Fukushima Nuclear Crisis
Richard J. Campbell
Specialist in Energy Policy
March 15, 2011
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R41694
CRS Report for Congress
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repared for Members and Committees of Congress
Fukushima Nuclear Crisis
Summary of the Crisis
The earthquake on March 11, 2011, off the east coast of Honshu, Japan’s largest island, reportedly
caused an automatic shutdown (called a “scram”) of eleven of Japan’s fifty-five operating nuclear
power plants.1 Most of the shutdowns proceeded without incident. The plants closest to the
epicenter, Fukushima and Onagawa (see Figure 1), were damaged by the earthquake and
resulting tsunami.
Figure 1. Japan and Earthquake Epicenter
Source: Nuclear Energy Institute, edited by CRS.
Notes: http://i1107.photobucket.com/albums/h384/reactor1/japan_map1.jpg.
1 BBC News, “Timeline: Japan Power Plant Crisis,” March 13, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-
12722719.
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Fukushima Nuclear Crisis
Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) operates the Fukushima nuclear power complex in the
Futaba district of Fukushima prefecture in Northern Japan, consisting of six nuclear units at the
Daiichi station and four nuclear units at the Daini station. All the units at the Fukushima complex
are boiling water reactors2 with reactors 1 to 5 at the Daiichi site being the General Electric Mark
I design (see Figure 2).3 The Fukushima Daiichi reactors entered commercial operations in the
years from 1971 (reactor 1) to 1979 (reactor 6). At the time of the earthquake, reactors 1, 2, and 3
at Daiichi were operational and shut down after the quake, while reactors 4, 5, and 6 were already
shut down for routine inspections. All four of the Daini reactors were operational at the time of
the earthquake and taken down after the quake.
Nuclear fuel rods in a reactor continue to produce heat when the reactor is shut down. To stop the
nuclear reaction, control rods4 are inserted into the reactor. During the cool-down phase, a source
of electricity is needed to operate pumps and circulate water in the reactor. Under normal
conditions, it would take a few days for a reactor core to cool down to a “cold shutdown” state. 5
The magnitude 9.0 earthquake triggered a ten meter (33 foot) high tsunami which struck the
coast, devastating much of the area and overtopping a six meter high sea wall at Fukushima
Daiichi station. The station was cut off from Japan’s national electricity grid. Diesel generators at
the Daiichi station initially took over the power load but later failed. The tsunami flooded the
backup diesel powered electric generators at the station, sweeping away the diesel fuel tanks, and
knocking out the backup cooling capability for the station’s nuclear reactors.6
2 A common nuclear power reactor design in which water flows upward through the core, where it is heated by fission
and allowed to boil in the reactor vessel. The resulting steam then drives turbines, which activate generators to produce
electrical power. BWRs operate similarly to electrical plants using fossil fuel, except that the BWRs are powered by
370–800 nuclear fuel assemblies in the reactor core rather than burning coal or natural gas to create steam. U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “Boiling-Water Reactor (BWR),” http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/
boiling-water-reactor-bwr.html.
3 Nuclear Information and Resource Service, “Fact Sheet On Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant,” http://www.nirs.org/
reactorwatch/accidents/Fukushimafactsheet.pdf.
4 A rod, plate, or tube containing a material such as hafnium, boron, etc., used to control the power of a nuclear reactor.
By absorbing neutrons, a control rod prevents the neutrons from causing further fissions. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, “Control Rod,” http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/control-rod.html.
5 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “Cold Shutdown,” http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/cold-
shutdown.html.
6 BBC News, “Timeline: Japan Power Plant Crisis,” March 13, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-
12722719.
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Fukushima Nuclear Crisis
Figure 2. General Electric Mark I Boiling Water Reactor and Containment Building
Spent fuel storage pool
Nuclear Reactor vessel with fuel rods
Primary Reactor Containment
Source: http://www.nrc.gov/.
TEPCO immediately began to experience problems with the Daiichi units, as temperatures began
to rise in the reactors. With the primary and secondary cooling systems for the Daiichi reactors
offline, TEPCO began trying to cool the reactor cores with seawater. Boron7 has been added to
the seawater to help slow down the nuclear reactions and cool down the reactor cores. Pressure
began building in Daiichi reactor 1, resulting in an explosion on March 13, 2011, and radiation
leak possibly from a build-up of hydrogen gas. Falling water levels in the reactor core are thought
to have exposed fuel rods, leading to oxidation of the zirconium cladding resulting in the
formation of hydrogen gas.
