pipeline safety and security activities, Congress may examine a subset of key
issues which have drawn particular attention in recent policy deliberations.
Staffing Resources for Pipeline Safety and Security
The U.S. pipeline safety program is based upon on a combination of federal and state staff to
implement and enforce federal pipeline safety regulations. To date, PHMSA has relied heavily on
state agencies for pipeline inspections, with only 20% of inspectors in 2010 being federal
employees. Some in Congress have criticized this level of inspector staffing at PHMSA as being
insufficient to adequately cover pipelines under the agency’s jurisdiction, notwithstanding state
agency cooperation. The Strengthening Pipeline Safety and Enforcement Act of 2011 (S. 234)
would increase the number of full-time equivalent employees at PHMSA by at least 100 in
increments of 25 annually between FY2011 and FY2014 (§ 3(a)). S. 275 would increase PHMSA
pipeline safety staffing by 39 through FY2014. In considering such PHMSA staff increases, three
distinct issues that may warrant further consideration are the overall number of federal inspectors,
the agency’s historical use of staff funding, and the staffing of pipeline safety inspectors among
the states.

69 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), News release, R-03-08, Washington, DC. February 20, 2003.
70 Christian Schmollinger, “FERC OKs Emergency Reconstruction,” Natural Gas Week, May 13, 2003.
Congressional Research Service
13

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

PHMSA Inspectors
The President’s FY2012 budget request listed PHMSA’s estimated staffing in 2011 under the
continuing resolution as 206 full-time equivalent employees (FTEs). The budget request would
fund an estimated 225 FTEs in 2011.71 As Figure 1 shows, the addition of 100 staff under S. 234
would increase the DOT’s overall pipeline safety staff by approximately 50% over current levels,
and would represent a nearly 300% increase in funded staff since 2001. Thus, staff increases
under S. 234 would be a continuation of staff growth (of mostly inspectors) begun 10 years ago in
response to the 1999 Bellingham accident, the terrorist attacks of 9/11, implementation of
PHMSA’s integrity management regulations, and the continued growth of U.S. pipelines.
Figure 1. PHMSA Pipeline Safety Staffing, Historical and Proposed under S. 234
Full-Time Equivalent Staff
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
994
995
996
997
998
999
000
001
002
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
011
012
013
014
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Estimated
Proposed

Sources: U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the United States Government: Appendix, Fiscal
Years1996-2011; S. 234.
Notes: Estimated staff are staff anticipated by the agency as reported in annual budget requests. They may differ
from actual staff employed (for the same fiscal year) as reported in subsequent budget requests.
Whether 300 PHMSA pipeline safety staff in 2014 would be the optimal number is open to
debate. However, the additional employees available under S. 234 (§ 3(b)) and S. 275 (§ 24(b))
would not necessarily all be field inspectors, as inspectors are only one of several categories of
hiring “focus” for the agency listed under these bills.
PHMSA Staffing Shortfalls
One issue that complicates the PHMSA staffing debate is a long-term pattern of understaffing in
the agency’s pipeline safety program. At least as far back as 1994, PHMSA’s (or RSPA’s) actual
staffing for pipeline safety as reported in each of its annual budgets requests has fallen short of

71 U.S. Office of Management and Budget, February 2011, p. 954.
Congressional Research Service
14

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

the level of staffing anticipated in the prior year’s budget request. For example, the president’s
FY2011 budget request for pipeline safety reports 175 actual employees in 2009. However, the
FY2010 budget request stated an expectation of 191 employees (“estimated”) for 2009. On this
basis, between 2001 and 2009, the agency reported a staffing shortfall averaging approximately
24 employees every year. (Note that, due to this annual shortfall, the FTE’s reported in Figure 1
are higher that the number actually employed by PHMSA.) In testimony before Congress in
September 2010, DOT officials reported that PHMSA employed only 110 of 137 inspectors for
which it was funded—a shortfall of 27 inspectors.72 In March 2011, agency officials reported 126
inspectors employed.73 As of March 15, 2011, there appeared to be only one vacancy posted for a
PHMSA pipeline safety inspector position at the USAJobs website.
Table 2.Actual vs. Anticipated Pipeline Safety Staff in DOT Budget Requests
Full-Time Equivalent Staff
Year Actual
Anticipated
Difference
1994 62 90 -28
1995 71 90 -19
1996 84 105 -21
1997 92 105 -13
1998 97 105 -8
1999 93 105 -12
2000 97 105 -8
2001 96 107 -11
2002 100 122 -22
2003 111 143 -32
2004 125 156 -31
2005 154 164 -10
2006 139 169 -30
2007 146 170 -24
2008 147 180 -33
2009 175 191 -16
Sources: U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the United States Government: Appendix, Fiscal
Years1996-2011; CRS analysis.
PHMSA officials offer a number of reasons for the persistent shortfall in inspector staffing. These
reasons include a scarcity of qualified inspector job applicants, delays in the federal hiring
process during which applicants accept other job offers, and PHMSA inspector turnover—
especially to pipeline companies which often hire away PHMSA inspectors for their corporate
safety programs. Because PHMSA pipeline inspectors are highly trained by the agency (typically
for two years before being allowed to operate independently) they are highly valued by pipeline

72 John D. Porcari, Dep. Secretary, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Testimony before the House Committee on
Transportation and Infrastructure, Hearing on the Enbridge Pipeline Oil Spill in Marshall, MI, September 15, 2010.
73 Linda Daugherty, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Testimony before the National
Transportation Safety Board hearing“Natural Gas Pipeline Explosion and Fire, San Bruno, CA, September 9, 2010,”
March 2, 2011.
Congressional Research Service
15

