Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990
Shirley A. Kan
Specialist in Asian Security Affairs
February 24, 2011
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL30957
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress

Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990

Summary
This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of
China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the
Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979,
when the United States recognized the People’s Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC.
Two other relevant parts of the “one China” policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint
Communique and the “Six Assurances” to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been
significant. The United States also expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC’s missile
firings in 1995-1996. However, the U.S.-ROC Mutual Defense Treaty terminated in 1979.
At the last U.S.-Taiwan annual arms sales talks on April 24, 2001, President George W. Bush
approved for possible sale diesel-electric submarines, P-3 anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft
(linked to the submarine sale), four decommissioned U.S. Kidd-class destroyers, and other items.
Bush also deferred decisions on Aegis-equipped destroyers and other items, while denying other
requests. Afterward, attention turned to Taiwan, where the military, civilian officials, and
legislators from competing political parties debated contentious issues about how much to spend
on defense and which U.S. weapons to acquire, despite the increasing threat (including a missile
buildup) from the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). In 2003, the Bush Administration pointed
Taiwan to three priorities for defense: command and control, missile defense, and ASW. The
Pentagon also has broadened its concern from Taiwan’s arms purchases to its defense spending,
seriousness in self-defense and protection of secrets, joint capabilities, operational readiness,
critical infrastructure protection, and asymmetrical advantages. Blocked by the Kuomintang
(KMT) party in the Legislative Yuan (LY) that opposed the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP)’s
president (2000-2008), the Special Budget (not passed) for submarines, P-3C ASW aircraft, and
PAC-3 missile defense systems was cut from $18 billion in 2004 to $9 billion (for submarines
only) in 2005. In March 2006, Taiwan’s defense minister requested a 2006 Supplemental Defense
Budget (not passed) in part for submarine procurement, P-3Cs, and PAC-2 upgrades (not new
PAC-3 missiles). In June 2007, the LY passed Taiwan’s 2007 defense budget with funds for P-3C
planes, PAC-2 upgrades, and F-16C/D fighters. In December 2007, the LY approved $62 million
to start the sub design phase. After the KMT’s Ma Ying-jeou became President in May 2008, he
resumed cross-strait talks while retaining the arms requests. But he has cut the defense budget.
Attention also turned to U.S. decisions on pending arms sales. In 2008, congressional concerns
mounted about a suspected “freeze” in President Bush’s notifications to Congress on arms sales.
On October 3, 2008, Bush finally notified Congress. However, he submitted six of the eight
pending programs (not a “package”) for a combined value of $6.5 billion. Despite the concerns in
2008, President Obama repeated that cycle to wait to decide on submissions for congressional
review all at one time (on January 29, 2010) five programs with a total value of $6.4 billion. Like
Bush, President Obama did not notify the submarine design program (the only one pending from
decisions in 2001) and has not accepted Taiwan’s formal request for F-16C/D fighters (pending
since 2006). Legislation included National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) for FY2010, P.L.
111-84; H.Res. 733 (Gingrey); H.Con.Res. 200 (Andrews); H.R. 4102 (Ros-Lehtinen); and
H.Res. 927 (Barton). Moreover, Senators Cornyn, Inhofe, and Lieberman stressed to Defense
Secretary Robert Gates the NDAA’s directive for an assessment of Taiwan’s air defense forces,
including its F-16 fighters. Submitted in February 2010, an assessment found that Taiwan faced
diminished ability to deny the PRC air superiority. On May 12, 136 Representatives sent
President Obama a letter to urge a sale of new F-16 fighters. In contrast, Senators Feinstein and
Specter spoke in June and September against such arms sales as irritants to Beijing.