An explosion was reported at reactor 3 on March 14, 2011, with an associated release of
radiation. At this time, while the containment structures at reactors 1 and 3 were breached, the
reactor vessels themselves were thought to be undamaged. Falling water levels in reactor 2 and
increasing pressure eventually led to another explosion on March 15, 2011, resulting in damage to
the roof of the building above the reactor vessel and a release of radiation. It was unclear at that
time whether the reactor vessel itself was damaged in the explosion. Fires were also reported at
reactor 4, with the loss of water levels in the spent fuel pool. Elevated radiation levels measured
around reactor 4 caused the temporary suspension of reactor control room operations on March
16, 2011. The spent fuel pool of reactor 3 was also reported to be boiling, with the reported
release of radioactive steam. Water is also being introduced to the non-operational reactors 5 and
6 at the Daiichi station. The Japanese military may be enlisted to pump water into reactor 3 and
the spent fuel pool in reactor 4.8
7 Boron is the main material that goes into control rods used to halt or slow fission reactions in nuclear reactors. Japan
Times Online, “Seoul to Send Boron in Bid to Cool Reactors,” March 16, 2011, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/
nn20110317a9.html.
8 Reuters, “Timeline for Japan’s Unfolding Nuclear Crisis,” March 16, 2011, http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/
(continued...)
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Efforts continue in Japan to try to cool the nuclear reactors at the Daiichi station and keep water
in the spent fuel pools. Loss of cooling water has reportedly led to “prolonged” exposure of fuel
rods in the reactor cores, resulting in hydrogen gas formation. The explosions at reactors 1, 2, and
3 are thought to have been caused by the buildup of hydrogen gas. TEPCO is trying to build a
new power line to supply electricity to the Daiichi station. It is unclear how long it will take to
complete the line. However, it is not clear to what extent that any of the reactor core cooling
systems are functioning at reactors 1, 2 and 3. Experts suggest that as long as the fuel cores can
be kept covered with liquid water, the reactors cores should continue to cool, and a cold shutdown
state may yet be achieved in all the Daiichi reactors.
If the fuel rods in the reactor cores cannot be cooled down, temperatures will continue to increase
and the nuclear fuel assemblies would likely melt. In such a situation, a full meltdown or
explosion could result in a major breach of the reactor vessel and extreme measures may be
needed to contain a major radioactive release. This could mean filling the surviving reactor
containment structures with concrete. Eventually, a reinforced concrete structure would be needed
over the reactor containment buildings and the site monitored for radioactive releases.
The Fukushima Daini station is approximately 12 kilometers south of the Daiichi station, and
further removed from the epicenter of the earthquake. The earthquake and tsunami apparently
caused damage to the emergency core cooling systems at reactors 1, 2, and 4, while reactor 3 was
apparently able to shut down without problems. The station reportedly retained offsite power to
maintain its ability to circulate cooling water in the reactor. The makeup water and condensate
systems were used as an emergency measure to maintain cooling water levels in reactors 1, 2, and
4. TEPCO has since made repairs to the cooling systems, and stable, cold shutdown conditions
are reported at all Daini reactors as of March 14, 2011.9
The United States and other countries, as well as the International Atomic Energy Agency, are
providing assistance to Japan to deal with the nuclear crisis. According to the U.S. State
Department, Japan has requested foreign assistance including consequence management support,
transport of pumps, boron, fresh water, remote cameras, global hawk surveillance, evacuation
support, medical support, decontamination, and radiation monitoring equipment. A U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission advisory team is in Japan at the Japanese government’s request. The
Department of Energy has sent radiation monitoring equipment, and the U.S. Department of
Defense has provided high-pressure water pumps and fire trucks.
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article.aspx?id=42042.
9 World Nuclear News, “All Fukushima Daini Units in Cold Shutdown,” March 14, 2011, http://www.world-nuclear-
news.org/IT-All_Fukushima_Daini_units_in_cold_shutdown-1503114.html.
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Author Contact Information
Richard J. Campbell
Specialist in Energy Policy
rcampbell@crs.loc.gov, 7-7905
Congressional Research Service
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