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

operators seeking to comply with federal safety regulations. PHMSA officials also cite structural
issues associated with the agency’s appropriations which can require the use of FTE salary
funding to meet other obligations.74 The pipeline safety staffing shortfall raises the question of
how the DOT will achieve and maintain a sharply increased inspection workforce under S. 234 or
S. 275 when it has not been able to staff the number of inspectors for which it is already
budgeted.
State Pipeline Inspector Funding
Because state agencies would continue to account for the majority of U.S. pipeline safety
inspectors, even if S. 234 or S. 275 were enacted, another important consideration is how the
number of state inspectors might be affected by budget shortfalls and possible agency funding
cuts faced by many states due to the recent U.S. economic recession. Under P.L. 109-468 (§ 2(c)),
PHMSA is authorized to award grants reimbursing state governments for up to 80% of the cost of
the staff, personnel, and activities required to support the federal pipeline safety program
(although reimbursement has not reached the 80% level since the passage of the act). According
to DOT these grant are essential to “enable the states to continue their current programs and hire
additional inspectors ... [and] assure that states do not turn over responsibility for distribution
pipeline systems to the Federal inspectors,” among other reasons.75 Notwithstanding these federal
grants, inspector staffing at state pipeline safety agencies has been negatively affected by state
budget deficits. According to the National Association of Pipeline Safety Representatives, as of
October 2010, pipeline safety employees in 17 states had been furloughed without pay for up to 3
weeks.76 PHMSA officials have also reportedly cited unfilled positions among state pipeline
safety agencies as eroding the state pipeline safety workforce.77 Senior DOT officials consider
financial problems among state pipeline safety agencies a matter of “great concern” and have
granted to states waivers from certain regulatory financial requirements to increase their access to
federal grant money.78 Nonetheless, the future availability of state pipeline safety inspectors
remains uncertain. In particular, the possibility that some states may choose to end their roles as
agents for the federal pipeline safety program, and thereby shift a greater burden for pipeline
inspections back to the federal government, may require continued attention from Congress.
TSA Pipelines Security Resources
Similar to its concerns about the adequacy of federal pipeline safety staffing, Congress has long
been concerned about staff resources available to implement the nation’s pipeline security
program. For example, as one Member remarked in 2005, “aviation security has received 90% of

74 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Personal communication, November 4, 2010.
75 U.S. Department Of Transportation, Pipeline And Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, FY 2011 Budget
Request
, February 1, 2010, p. 31, http://www.dot.gov/budget/2011/budgetestimates/phmsa.pdf.
76 National Association of Pipeline Safety Representatives, RE: Request for Waiver of Prior Three Year Average State
Expense Component of the Pipeline Safety Grant Program, letter to Mr. Jeffrey D. Weise, Associate Administrator for
Pipeline Safety, Pipeline And Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, October 15, 2010, http://www.wutc.wa.gov/
webimage.nsf/web+objects/CCOPS_DOCs_by_Year/$file/NAPSR%20letter%20to%20PHMSA%20dated%2010-15-
09-Waiver%20Request.pdf.
77 Stephanie Seay, “Budget Woes May Impede Local Pipe Safety Efforts,” Gas Daily, November 8, 2010.
78 The Honorable Cynthia Quarterman, Administrator, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration,
Remarks at the Different Pathways to a Common Goal: PIPA, Damage Prevention, & Greater Public Awareness and
Involvement Conference, Pipeline Safety Trust, New Orleans, LA, November 5, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
16

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

TSA’s funds and virtually all of its attention. There is simply not enough being done to address ...
pipeline security.”79 At a congressional field hearing in April 2010, another Member expressed
concern that TSA’s pipeline division did not have sufficient staff to carry out a federal pipeline
security program on a national scale.80
At its current staffing level of 13 FTEs, TSA’s Pipelines Security Division has limited field
presence. In conducting a pipeline corporate security review, for example, TSA typically sends
one to three staff to hold a three- to four-hour interview with the operator’s security
representatives followed by a visit to only one or two of the operator’s pipeline assets.81 TSA’s
plan to focus security inspections on the largest pipeline and distribution system operators tries to
make the best use of its limited resources. However, there are questions as to whether the
agency’s CSRs as currently structured allow for rigorous security plan verification and a credible
threat of enforcement. The limited number of CSRs the agency can complete in a year is a
particular concern. According to a 2009 GAO report, “TSA’s pipeline division stated that they
would like more staff in order to conduct its corporate security reviews more frequently,” and
“analyzing secondary or indirect consequences of a terrorist attack and developing strategic risk
objectives required much time and effort.”82 P.L. 110-53 specifically authorized funding of $2
million annually through FY2010 for TSA’s pipeline security inspections and enforcement
program (§ 1557(e)). It is an open question whether $2 million annually is sufficient to enable
TSA to meet congressional expectations for federal pipeline security activities.
Given that both PHMSA and TSA have played important roles in the federal pipeline security
program, with TSA the designated lead agency since 2002, Congress has raised questions about
the appropriate responsibilities and division of pipeline security authority between them.83
According to TSA, the two agencies “continue to enjoy a 24/7 communication and coordination
relationship in regards to all pipeline security and safety incidents.”84 Nonetheless, given the
limited staff in TSA’s pipeline security division, and the comparatively large pipeline safety staff
(especially inspectors) in PHMSA, legislators have considered whether the TSA-PHMSA
pipeline security relationship optimally aligns staff resources across both agencies to fulfill the
nation’s overall pipeline safety and security mission.85

79 Sen. Daniel K. Inouye, opening statement before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation,
hearing on the President’s FY2006 Budget Request for the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), February 15,
2005.
80 The Honorable Gus M. Billirakis, Remarks before the House Committee on Homeland Security, Subcommittee on
Management, Investigations, and Oversight hearing on “Unclogging Pipeline Security: Are the Lines of Responsibility
Clear?,” Plant City, FL, April 19, 2010.
81 Department of Homeland Security, “Intent to Request Approval from OMB of One New Public Collection of
Information: Pipeline Corporate Security Review,” 74 Federal Register 42086, August 20, 2009.
82 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Transportation Security: Comprehensive Risk Assessments and Stronger
Internal Controls Needed to Help Infrom TSA Resource Allocation, GAO-09-492, March 2009, p. 30,
http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d09492.pdf.
83 For example, see Hon. William J. Pascrell, Jr., statement at the House Committee on Transportation and
Infrastructure, Subcommittee on Highways, Transit and Pipelines, hearing on Pipeline Safety, March 16, 2006.
84 TSA, Pipeline Security Division, personal communication, November 5, 2010.
85 The Honorable Gus M. Billirakis, April 19, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
17