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Contents
U.S. Policy.................................................................................................................................. 1
Role of Congress................................................................................................................... 1
Broad Indicators of Arms Transfers ....................................................................................... 1
Military Relationship ............................................................................................................ 2
“Software Initiative” ....................................................................................................... 2
Assessments of Taiwan’s Defense ................................................................................... 3
Normalized Relationship................................................................................................. 4
Senior-Level Exchanges, Exercises, Crisis Management ................................................. 5
April 2001 Arms Requests and Status of Arms Sales ............................................................. 7
April 2001 Decisions ...................................................................................................... 7
Taiwan’s Decisions ......................................................................................................... 8
Amphibious Assault Vehicles .......................................................................................... 8
Attack and Utility Helicopters ......................................................................................... 9
Kidd-Class Destroyers .................................................................................................. 10
Aegis-Equipped Destroyers........................................................................................... 10
Submarines ................................................................................................................... 10
P-3C ASW Aircraft ....................................................................................................... 15
Patriot Missile Defense ................................................................................................. 15
Early Warning Radar..................................................................................................... 17
Command and Control .................................................................................................. 18
AMRAAM and SLAMRAAM ...................................................................................... 19
F-16C/D Fighters .......................................................................................................... 19
F-16A/B Upgrade ......................................................................................................... 23
Other Possible Future Sales........................................................................................... 23
Policy Issues for Congress .................................................................................................. 24
Extent of U.S. Commitment to Help Taiwan’s Self-Defense .......................................... 24
Changes in PLA Missile Deployments and Other CBMs................................................ 26
Taiwan’s Commitment to Self-Defense and Defense Budgets ........................................ 30
Visits by Generals/Admirals to Taiwan.......................................................................... 42
Taiwan’s Missile Program ............................................................................................. 43
President’s “Freezes” or Delays in Arms Sales Notifications.......................................... 45
Strategic Policy Review ................................................................................................ 48
Major Congressional Action................................................................................................ 52
105th Congress .............................................................................................................. 52
106th Congress .............................................................................................................. 53
107th Congress .............................................................................................................. 54
108th Congress .............................................................................................................. 57
109th Congress .............................................................................................................. 57
110th Congress .............................................................................................................. 59
111th Congress............................................................................................................... 61
Major U.S. Arms Sales as Notified to Congress ......................................................................... 63

Tables
Table 1. Taiwan’s Defense Budgets ........................................................................................... 32
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Table 2. Major U.S. Arms Sales as Notified to Congress............................................................ 64

Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 67

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U.S. Policy
This CRS Report discusses U.S. security assistance for Taiwan, formally called the Republic of
China (ROC), particularly policy issues for Congress. It also lists sales of major defense articles
and services to Taiwan, as approved by the President and notified to Congress since 1990. This
report uses a variety of unclassified consultations and citations in the United States and Taiwan.
Role of Congress
Congress passed and exercises oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, the law
that has governed U.S. arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the
People’s Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. The TRA specifies that it is U.S. policy,
among the stipulations: to consider any nonpeaceful means to determine Taiwan’s future “a
threat” to the peace and security of the Western Pacific and of “grave concern” to the United
States; “to provide Taiwan with arms of a defensive character;” and “to maintain the capacity of
the United States to resist any resort to force or other forms of coercion” jeopardizing the security,
or social or economic system of Taiwan’s people. Section 3(a) states that “the United States will
make available to Taiwan such defense articles and defense services in such quantity as may be
necessary to enable Taiwan to maintain a sufficient self-defense capability.” The TRA also
specifies a congressional role in decision-making on security assistance for Taiwan. Section 3(b)
stipulates that both the President and the Congress shall determine the nature and quantity of such
defense articles and services “based solely” upon their judgment of the needs of Taiwan. Section
3(b) also says that “such determination of Taiwan’s defense needs shall include review by United
States military authorities in connection with recommendations to the President and the
Congress.” In a crisis, Section 3(c) of the TRA requires the President to inform Congress
“promptly” of any threat to “the security or the social or economic system” of the people on
Taiwan and any danger to U.S. interests. The TRA set up the American Institute in Taiwan (AIT),
a nonprofit corporation in place of an embassy, to handle the relationship with Taiwan. AIT
implements policy as directed by the Departments of Defense and State, and the National
Security Council (NSC) of the White House. They have controlled notifications to Congress of
pending major arms sales, as required by the Arms Export Control Act, P.L. 90-629.
Congress also oversees the President’s implementation of policies decided in 1982. President
Ronald Reagan agreed with the PRC on the August 17, 1982, Joint Communique on reducing
arms sales to Taiwan, but he also clarified that arms sales would continue in accordance with the
TRA and with the full expectation of a peaceful PRC approach to the resolution of the Taiwan
question. At the same time, Reagan extended “Six Assurances” to Taipei, including assurances
that Washington had not agreed to set a date for ending arms sales to Taiwan nor to consult with
Beijing on arms sales to Taiwan. (See CRS Report RL30341, China/Taiwan: Evolution of the
“One China” Policy—Key Statements from Washington, Beijing, and Taipei
, by Shirley A. Kan.)
Broad Indicators of Arms Transfers
U.S. arms transfers to Taiwan have been significant despite the absence of a defense treaty or a
diplomatic relationship. The value of deliveries of U.S. defense articles and services to Taiwan
totaled $4.0 billion in the 2002-2005 period and $3.5 billion in 2006-2009. Among customers
worldwide, Taiwan ranked 4th (behind Egypt, Israel, and Saudi Arabia) in 2002-2005 and 4th
(behind Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt) in 2006-2009. In 2009 alone, Taiwan ranked 6th among
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worldwide recipients, receiving $790 million worth of U.S. defense articles and services. Values
for U.S. arms agreements with and deliveries to Taiwan are summarized below.1

2002-2005 period
2006-2009 period
U.S. Agreements
$1.1 billion
$5.7 billion
U.S. Deliveries
$4.0 billion
$3.5 billion
From worldwide sources (including the United States), Taiwan received arms deliveries valued at
$7.5 billion in the eight-year period from 2002 to 2009. Taiwan ranked 7th among leading arms
recipients that are developing countries. (The PRC ranked 2nd and received arms deliveries worth
$14.4 billion.) However, as an indication of future arms acquisitions, Taiwan’s arms agreements
in 2002-2009 did not place it among the top 10 recipients among developing countries. (The PRC
ranked 7th with total arms purchase agreements worth $11.7 billion.) In 2009 alone, Taiwan had
arms agreements that totaled $3.8 billion, ranking 4th among developing countries.2
Military Relationship
“Software Initiative”
In addition to transfers of hardware, beginning after the crisis in the Taiwan Strait in 1995-1996
during which President Clinton deployed two aircraft carrier battle groups near Taiwan in March
1996, the Pentagon quietly expanded the sensitive military relationship with Taiwan to levels
unprecedented since 1979.3 The broader exchanges have increased attention to “software,”
including discussions over strategy, training, logistics, command and control, etc.