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Automatic Shutoff Valves for Transmission Pipelines
In the 2010 San Bruno pipeline accident, natural gas continued to flow from the pipeline for
nearly two hours after the initial explosion—fueling the intense fire, hindering emergency
response, and increasing fire damage. The long duration of flowing gas reportedly was due to
delays in the closing of manually operated valves by the pipeline operator, and may have been
exacerbated by inadequate employee training in valve closure procedures.86 Consequently, some
advocates have called for widespread installation of remotely or automatically controlled valves
in natural gas and hazardous liquids transmission pipelines. S. 234 would require the installation
of remotely or automatically controlled valves capable of “shutting off the flow of gas” in natural
gas pipelines “wherever technically and economically feasible” (§ 6). The Pipeline Safety and
Community Empowerment Act of 2011 (H.R. 22) would require the installation of “automatic or
remote shut off valves” for all new transmission pipelines and for existing transmission pipelines
near significant earthquake faults or in relatively populated areas (§6). S. 275 would require
automatic or remotely controlled shut off valves “where economically and technically feasible”
for all new transmission pipelines (§ 5).
Previous Consideration
The possibility of requiring remotely controlled or automatic shut off valves for natural gas
pipelines is not new. Congress previously considered such requirements in reaction to a 1994
natural gas pipeline fire in Edison, NJ, similar to the San Bruno accident in which it took the
pipeline operator 2½ hours to close its manually operated valves.87 In 1995, during the 104th
Congress, H.R. 432 and S. 162 would have required the installation of remotely or automatically
controlled valves in natural gas pipelines “wherever technically and economically feasible” (§
11). Under the Accountable Pipeline Safety and Partnership Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-304), Congress
mandated a DOT assessment of remotely controlled valves (RCVs) on interstate natural gas
pipelines, and empowered the agency to require such valves if appropriate based upon its findings
(§4(h)).
The DOT’s assessment, released in 1999, reported that installation of RCVs would provide only
“a small benefit from reduced casualties because virtually all casualties from a rupture occur
before an RVC could be activated.”88 Moreover, the DOT reported that it lacked data to compare
pipeline fire property damage with and without RCVs. Nonetheless, the DOT study advocated the
deployment of RCVs, at least in some gas pipeline locations.
We have found that RCVs are effective and technically feasible, and can reduce risk, but are
not economically feasible. We have also found that there may be a public perception that
RCVs will improve safety and reduce the risk from a ruptured gas pipeline. We believe there
is a role for RCVs in reducing the risk from certain ruptured pipelines and thereby
minimizing the consequences of certain gas pipeline ruptures.... Any fire would be of greater
intensity and would have greater potential for damaging surrounding infrastructure if it is
constantly replenished with gas. The degree of disruption in heavily populated and

86 John Upton, “Gas Fueled Blaze for Almost Two Hours,” San Francisco Examiner, Sept. 15, 2010.
87 National Transportation Safety Board, Texas Eastern Transmission Corporation Natural Gas Pipeline Explosion and
Fire, Edison, New Jersey, March 23, 1994
, NTSB/PAR-95/01, January 18, 1995.
88 U.S. Department of Transportation, Remotely Controlled Valves on Interstate Natural Gas Pipelines, September
1999, p.22.
Congressional Research Service
18

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

commercial areas would be in direct proportion to the duration of the fire. Although we lack
data enabling us to quantify these potential consequences, we believe them to be significant
nonetheless, and we believe RCVs may provide the best means for addressing them.89
Notwithstanding this conclusion, the DOT has not mandated the use of RCVs in natural gas
transmission pipelines.
The natural gas pipeline industry historically has objected to federal mandates to install remotely
controlled or automated valves. Although pipeline operators already employ such valves under
specific circumstances, such as in hard-to-access locations or at compressor stations, they have
opposed the installation of such valves more widely throughout their pipeline systems on the
grounds that they are usually not cost-effective. They also argue that such valves do not always
function properly, would not prevent natural gas pipeline explosions (which cause most fatalities),
and are susceptible to false alarms, needlessly shutting down pipelines and disrupting critical fuel
supplies.90 Automatic valves, in particular, may be susceptible to unnecessary closure, potentially
disrupting critical flows of natural gas to distribution utilities and—as a result—increasing safety
risks associated with residential furnace relighting, among other concerns.91 Some operators also
claim higher maintenance costs for valves that are not manually operated.
Remotely Controlled Valves for Liquids Pipelines
The use of remotely controlled or automatic valves has also been a long-standing consideration
for hazardous liquid pipeline systems. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) began
to address the need for rapid shutdown of failed hazardous liquid pipelines using remotely
controlled or automatic valves in the 1970s.92 In 1987, the NTSB recommended that the DOT
“require the installation of remote-operated valves on pipelines that transport hazardous liquids,
and base the spacing of remote-operated valves on the population at risk.”93 The Pipeline Safety
Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-508) required the DOT to assess the effectiveness of “emergency flow
restricting devices (including remotely controlled valves and check valves)” on hazardous liquid
pipelines, and required the DOT to “issue regulations prescribing the circumstances under which
operators of hazardous liquid pipeline facilities must use emergency flow restricting devices” (§
212). Notwithstanding this congressional mandate, the NTSB found the DOT’s efforts to promote
the use of such devices inadequate. In 1996, the NTSB stated that the DOT “has performed
studies, conducted research, and sought industry input, but has failed to carry through and
develop requirements for leak detection and rapid shutdown of failed pipelines.”94 In its integrity
management regulations, issued in December 2000, the DOT opted to leave the decision whether
to install emergency flow restricting devices up to pipeline operators.95

89 U.S. Department of Transportation, September 1999, pp. 23-24.
90 Rich Connell, John Hoeffel and Marc Lifsher, “Lawmakers Move to Impose New Requirements for Pipeline Shutoff
Valves,” Los Angeles Times, September 14, 2010.
91 Christina Sames, Vice President, American Gas Association, Remarks at the Different Pathways to a Common Goal:
PIPA, Damage Prevention, & Greater Public Awareness and Involvement Conference, Pipeline Safety Trust, New
Orleans, LA, November 4, 2010
92 National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), Pipeline Special Investigation Report: Evaluation of Accident Data
and Federal Oversight of Petroleum Product Pipelines,
NTSB/SIR-96/02, 1996, p. 37.
93 Ibid.
94 Ibid. p. 39.
95 49 CFR 195.452(i)(4)
Congressional Research Service
19