Also, Taiwan’s F-16 fighter pilots have trained at Luke Air Force Base, AZ, since 1997. However,
in 2004, Taiwan’s Minister of Defense Lee Jye surprisingly wanted to withdraw the pilots and
fighters.4 In response, the Defense Department stressed the value of continuing the training
program to develop “mission ready and experienced pilots” with improved tactical proficiency
shown by graduated pilots who have “performed brilliantly,” as explicitly notified to Congress.5
In July 2001, after U.S. and Taiwan media reported on the “Monterey Talks,” a U.S.-Taiwan
meeting on national security that was launched in Monterey, CA, the Pentagon revealed it was the
seventh meeting (since 1997) held with Taiwan’s national security officials “to discuss issues of
interaction and means by which to provide for the defense of Taiwan.”6 Another round of such
strategic talks took place in July 2002.7 The 11th round of the talks took place in late September

1 CRS Report R41539, U.S. Arms Sales: Agreements with and Deliveries to Major Clients, 2002-2009, by Richard F.
Grimmett; compiled with U.S. official data as reported by the Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA).
2 CRS Report R41403, Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 2002-2009, by Richard F. Grimmett (an
annual report compiled from official DSCA data).
3 Mann, Jim, “U.S. Has Secretly Expanded Military Ties with Taiwan,” LA Times, July 24, 1999; Kurt M. Campbell
(former Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Asian and Pacific Affairs) and Derek J. Mitchell, “Crisis in the
Taiwan Strait?,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 2001.
4 Jane’s Defense Weekly, October 9, 2004, and June 29, 2005; and author’s consultations.
5 DSCA, notification to Congress, October 25, 2005 (see list at end of this CRS Report).
6 China Times, Taipei, July 18, 2001; Washington Times, July 18, 2001; Defense Department briefing, July 19, 2001.
7 Central News Agency, Taipei, July 17, 2002.
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2005, after the Bush Administration postponed the meeting by a couple of weeks to accommodate
PRC ruler Hu Jintao’s scheduled visit to Washington on September 7 (which was then postponed
because of President Bush’s response to Hurricane Katrina).8 These talks have continued.
Increased U.S. concerns about Taiwan’s self-defense capability prompted expanded
communication on defense and security matters. At a conference on Taiwan’s defense in March
2002, Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz said that the United States wanted to help
Taiwan’s military to strengthen civilian control, enhance jointness, and rationalize arms
acquisitions.9 In April 2004, Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs
Peter Rodman told Congress that the Pentagon believed Taiwan’s military needed to improve
readiness, planning, and interoperability among its services.10 U.S. assessments have adjusted.
Assessments of Taiwan’s Defense
The Pentagon has conducted its own assessments of Taiwan’s defense needs, with over a dozen
studies from 1997 to early 2004.11 Congress could inquire about these assessments and any other
reports. In September 1999, to enhance cooperation, a Pentagon team was said to have visited
Taiwan to assess its air defense capability.12 The Pentagon reportedly completed its classified
assessment in January 2000, finding a number of problems in the Taiwan military’s ability to
defend against aircraft, ballistic missiles, and cruise missiles, and those problems included
international isolation, inadequate security, and sharp inter-service rivalries.13 In September 2000,
the Pentagon reportedly conducted a classified assessment of Taiwan’s naval defense needs—as
the Clinton Administration had promised in April 2000 while deferring a sale of Aegis-equipped
destroyers. The report, “Taiwan Naval Modernization,” was said to have found that Taiwan’s
navy needed the Aegis radar system, Kidd-class destroyers, submarines, an anti-submarine
underwater sonar array, and P-3 anti-submarine aircraft.14 In January 2001, a Pentagon team
reportedly examined Taiwan’s command and control, air force equipment, and air defense against
a first strike.15 In September 2001, a Defense Department team reportedly visited Taiwan to
assess its army, as the Bush Administration promised in the April 2001 round of arms sales
talks.16 In August 2002, a U.S. military team studied Taiwan’s Po Sheng command and control
program.17 In November 2002, another U.S. team visited Taiwan to assess its Marine Corps and
security at ports and harbors, and reported positive findings.18 In November 2003, a U.S. defense

8 Project for a New American Century, August 26, 2005; Taipei Times, September 15, 2005.
9 Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz, “Remarks to the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council,” March 11, 2002.