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Valve Replacement Costs
Cost would be a major factor in a broad national program to retrofit manual valves with remotely
controlled or automatic valves. For example, in the interstate natural gas pipeline network, valves
are typically installed every 5 to 20 miles. Assuming a 10-mile separation between valves, the
nation’s 306,000 mile gas transmission system contains over 30,000 valves. The spacing of valves
can be much closer together in particular pipeline systems, however, such as systems located in
more populated areas. In October 2010 PG&E reported 300 valves that could be candidates for
automation in approximately 565 miles of high consequence area pipelines.96
The potential costs of retrofitting manual valves vary greatly by pipeline and specific location. A
1998 Southwest Research Institute report estimated a cost of $32,000 (approximately $40,000 in
2010 dollars) per valve for retrofitting 30-inch pipeline valves to make them remotely
controlled.97 The DOT’s 1999 study reported an average cost of $83,000 (approximately
$100,000 in 2010 dollars) for Texas Eastern Transmission Corporation (TETCO) to retrofit 90
existing valves in a large part of its pipeline system.98 PG&E estimates the average cost of
retrofitting an automatic or remotely controlled valve on an existing large diameter pipeline at
approximately $750,000, but ranging as low as $100,000 and as high as $1.5 million.99
Applying, for illustration, a $100,000 cost to some 30,000 valves yields $3.0 billion in capital
investment required, not counting any higher future maintenance expenses. The American Gas
Association reportedly has estimated the cost of replacing manual valves with automatic valves
nationwide at $12 billion.100 Even if such valve retrofits were required only in heavily populated
areas, industry costs could still be hundreds of millions of dollars—a significant cost to the
pipeline industry and therefore likely to increase rates for pipeline transportation of natural gas.
To the extent that some pipeline systems, like PG&E’s, contain more valves then others per mile
of pipe, they could be disproportionately affected. Gas pipeline service interruptions would also
be an issue as specific lines could be repeatedly taken out of service during the valve retrofit
process. The hazardous liquids pipeline industry could face capital costs and service interruptions
of the same magnitude if required to do a widespread valve retrofit on existing lines. Additional
right-of-way costs, environmental impacts, and construction accidents associated with the valve
replacements could also be a consideration. For new pipelines, the incremental costs of installing
remotely controlled or automatic valves instead of manual valves would be lower than in the
retrofit case, but could still increase future pipeline costs.
SCADA and Leak Detection System Requirements
To effectively reduce the impact of pipeline accidents, installing remotely controlled or automatic
valves may require associated investments in supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)

96 Pacific Gas and Electric Company, “Re: Updates on Natural Gas Transmission System,” Letter to the California
Public Utilities Commission, October 25, 2010, p. 2-2, http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/about/newsroom/
puc_updates_oct252010.pdf.
97 Cecil R. Sparks, Thomas R. Morrow, and John P. Harrell, “Cost Benefit Study of Remote Controlled Main Line
Valves, Final Report to Gas Research Institute,” Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, Report No. GRI-
GRI-98/0076, May 1998.
98 U.S. Department of Transportation, September 1999, p. 11.
99 Pacific Gas and Electric Company, October 25, 2010, p. 2-3.
100 John Upton, “PG&E Faces High Costs on Pipelines,” New York Times, March 3, 2011.
Congressional Research Service
20

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

systems along with other operational changes to improve leak detection. As one pipeline expert
has stated,
The pipeline operator’s focus on keeping the pipeline system operating and the lack of
remotely-operable valves are the primary factors that control the quantity of product released
after a rupture or leak. Even with remote control valves this relationship will not change
unless the pipeline is equipped with a reliable leak detection subsystem that works with the
SCADA system and [unless] those who control pipeline operations are trained for and
dedicated to minimizing product release (safety and environmental mindset) rather than
trained for and dedicated to keeping the system operating (economic mindset).101
In its report about a 1996 pipeline accident in Tiger Pass, LA, the NTSB similarly concluded that
the operator’s “delay in recognition ... that it had experienced a pipeline rupture at Tiger Pass was
due to the piping system’s dynamics during the rupture and to the design of the company’s
SCADA system.”102 Consistent with these concerns, S. 234 would mandate standards for natural
gas leak detection with the goal of identifying substantial leaks in high consequence areas as
expeditiously as technologically possible (§ 7). S. 275 includes leak detection requirements for
hazardous liquid pipelines (§ 10). H.R. 22 mandates leak detection standards for both types of
pipeline. Estimates of converting manual valves may, therefore, need to account for the costs of
SCADA changes, leak detection systems, and associated training. These costs may also include
significant reliability and security components, since increasing reliance upon new or expanded
SCADA systems may also expose pipeline systems to greater risk from operating software failure
or cyberterrorism.103
Public Perceptions
Some stakeholders have argued that public perceptions of improved pipeline safety and control
are the highest perceived benefit of remotely controlled or automatic valves.104 Although the
value of these perceptions is hard to quantify (and, therefore, not typically reflected in cost-
effectiveness studies), the importance of public perception and community acceptance of pipeline
infrastructure can be a significant consideration in pipeline design, expansion, and regulation. In
2001, a representative of the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners testified
before Congress that “the main impediment to siting energy infrastructure is the great difficulty
getting public acceptance for needed facilities.”105 Likewise, the National Commission on Energy
Policy stated in its 2006 report that energy-facility siting is “a major cross-cutting challenge for

101 Charles H. Batten, Engineering Analysis of Olympic Pipe Line Company’s Safety and Risk Mitigation Features for
Application No. 96-1 Cross Cascade Pipeline Project, Batten & Associates, Inc., Locust Grove, VA, February 8, 1999,
p. 19, http://www.efsec.wa.gov/oplarchive/oplpft/Cca/chb-3.pdf.
102 National Transportation Safety Board, Pipeline Accident Summary Report: Natural Gas Pipeline Rupture and Fire
During Dredging of Tiger Pass, Louisiana, October 23, 1996
, PR98-916501, NTSB/PAR-98/01/SUM, September 28,
1998, p. 15.
103 See, for example: Tyler Williams, “Cyber Security Threats to Pipelines and Refineries,” Pipeline & Gas Journal,
November 1, 2007.
104 U.S. Department of Transportation, September 1999, pp. 19-20.
105 William M. Nugent, First Vice President, National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners, Testimony
before the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee hearing on Federal, State, and Local Impediments to Siting
Energy Infrastructure (May 15, 2001).
Congressional Research Service
21

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

U.S. energy policy,” largely because of public opposition to new energy projects and other major
infrastructure.106
One result of public concern about pipeline safety has been to prevent new pipeline siting in
certain localities, and to increase pipeline development time and costs in others. In a 2006 report,
for example, the EIA stated that “several major projects in the Northeast, although approved by
FERC, have been held up because of public opposition or non-FERC regulatory interventions.”107
In the specific case of the Millennium Pipeline, proposed in 1997 to transport Canadian natural
gas to metropolitan New York, developers did not receive final construction approval for nine
years, largely because of community resistance to the pipeline route.108 Numerous other proposed
pipelines, especially in populated areas, have faced similar public acceptance barriers.109 Even
where there is federal siting authority, as is the case for interstate natural gas pipelines,
community stakeholders retain many statutory and regulatory avenues to affect energy
infrastructure decisions. Consequently, the public perception value of remotely controlled or
automatic pipeline valves may need to be accounted for, especially with respect to its implications
for general pipeline development and operations.
Natural Gas Distribution Excess Flow Valves
While the San Bruno, CA, and Edison, NJ, gas pipeline accidents have focused attention on
automatic valves in large diameter transmission pipelines, this technology also applies to smaller
gas distribution lines serving individual buildings. In natural gas distribution systems, “excess
flow” valves are safety devices which can automatically shut off pipeline flow in the event of a
leak. In this way, the valves can minimize the release of natural gas during a pipeline accident,
thereby reducing the likelihood or severity of a fire or explosion. P.L. 109-468 required PHMSA
to promulgate minimum standards for natural gas distribution systems requiring the installation of
excess flow valves on new gas distribution lines in single-family homes (§ 9). The agency issued
final regulations for excess flow valves as part of its final rule for natural gas distribution integrity
management programs on December 3, 2009.110 S. 275 would mandate excess flow valves for
new or entirely replaced distribution branch pipelines, as well as service lines to multi-family
residential buildings and small commercial facilities. Although smaller in scale, automatic valves
in distribution lines raise the same cost and safety tradeoffs as automatic valves in large diameter
pipelines.

106 National Commission on Energy Policy, Siting Critical Energy Infrastructure: An Overview of Needs and
Challenges
. (Washington, DC: June 2006): 1. (Hereafter referred to as NCEP 2006.)
107 Energy Information Administration, Additions to Capacity on the U.S. Natural Gas Pipeline Network: 2005 (August
2006): 11.
108 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), “Commission Approves Revised $1 Billion Millennium Pipeline
Project to Bring New Gas Service to the Northeast,” Press release (December 21, 2006). See, for example: Randal C.
Archibold, “Fighting Plans for a Gas Pipeline: Not Under My Backyard,” New York Times (August 7, 2001).
109 Samantha Santa Maria, “Energy Projects: Rockies Express Add-on Pipe Projects Face Several Obstacles to Building
in US Northeast,” Inside F.E.R.C. (October 22, 2007).
110 U.S. Department of Transportation, “DOT Issues Much-Anticipated Rules to Enhance Pipeline Safety,” Office of
Public Affairs, press release, December 3, 2009.
Congressional Research Service
22

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

PHMSA Penalties and Pipeline Safety Enforcement
The adequacy of the PHMSA’s enforcement strategy has been an ongoing focus of congressional
oversight.111 Provisions in the Pipeline Safety Improvement Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-355) put added
scrutiny on the effectiveness of the agency’s enforcement strategy and assessment of civil
penalties (§ 8). In April 2006, PHMSA officials testified before Congress that the agency had
institutionalized a “tough-but-fair” approach to enforcement, “imposing and collecting larger
penalties, while guiding pipeline operators to enhance higher performance.”112 According to the
agency, $4.6 million in proposed civil penalties in 2005 was three times greater than penalties
proposed in 2003, the first year higher penalties could be imposed under P.L. 107-355 (§ 8(a)).113
Proposed penalties totaled $6.5 million in 2009.114 Proposed penalties through September 2010
totaled $3.6 million, with an average penalty of approximately $140,000.115 S. 275 would
increase the maximum civil penalty from $1.0 million to $2.5 million for a related series of major
consequence violations, such as those causing serious injuries, deaths, or environmental harm (§
2(a)).
Although PHMSA’s imposition of pipeline safety penalties appears to have risen under P.L. 107-
355, the role of federal penalties in promoting greater operator compliance with pipeline safety
regulations is not always clear. To understand the potential influence of penalties on operators, it
can be helpful to put PHMSA fines in the context of the overall costs to operators of a pipeline
release. Pipeline companies, seeking to generate financial returns for their owners, are motivated
to operate their pipelines safely (and securely) for a range of financial reasons. While these
financial considerations certainly include possible PHMSA penalties, the costs of a pipeline
accident may also include fines for violations of environmental laws (federal and state), the costs
of spill response and remediation, penalties from civil litigation, the value of lost product, costs
for pipeline repairs and modifications (e.g., to resolve federal regulatory interventions), and other
costs. Depending upon the severity of a pipeline release, these other costs may far exceed pipeline
safety fines, as illustrated by the following examples.
Kinder-Morgan. In April 2006 Kinder Morgan Energy Partners entered into a
consent agreement with PHMSA to resolve a corrective action order stemming
from three hazardous liquid spills in 2004 and 2005 from the company’s Pacific
Operations pipeline unit.116 According to the company, the agreement would
require Kinder Morgan to spend approximately $26 million on additional
integrity management activities, among other requirements.117 Under a 2007