10 Testimony before the House International Relations Committee, hearing on “The Taiwan Relations Act: The Next 25
Years,” April 21, 2004.
11 Statement of Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs Peter Rodman at a hearing on “The
Taiwan Relations Act: The Next 25 Years” held by the House International Relations Committee on April 21, 2004.
12 “U.S. Military Team Arrives in Taiwan for Visit,” Lien-ho Pao [United Daily News], September 19, 1999, in FBIS.
13 Ricks, Thomas, “Taiwan Seen as Vulnerable to Attack,” Washington Post, March 31, 2000.
14 Tsao, Nadia, “Pentagon Report Says Taiwan Can Handle AEGIS,” Taipei Times, September 27, 2000; Michael
Gordon, “Secret U.S. Study Concludes Taiwan Needs New Arms,” New York Times, April 1, 2001.
15 China Times (Taiwan), January 14, 2001; Taipei Times, January 15, 2001.
16 Taipei Times (Taiwan), September 10, 2001.
17 Taiwan Defense Review (Taiwan), August 27, 2002.
18 Taipei Times, November 21, 2002; January 1, 2003; Tzu-Yu Shih-Pao [Liberty Times] (Taipei), April 14, 2003;
Taipei Times, August 22, 2003.
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team visited Taiwan to assess its anti-submarine warfare (ASW) capability and rated it as poor.19
In 2007-2009, Taiwan’s Defense Ministry conducted a Joint Defense Capabilities Assessment
(JDCA) with U.S. assistance, to determine requirements for Taiwan’s joint self-defense.20 In
2009, Congress directed the Defense Secretary to assess Taiwan’s air defense forces, including its
F-16 fighters, with a report due by January 26, 2010 (see “111th Congress”). In 2010, the Defense
Department reportedly began more detailed studies of Taiwan’s joint defense transformation.21
Overall, the Defense Secretary has told Congress in a required annual report on PRC military
power that the balance of forces across the Taiwan Strait has continued to shift to the PRC’s favor.
The report noted in 2002 that PRC control over Taiwan would allow the PLA to move its
defensive perimeter further out to sea. Moreover, in spite of the closer cross-strait engagement
after the KMT’s Ma Ying-jeou became President in Taipei in May 2008, the PLA’s build-up
opposite Taiwan has continued.22 More specifically, the Secretary’s report on PRC military power
had told Congress in March 2009 that it was no longer the case that Taiwan’s Air Force enjoyed
dominance of the airspace over the strait. In assessing the shifting security situation, Assistant
Secretary of Defense for Asian and Pacific Security Affairs Wallace Gregson stressed in
September 2009 that Taiwan’s military will never again have quantitative advantages over the
PLA. As a retired lieutenant general of the U.S. Marine Corps, former commander of Marine
Corps Forces Pacific, and a combat veteran of the Vietnam War, Gregson appreciated any
advantages in defense of an island or a smaller force, and urged Taiwan to shift to stress
qualitative advantages, including innovation and asymmetry.23 This new U.S. stress spurred talks
with and in Taiwan about asymmetrical advantages.
Normalized Relationship
The George W. Bush Administration continued the Clinton Administration’s initiative and
expanded the closer military ties at different levels. In April 2001, President Bush announced he
would drop the 20-year-old annual arms talks process used to discuss arms sales to Taiwan’s
military in favor of normal, routine considerations of Taiwan’s requests on an as-needed basis—
similar to interactions with other foreign governments.24
U.S. military officers observed Taiwan’s Hankuang-17 annual military exercise in 2001, the first
time since 1979.25 The Pacific Command (PACOM)’s Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies
(APCSS) accepted fellows from Taiwan in its Executive Course for the first time in the summer

19 Jane’s Defense Weekly, December 3, 2003; Taiwan Defense Review, January 12, 2004; Jane’s Defense Weekly, June
30, 2004.
20 Fu Mei, briefing at the U.S.-Taiwan Defense Industry Conference, September 29, 2008; and “Defense and Security
Report,” U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, Annual Review 2009.
21 Central News Agency, October 6, 2010, citing Rupert Hammond-Chambers of the U.S-Taiwan Business Council.
22 Secretary of Defense, “Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China,” August 16,
2010. The National Defense Authorization Act for FY2010, P.L. 111-84, changed the title of the annual report from the
previous “Military Power of the People’s Republic of China.”
23 Wallace Gregson, “Remarks to the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council’s Defense Industry Conference,” September 28,
2009. On October 4, 2010, Gregson again spoke at the annual conference, in Cambridge, MD, and reiterated the stress
on Taiwan’s need for innovation and asymmetry. But the Obama Administration did not release his speech.
24 On the annual arms talks, see CRS Report RS20365, Taiwan: Annual Arms Sales Process, by Shirley A. Kan.
25 Chung-Kuo Shih-Pao [China Times], Taipei, July 18, 2001. The China Times (May 27, 2004) quotes Defense
Minister Lee Jye confirming that U.S. military personnel observed Hankuang-17, Hankuang-18, and Hankuang-19
exercises to evaluate Taiwan’s military.
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of 2002.26 By the summer of 2002, the U.S. and Taiwan militaries reportedly discussed setting up
an undersea ASW link to monitor the PLA Navy’s submarines.27 The U.S. and Taiwan militaries
set up a hotline in 2002 to deal with possible crises.28
In addition, in 2002, the Administration asked Congress to pass legislation to authorize the
assignment of personnel from U.S. departments (including the Defense Department) to AIT,
allowing the assignment of active-duty military personnel to Taiwan for the first time since 1979.
The objective was to select from a wider range of personnel, without excluding those on active
duty. The first active-duty defense attaché since 1979, an Army Colonel began his duty in Taipei
in August 2005 with civilian clothes and a status similar to military attaches assigned to Hong
Kong, except that military personnel in Hong Kong may wear uniforms at some occasions.29
Also, the Acting Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, Michael
Wynne, submitted a letter to Congress on August 29, 2003, that designated Taiwan as a “major
non-NATO ally.” (See “107th Congress” below.)
Senior-Level Exchanges, Exercises, Crisis Management
The United States and Taiwan have held high-level defense-related meetings in the United States.
The Bush Administration granted a visa for Defense Minister Tang Yiau-ming to visit the United
States to attend an industry conference held by the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council on March 10-
12, 2002 (in St. Petersburg, FL), making him the first ROC defense minister to come to the
United States on a nontransit purpose since 1979.30 Tang met with Deputy Secretary of Defense
Paul Wolfowitz at the conference.31
However, after that policy change in 2002, Taiwan’s defense minister declined to visit the United
States through 2007. In September 2002, a deputy defense minister, Kang Ning-hsiang, visited
Washington and was the first senior Taiwan defense official to have meetings inside the Pentagon
since U.S.-ROC diplomatic ties severed in 1979, although a meeting with Wolfowitz took place
outside the Pentagon.32 In January 2003, a Taiwanese newspaper leaked information that a U.S.
military team planned to participate in—beyond observe—the Hankuang-19 military exercise and
be present at Taiwan’s Hengshan Command Center for the first time since 1979.33 On the same
day, General Chen Chao-min, a deputy defense minister, confirmed to Taiwan’s legislature a U.S.
plan for a noncombatant evacuation operation (NEO). However, the leak and confirmation
reportedly prompted annoyance in Washington and contributed to a U.S. decision to limit General

26 CNN.com, March 18, 2002; Author’s discussions in Hawaii in July 2002.
27 Tzu-Yu Shih-Pao [Liberty Times], Taipei, July 20, 2002.
28 Jane’s Defense Weekly, October 29, 2003.
29 In addition to Colonel Al Willner, the Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) assigned Army Colonel Peter
Notarianni to oversee security assistance programs at AIT in Taipei. Department of Defense, notice, “DSCA contract
awarded to AIT to support DSCA active-duty military and civil service personnel,” September 24, 2005. In the past,
from 1951 to 1979, the United States assigned to Taiwan the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG). (See
Ministry of National Defense, U.S. MAAG – Taiwan: an Oral History, Taipei: 2008. One of the officers interviewed
was retired Colonel Mason Young, Jr., father of Stephen Young who served as AIT Director from 2006 to 2009.)
30 In December 2001, Defense Minister Wu Shih-wen made a U.S. transit on his way to the Dominican Republic.
31 Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz, “Remarks to the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council,” March 11, 2002.
32 Reuters, September 10, 2002.
33 Chung-Kuo Shih-Pao [China Times], January 2, 2003.
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Chen’s visit to the United States in February 2003 to attendance at a private sector conference on
Taiwan’s defense (in San Antonio, TX), without a visit to Washington.34 Deputy Assistant
Secretary of Defense Richard Lawless and Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Randall Schriver
met with General Chen. In October 2004, Taiwan’s Deputy Minister for Armaments, General
Huoh Shoou-yeh, attended a U.S.-Taiwan defense industry conference (in Scottsdale, AZ),
instead of Defense Minister Lee Jye.