111 See, for example: Representative James L. Oberstar, Statement before the House Committee on Transportation and
Infrastructure, Hearing on the Enbridge Pipeline Oil Spill in Marshall, MI, September 15, 2010.
112 S.L. Gerard, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Admin.(PHMSA), Testimony before the House Energy and
Commerce Committee, Energy and Air Quality Subcommittee hearing on Pipeline Safety, Serial No. 109-84, April 27,
2006, p. 14.
113 Ibid.
114 Pipelines and Hazardous Materials Safety Admin. (PHMSA), “Civil Penalty Cases: Nationwide,” Web page,
October 15, 2010. http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/reports/enforce/CivilPenalty_opid_0.html?nocache=4013;
“Colorado Pipeline Company Fined 2.3 Million After Explosion,” Clean Skies News, December 1, 2009.
115 PHMSA, “Civil Penalty Cases: Nationwide,” October 15, 2010.
116 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Consent Agreement: In the Matter of Kinder Morgan
Energy Partners, L.P., Respondent
, CPF No. 5-2005-5025H, April 4, 2006.
117 Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, L.P., “Kinder Morgan Energy Partners Enters into Consent Agreement with
PHMSA,” press release, Houston, TX, April 10, 2006.
Congressional Research Service
23

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

settlement agreement with the United States Justice Department and the State of
California, Kinder Morgan also agreed to pay approximately $3.8 million in civil
penalties for violations of environmental laws and approximately $1.5 million
related to response and remediation associated with these spills. The spills
collectively released approximately 200,000 gallons of diesel fuel, jet fuel, and
gasoline.118 This volume of fuel would have a product value on the order of $0.5
million based on typical wholesale market prices at the time of the spills.
Plains All American. In 2010, Plains All American Pipeline agreed to spend
approximately $41 million to upgrade 10,420 miles of U.S. oil pipeline to resolve
Clean Water Act (CWA) violations for 10 crude oil spills in Texas, Louisiana,
Oklahoma, and Kansas from 2004 through 2007. Among these upgrades, the
company agreed to spend at least $6 million on equipment and materials for
internal corrosion control and surveys on at least 2,400 miles of pipeline. The
company was required to pay $3.25 million civil penalty associated with the
CWA violations.119
Enbridge. Enbridge Energy Partners estimated expenses of $475 million to clean
up two oil spills on its Lakehead pipeline system in 2010, including the spill in
Marshall, MI. This estimate did not include fines or penalties which might also
be imposed in connection with the spills. The pipeline operator also reported $16
million in lost revenue from pipeline shipments it could not redirect to other lines
while the Lakehead system was out of service.120 The full impact of these
expenditures on the company’s business is unclear, however as Enbridge stated in
a subsequent quarterly report that “substantially all of the costs” related to its
2010 oil pipeline spills “will ultimately be recoverable under our existing
insurance policies.”121
Olympic Pipe Line. After the 1999 Bellingham pipeline accident, Olympic Pipe
Line Company and associated defendants reportedly agreed to pay a $75 million
settlement to the families of two children killed in the accident.122
El Paso. In 2002, El Paso Corporation settled wrongful death and personal injury
lawsuits stemming from the 2000 natural gas pipeline explosion near Carlsbad,
NM, which killed 12 campers.123 Although the terms of those settlements were
not disclosed, two additional lawsuits sought a total of $171 million in
damages.124 However, El Paso’s June 2003 quarterly financial report stated that
“our costs and legal exposure ... will be fully covered by insurance.”125

118 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Kinder Morgan, SFPP Agree To Pay Nearly $5.3 Million To Resolve
Federal And State Environmental Violations,” press release, May 21, 2007.
119 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Plains Pipeline to Spend $41 Million to Prevent Oil Spills Across 10,000
Miles of Pipeline,” Press release, August 10, 2010.
120 Enbridge Energy Partners, L.P., Enbridge Energy Partners, L.P. Third Quarter 2010 Earnings, Slide presentation,
October 28, 2010, p. 8, http://phx.corporate-ir.net/External.File?item=
UGFyZW50SUQ9MjY2NzE3N3xDaGlsZElEPTQwMTI5MXxUeXBlPTI=&t=1.
121 Enbridge Energy Partners, L.P., October 28, 2010, p. 8.
122“Olympic Pipe Line, Others Pay Out Record $75 Million in Pipeline Explosion Wrongful Death Settlement,”
Business Wire, April 10, 2002.
123 National Transportation Safety Board, Pipeline Accident Report, PAR-03-01, February 11, 2003.
124 El Paso Corp., Quarterly Report Pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, Form 10-
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
24

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

PHMSA Penalties in Perspective
The threat of safety enforcement penalties is often considered one of the primary tools available
to pipeline safety regulators to ensure operator compliance with their safety requirements.
However, as the examples above suggest, pipeline safety fines, even if they were raised to $2.5
million for major violations, could still account for only a limited share of the financial impact of
future pipeline releases. So it is not clear how large an effect increasing PHMSA’s authorized
fines, alone, might have on operator compliance. On the other hand, the authority of PHMSA to
influence pipeline operations directly—for example, through corrective action orders or shutdown
orders in the event of a pipeline failure—can have a large financial impact on a pipeline operator
in terms of capital expenditures or lost revenues. Indeed, some have suggested that this
operational authority is the most influential component of PHMSA’s pipeline safety enforcement
strategy. Therefore, as Congress continues its oversight of PHMSA’s enforcement activities, and
considers new proposals to increase compliance with federal pipeline safety regulations, it may
evaluate how PHMSA’s authorities to set standards, assess penalties, and directly affect pipeline
operations may reinforce one another to improve U.S. pipeline safety.
Pipeline Security Regulations
As noted earlier in this report, federal pipeline security activities to date have relied upon
voluntary industry compliance with PHMSA security guidance and TSA security best practices.
By initiating this voluntary approach, PHMSA sought to speed adoption of security measures by
industry and avoid the publication of sensitive security information (e.g., critical asset lists) that
would normally be required in public rulemaking.126 Provisions in P.L. 109-468 require the DOT
Inspector General to “address the adequacy of security standards for gas and oil pipelines”
(§ 23(b)(4)). P.L. 110-53 similarly directs TSA to promulgate pipeline security regulations and
carry out necessary inspection and enforcement—if the agency determines that regulations are
appropriate (§ 1557(d)). Addressing this issue the 2008 IG report states that
TSA’s current security guidance is not mandatory and remains unenforceable unless a
regulation is issued to require industry compliance.... PHMSA and TSA will need to conduct
covert tests of pipeline systems’ vulnerabilities to assess the current guidance as well as the
operators’ compliance.127
Although TSA’s FY2005 budget justification stated that the agency would “issue regulations
where appropriate to improve the security of the [non-aviation transportation] modes,” the agency
has not done so for pipelines, and is not currently working on such regulations.128 The pipelines
industry has expressed concern that new security regulations and related requirements may be