In May 2005, the Chief of General Staff, General Lee Tien-yu, visited the United States, but he
was the first Chief of General Staff from Taiwan willing to make the biennial visit since General
Tang Fei’s visit in 1998.35 In September 2005, Deputy Minister Huoh again attended a U.S.-
Taiwan defense industry conference (in San Diego, CA). Deputy Defense Minister Ko Chen-heng
attended the next conference in September 2006 (in Denver, CO). In July 2007, Chief of General
Staff, General Huoh Shoou-yeh, visited the United States.36 At the defense industry conference in
September 2007 (in Annapolis, MD), Deputy Minister Ko again represented Taiwan, as Defense
Minister Lee Tien-yu declined to visit the United States. In only the second visit by a defense
minister from Taiwan since 1979, Minister Chen Chao-min visited the United States on
September 28 – October 5, 2008, attending the U.S.-Taiwan Defense Industry Conference in
Jacksonville, FL, and visiting Luke Air Force Base, Naval Warfare Systems Command in San
Diego, and the Pacific Command in Honolulu.37 In June 2009, Chief of General Staff, Admiral
Lin Jan-yi, visited the United States.38 However, Defense Minister Kao Hua-chu declined to visit
the United States for the annual defense conferences in 2009 and 2010. Instead, deputy ministers
of defense represented Taiwan in talks with U.S. officials and private executives.
As mentioned above, U.S. military observation of Taiwan’s Hankuang military exercises resumed
in 2001. The Hankuang-19 exercise took place in April-May 2003, with participation by about 20
U.S. military personnel and retired Admiral Dennis Blair, who just resigned as the Commander of
the Pacific Command (PACOM). (Blair led U.S. observers through the Hankuang-24 exercise in
June 2008. In 2009, he became the Director of National Intelligence (DNI).) The 2003 exercise
reportedly raised questions about the military’s will to fight and ability to sustain defense before
possible U.S. support.39 Deputy Defense Minister Lin Chong-pin visited Washington in June 2003
to respond to concerns about Taiwan’s commitment to self-defense. The Hankuang-20 exercise
reportedly included a U.S.-provided computer simulation in August 2004 that resulted in the PLA
invading and capturing the capital, Taipei, within six days.40 In April 2006, Taiwan’s President
Chen Shui-bian and other officials held a Yushan exercise to improve crisis-management and
continuity-of-government to counter any PLA “decapitation” attack, with no U.S. participation.41
Then, in April 2008, AIT Director Stephen Young and other U.S. officials observed the Yushan
exercise for the first time, but some KMT politicians criticized the inclusion of U.S. observers.

34 Taiwan Defense Review, January 18, 2003; Straits Times (Singapore), January 21, 2003.
35 Lien-Ho Pao [United Daily News] (Taipei), May 26, 2005.
36 China Times, Taipei, July 13, 2007.
37 Speech by Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense David Sedney, in Jacksonville, FL, September 29, 2008.
38 Tzu-yu Shih-pao [Liberty Times], Taipei, June 19, 2009.
39 Lien-Ho Pao [United Daily News] (Taipei), April 16, 2003; China Times (Taipei), April 19, 2003; Taipei Times,
April 25, 2003; Central News Agency (Taipei), May 9, 2003.
40 AFP, August 11, 2004; Taiwan News, August 12, 2004.
41 Liberty Times (Taipei), April 13 and 16, 2006; and author’s interviews in Taipei.
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The KMT’s Ma Ying-jeou became president in May 2008. In December 2008, Defense Minister
Chen Chao-min announced a reduction in the frequency of the Hankuang live-fire field exercises
to change them from annual to biennial exercises (only once in two years), raising questions
about training, readiness, as well as contacts with the U.S. military. Hankuang-25 was held in
June 2009. Retired Admiral Robert Natter (former Commander of the Navy’s Atlantic Fleet) led
U.S. military observers to the exercise. Meanwhile, President Ma renamed the crisis-management
exercise from Yushan to Chunghsing, changed the scenario from a PLA attack to domestic
disasters, and did not invite U.S. officials to observe like in 2008.42
However, two months later, President Ma and his officials faced difficulties in managing relief for
the disaster caused by Typhoon Morakot that hit Taiwan on August 8, 2009. With hundreds of
people buried in a landslide, Taiwan’s government initially declined to request foreign aid and did
not ask for American assistance until August 13. On August 16 and 17, the U.S. military provided
assistance with the arrival in Taiwan of two KC-130 transport aircraft from Okinawa, Japan, as
well as the USS Denver (the Navy’s amphibious transport dock based in Sasebo, Japan) with two
MH-53 and two MH-60 Marine Corps heavy-lift helicopters in disaster relief operations. (The
U.S. military previously had supported disaster relief in Taiwan after the earthquake on
September 21, 1999, and the Typhoon Aere in 2004.) In his national day address on October 10,
2009, President Ma recognized mainland China for its aid that “exceeded those of all other
nations,” without mentioning the United States in his speech.
April 2001 Arms Requests and Status of Arms Sales
April 2001 Decisions
In 2001, arms sales talks took place on April 24 in Washington, DC, and Taiwan was represented
by its Vice Chief of General Staff, General Huoh Shou-yeh. According to the Administration and
news reports,43 President Bush approved Taiwan’s request for: 8 diesel-electric submarines; 12 P-
3C Orion anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft (linked to the submarine sale); 54 Mark-48
ASW torpedoes; 44 Harpoon submarine-launched anti-ship cruise missiles; 144 M109A6 Paladin
self-propelled howitzers; 54 AAV7A1 amphibious assault vehicles; AN/ALE-50 electronic
countermeasure (ECM) systems for F-16s; and 12 MH-53 mine-sweeping helicopters. President
Bush approved four decommissioned Kidd-class destroyers for sale as Excess Defense Articles
(EDA). Bush also decided to brief Taiwan’s military on the PAC-3 missile defense missile.44
President Bush deferred decisions on destroyers equipped with the Aegis combat system. Bush
also deferred decisions on M1A2 Abrams main battle tanks and AH-64D Apache Longbow attack
helicopters, pending a U.S. assessment of Taiwan’s army. (The United States later approved
Taiwan’s request for Abrams tanks in 2001. Also, in the fall of 2008, the U.S. Army briefed

42 York Chen (was in Chen Shui-bian’s NSC), “Exercises Give Chance to Test Mettle,” Taipei Times, March 31, 2009;
U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, “Defense & Security Report,” First Quarter, 2009.
43 White House, press briefing, April 24, 2001; Department of Defense, news briefing, April 24, 2001;David Sanger,
“Bush is Offering Taiwanese Some Arms, But Not the Best,” New York Times, April 24, 2001; Steven Mufson and
Dana Milbank, “Taiwan to Get Variety of Arms,” Washington Post, April 24, 2001; Neil King Jr., “Bush Defers Sale
of Aegis to Taiwan, Will Offer Four Kidd-Class Destroyers,” Wall Street Journal, April 24, 2001; “U.S. Refuses
Taiwan Request for JDAM, HARM, and PAC-3 Missiles,” Aerospace Daily, April 25, 2001; and “U.S. Formally
Informs ROC of Arms Sales Decision,” Central News Agency (Taiwan), April 25, 2001.
44 Taiwan Defense Review, January 18, 2003, reported the briefing took place in late 2001.
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Taiwan’s army on the M1A2 tank and an upgraded M8 armored gun system. By early 2009,
Taiwan’s army estimated the total cost of under 150 new tanks at about US$2.9 billion.45)
President Bush denied Taiwan’s requests for Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM) and High-
speed Anti-radiation Missiles (HARM) that target radar-equipped air defense systems. (At the
U.S.-Taiwan Business Council’s conference in February 2003, however, Deputy Under Secretary
of the Air Force Willard Mitchell indicated that these requests were under review. A possible basis
for reviewing any renewed requests from Taiwan was found in the Pentagon’s report on PRC
Military Power submitted in July 2003 to Congress, which confirmed that the PLA procured from
Israel “a significant number of HARPY anti-radiation systems.” The press first reported on the
PLA’s acquisition of the HARPY drones in 2002.46 By the second half of 2004, the
Administration reportedly considered a new request for HARM missiles (submitted in August
2004), while a decision on JDAM guidance kits also remained pending.47 However, in 2005, the
Administration denied these requests.48)
Taiwan’s Decisions
After the U.S. response to Taiwan’s requests in 2001, attention turned to Taiwan, where the
military, civilian officials, and competing political parties in a newly assertive legislature
(Legislative Yuan, or LY) have debated contentious issues. These issues include the urgency of a
possible PLA attack, how much to spend on defense, which U.S. weapons systems to buy,
whether to respond to perceived U.S. pressure, and what the defense strategy should be. The
debate has taken place as the Pentagon has warned of the PLA’s accelerated buildup in a coercive
strategy targeting Taiwan. In early 2003, the Bush Administration stressed to Taiwan the
imperatives of missile defense, C4ISR, and anti-submarine defenses. In March 2003, Taiwan’s
Defense Ministry issued a new procurement plan emphasizing those priorities.49 However, setting
priorities for its national security, forging a national consensus, and funding defense programs
have remained contentious in Taiwan’s politicized debate over national security.
Amphibious Assault Vehicles
Taiwan agreed to purchase the AAV7A1 amphibious assault vehicles, under a program managed
by the U.S. Marine Corps. The Bush Administration notified Congress in September 2002. United
Defense Industries obtained a contract in June 2003, and deliveries began in March 2005.50

45 Mark Stokes, “Taiwan’s Security: Beyond the Special Budget,” AEI, March 27, 2006; U.S.-Taiwan Business
Council, “Defense & Security Report,” Second Quarter 2009.
46 Washington Times, July 2, 2002; Guangzhou Daily (via FBIS), July 4, 2002; Ha’aretz, Tel Aviv, July 25, 2002;
Flight International, November 5-11, 2002.
47 Taiwan News, October 6, 2004; Washington Times, October 8, 2004; Taiwan Defense Review, November 26, 2004.
48 Wendell Minnick, “U.S. Rejects Taiwan Request for HARM and JDAM Kits,” Jane’s Defense Weekly, January 18,
2006.