(...continued)
Q, for the period ending June 30, 2002, Houston, TX, 2002.
125 El Paso Corp., 2002.
126 GAO, Pipeline Security and Safety: Improved Workforce Planning and Communication Needed, GAO-02-785,
August 2002, p. 22.
127 U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Office of Inspector General, May 21, 2008, p. 6.
128 Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Transportation Security Administration Fiscal Year 2005 Congressional
Budget Justification
, Washington, DC, February 2, 2004, p. 20; TSA, Pipeline Security Division, personal
communication, February 17, 2009.
Congressional Research Service
25

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

“redundant” and “may not be necessary to increase pipeline security.”129 The PHMSA
Administrator in 2007 testified that enhancing security “does not necessarily mean that we must
impose regulatory requirements.”130 TSA officials have questioned the IG assertions regarding
pipeline security regulations, particularly the IG’s call for covert testing of pipeline operator
security measures. They have argued that the agency is complying with the letter of P.L. 110-53
and that its pipeline operator security reviews are more than paper reviews.131 In accordance with
P.L. 110-53 (§ 1557 (b)), the TSA has been implementing a multi-year program of pipeline
system inspections, including documentation of findings and follow up reviews.132 In its oversight
of potential pipeline security regulations, Congress may evaluate the effectiveness of the current
voluntary pipeline security standards based on findings from the TSA’s CSR reviews, pipeline
inspections, and future DOT Inspector General reports.
Additional Issues
In addition to the issues mentioned above, Congress may consider several issues related to
proposed legislation or otherwise raised by pipeline stakeholders.
Accuracy and Completeness of Pipeline System Records
On January 3, 2011, as a response to its initial investigation of the San Bruno pipeline accident,
the NTSB issued urgent new safety recommendations “to address record-keeping problems that
could create conditions in which a pipeline is operated at a higher pressure than the pipe was built
to withstand.”133 The NTSB issued these recommendations after it had concluded that there were
significant errors in the records characterizing the San Bruno pipeline, and that “other pipeline
operators may have discrepancies in their records that could potentially compromise the safe
operation of pipelines throughout the United States.”134 PHMSA officials have also testified that
some operators may not be collecting all the pipeline system data necessary to fully evaluate
safety and compliance with federal regulations.135 In 2006, questions were raised about the
accuracy of pipeline location data provided by operators and maintained by PHMSA in the
National Pipeline Mapping System.136 At the time, agency officials reportedly acknowledged
limitations in NPMS accuracy, but did not publicly discuss plans to address them. Congress may
consider whether additional statutory measures could be required to verify that pipeline operator
information is complete and correct, particularly older parts of the pipeline network.

129 American Gas Association (AGA), American Petroleum Institute (API), Association of Oil Pipelines (AOPL), and
American Public Gas Association (APGA), joint letter to members of the Senate Commerce Committee providing
views on S. 1052, August 22, 2005.
130 Barrett, T.J. January 18, 2007.
131 Sammon, John, Transportation Security Administration, Testimony before the House Transportation and
Infrastructure Committee, Railroad, Pipelines, and Hazardous Materials Subcommittee hearing on Implementation of
the Pipeline Inspection, Protection, Enforcement, and Safety Act of 2006, June 24, 2008.
132 TSA, Pipeline Security Division, personal communication, February 17, 2009.
133 National Transportation Safety Board, NTSB Issues Urgent Safety Recommendations As A Result Of Preliminary
Findings In San Bruno Pipeline Rupture Investigation; Hearing Scheduled For March,” SB-11-01, press release,
January 3, 2011.
134 Ibid.
135 Linda Daugherty, March 2, 2011.
136 Dina Cappielo, “What Lies Beneath,” Houston Chronicle, November 12, 2006, p. A1.
Congressional Research Service
26

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

Mandatory Internal Inspection Requirements
Some legislative proposals, such as provisions in S. 234, would increase requirements for pipeline
operators to conduct internal inspections of transmission pipelines using “smart pigs,” robotic
devices sent through pipelines taking physical measurements continuously along the way.137
However, experts note that there are different pipeline inspection techniques with overlapping
capabilities and different strengths.138 While an effective technology for detecting corrosion in
many applications, smart pigs have limitations as a general tool for assessing the integrity of
pipelines. For example, although smart pigs may be good corrosion detectors, they are still a
developing technology and may be somewhat less effective in detecting other types of pipeline
anomalies (e.g., cracks). Operators also maintain that smart pigging may be less useful for
predicting future problems with pipeline integrity than other federally approved maintenance
techniques like “direct assessment” (49 C.F.R. 192.903) wherein pipelines are examined
externally based on risk data and other factors.139 Furthermore, because many older pipelines
contain sharp turns and other obstructions due to historical construction techniques, they cannot
accommodate smart pig devices without significant and costly pipeline modifications to make
them more “piggable.” Consequently, some industry stakeholders caution against unrealistic
expectations for the capabilities of smart pigs as a stand-alone pipeline inspection tool.140 As
Congress debates new federal requirements for pipeline inspection with smart pigs, it may
consider these devices as only one in a portfolio of maintenance practices operators may need to
employ to ensure their pipelines are physically sound.
Emergency Response Plan Disclosure
Federal regulations require pipeline operators to prepare emergency response plans for pipeline
spills and to make those plans available for inspection by PHMSA and local emergency response
agencies (49 C.F.R. 192.605). Some stakeholders have proposed that these plans also be made
available to the public to allow for additional review of their adequacy and to provide better risk
and response information to people living near pipelines.141 Operators reportedly have resisted
such disclosures on the grounds that their emergency response plans contain confidential
customer and employee information.142 They also raise concerns that the plans contain security-
sensitive information about pipeline vulnerabilities and spill scenarios which could be useful to
terrorists.143 S. 275 would require PHMSA to collect and maintain copies of pipeline emergency
plans for public availability “excluding any proprietary or security-sensitive information” (§
8(a)). As debate on this issue continues, Congress may consider the tradeoffs between public

137 “Pig” is the common acronym for “pipeline inspection gauge.”
138 Pete Carey, “Pipeline Inspection Not an Exact Science,” San Jose Mercury News, October 11, 2010.
139 The Pipeline Safety Improvement Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-355) directed the DOT to issue regulations on using
internal inspection, pressure testing, and direct assessment to natural gas pipelines in high consequence areas.
140 Christina Sames, Vice President, American Gas Association, November 4, 2010.
141 For an example of such a review, see The Northern Great Plains at Risk: Oil Spill Planning in Keystone Pipeline
System, Plains Justice, Billings, MT, November 23, 2010.
142 Sharon Theimer, “Government Lacks Copies of Emergency Response Plans Developed by Gas Pipeline Operators,”
Associated Press, October 6, 2010.
143 Andrew Black, President, Association of Oil Pipelines, Remarks at the Different Pathways to a Common Goal:
PIPA, Damage Prevention, & Greater Public Awareness and Involvement Conference, Pipeline Safety Trust, New
Orleans, LA, November 5, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
27

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

awareness and pipeline security in a general operating environment where both safety and
security hazards may be significant.
Mandatory Pipeline Assessment Intervals
The Pipeline Safety Improvement Act of 2002 requires that natural gas pipeline operators subject
to the act perform integrity management reassessments at least every seven years after an initial
baseline assessment (§ 14a). Some pipeline operators believe that this reassessment interval may
be too prescriptive and may not be appropriate for all pipelines. Operators argue that assessing
pipelines too frequently is costly and inefficient, diverting limited safety resources from other
uses with greater pipeline safety benefits.144 Based on assessments conducted through 2005, “and
the generally safe condition of gas transmission pipelines,” GAO concluded in 2006 that the
seven year reassessment interval “appears to be conservative.”145 GAO recommended that
Congress permit pipeline operators to reassess gas transmission pipelines at intervals based on
risk factors, technical data, and engineering analyses. The agency believed such a revision would
allow PHMSA more flexibility to establish longer or shorter reassessment intervals as warranted
by pipeline conditions.146 According to PHMSA testimony in June 2008, the Secretary of
Transportation corresponded with the House Energy and Commerce committee regarding the
agency’s plans for exempting pipeline operators from the seven year interval requirement, but this
correspondence has not been released publicly.147 PHMSA has since concurred with GAO’s
recommendation for extending reassessment intervals and is reviewing its authority to do so
through the grant of special permits to individual operators.148 Legislation proposed in the 111th
Congress would have allowed pipeline integrity reassessment intervals to be changed from fixed
seven-year intervals to intervals based on technical data, risk factors, and engineering analysis.149
Telephonic Notice of Pipeline Spills
Some stakeholders have questioned the speediness with which pipeline operators report spills to
federal emergency response authorities.150 A legislative proposal in the 111th Congress would have
required pipeline operators to provide telephonic notice to the Secretary of Transportation and the
National Response Center at the earliest practicable moment but no later than one hour after
discovering a release of natural gas or a hazardous liquids.151 According to PHMSA officials, the

144 J. L. Mohn, Panhandle Energy, testimony before the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure,
Subcommittee on Highways, Transit and Pipelines, hearing on pipeline Safety, March 16, 2006, p. 9.
145 Government Accountability Office (GAO), Natural Gas Pipeline Safety: Risk-Based Standards Should Allow
Operators to Better Tailor Reassessments to Pipeline Threats
, GAO-06-945, September 8, 2006. p. 3.
146 Ibid. p. 6.
147 Gerard, Stacy, Asst. Administrator, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA), Testimony
before the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee, Railroad, Pipelines, and Hazardous Materials
Subcommittee hearing on Implementation of the Pipeline Inspection, Protection, Enforcement, and Safety Act of 2006,
June 24, 2008.
148 E. Komiskey, Office of Pipeline Safety, “High Consequence Areas and Pipeline Assessment Intervals,” Pipeline
Safety—What More Needs To Be Done?
, Pipeline Safety Trust Conference, New Orleans, November 20, 2008.
149 S. 1333 (§ 401)
150 Todd A. Heywood, “Schauer: Enbridge Violated Federal Reporting Regulations,” The Michigan Messenger, August
5, 2010.
151 H.R. 6008
Congressional Research Service
28

Keeping America’s Pipelines Safe and Secure: Key Issues for Congress

agency holds operators to a one hour reporting standard, although this time limit is not stated
explicitly under current statutes.152
Conclusion
Both government and industry have taken numerous steps to improve pipeline safety and security
over the last 10 years. While government, industry, and other stakeholders agree that federal
pipeline safety programs have been on the right track, major pipeline incidents in 2010 suggest
there continues to be room for improvement. Likewise the threat of terrorist attack on U.S.
pipeline infrastructure remains a significant concern.
As Congress debates reauthorization of the federal pipeline safety program and oversees the
federal role in pipeline security, key questions may be raised concerning pipeline agency staff
resources, automatic pipeline shutoff valves, penalties for pipeline safety violations, and the
possible need for pipeline security regulations, among other concerns. In addition to these
specific issues, Congress may assess how the various elements of U.S. pipeline safety and
security activity fit together in the nation’s overall strategy to protect transportation infrastructure.
For example, diverting pipeline resources away from safety to enhance security might further
reduce terror risk, but not overall pipeline risk, if safety programs become less effective as a
result. Pipeline safety and security necessarily involve many groups: federal agencies, oil and gas
pipeline associations, large and small pipeline operators, and local communities. Reviewing how
these groups work together to achieve common goals could be an oversight challenge for
Congress.
Author Contact Information

Paul W. Parfomak

Specialist in Energy and Infrastructure Policy
pparfomak@crs.loc.gov, 7-0030



152 The Honorable Cynthia Quarterman, Administrator, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration,
Testimony before the House Energy and Commerce Committee, Energy and the Environment Subcommittee hearing
on Pipeline Safety Oversight and Legislation, September 23, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
29