49 Taiwan Defense Review, March 12, 2003.
50 Jane’s International Defense Review, September 2003; Taiwan Defense Review, March 4, 2005.
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Attack and Utility Helicopters
After deferring a decision on Taiwan’s request for attack helicopters, the Bush Administration, in
May 2002, approved the request, and Taiwan began negotiations on 30 AH-64D Apache
Longbow helicopters sold by Boeing.51 Afterwards, Taiwan also considered the AH-1Z Cobra
helicopters sold by Bell.52 In April 2007, Taiwan’s military decided to procure 30 Apaches.53
Also, in 2005, Taiwan requested price and availability data for acquisition of 60 utility
helicopters.54 In 2005, Bell proposed its UH-1Y Huey utility helicopter, and Sikorsky proposed its
UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters as replacement for Taiwan’s UH-1H Huey utility helicopters. In
the LY in December 2007, inter-party negotiations and the final decision approved about $203
million but froze two-thirds, or $135 million, for 60 UH-60M Black Hawk utility helicopters.
Also in the 2008 defense budget, the LY approved $228 million for 30 Apache helicopters.
On October 3, 2008, President Bush finally notified Congress of the proposed Foreign Military
Sale (FMS) program of 30 Apache helicopters for a total value of $2.532 billion. However, in
what observers noted was an apparent arbitrary decision, the President did not notify Congress of
the pending sale of Black Hawk utility helicopters, which required notification at a later time.
Taiwan signed a Letter of Offer and Acceptance for the Apaches in 2009.55
Taiwan’s 2009 defense budget included about $230 million for the program to procure 60 Black
Hawk helicopters.56 However, after Typhoon Morakot battered Taiwan on August 8-10, 2009,
President Ma responded to domestic criticism of his crisis-management and disaster relief in part
by announcing on August 18 that he would cut the purchase from 60 to 45 Black Hawks and use
what he claimed would be $300 million in so-called “savings” to purchase strictly civilian rescue
helicopters. However, that contradictory decision also called for the military to beef up its role in
disaster relief, which would require more helicopters like the Black Hawks. The military’s
helicopters already have served dual (military and civilian) missions. President Ma apparently did
not consult with the Defense Ministry, which announced on August 30 that it would preserve the
pending program to procure 60 Black Hawk helicopters, to avoid delays and costly changes in
procurement process, and to maintain the objective of upgrading combat readiness. The Defense
Ministry already had prepared and submitted a Letter of Request for U.S. consideration. While
agreeing, Ma nonetheless directed the Defense Ministry to work on diverting 15 of the new
military helicopters to the Interior Ministry, which would detract from national defense.
Meanwhile, the military already considered options to increase its assistance to disaster relief,
which would require more (not less) helicopters that serve dual (military or civilian) tasks, while
upgrading combat capabilities in acquiring the 60 Black Hawks. The Defense Ministry also had
concerns that the Interior Ministry lacked the capability to maintain and operate the helicopters or
train pilots, which could increase the burden on the military. Finally, on January 29, 2010,
President Obama notified Congress of a sale of the helicopters for $3.1 billion.

51 Taipei Times, May 26, 2002; Jane’s Defense Weekly, June 5, 2002.
52 Jane’s Defense Weekly, March 10 and 24, 2004.
53 AFP, April 12, 2007; Lien-Ho Pao, July 9, 2007; Defense News, July 16, 2007.
54 Jane’s Defense Weekly, August 24, 2005; Defense News, July 16, 2007.
55 Defense News, April 12, 2010.
56 Max Hirsch, “U.S. to Approve Major Helicopter Sale to Taiwan This Year,” Kyodo, March 9, 2009.
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Kidd-Class Destroyers
In October 2002, the Defense Committee of Taiwan’s legislature engaged in a sharp partisan
debate over whether to approve funding (about $800 million) to buy the U.S. Navy’s four
available Kidd-class destroyers, ending with 18 lawmakers from the ruling Democratic
Progressive Party (DPP) and Taiwan Solidarity Union (TSU) voting in favor, against 16
legislators from the opposition Kuomintang (KMT) and People’s First Party (PFP).57 In
November 2002, the Bush Administration notified Congress of the proposed sale of four Kidd-
class destroyers for about $875 million. Then, on May 30, 2003, Taiwan’s legislature finally
voted to release the funding, after they conditioned funding on bargaining with the U.S. Navy on
a 15% price reduction. The U.S. Navy began reactivation and upgrade of the Kidds in July 200358
for delivery of the 9,600-ton destroyers ahead of schedule from October 2005 to 2006. Taiwan’s
Naval Commander-in-Chief, Marine General Chen Pang-chih, attended the transfer ceremony in
Charleston, SC, for the first two destroyers on October 29, 2005, in the presence of
Representative Henry Brown. The destroyers, the largest warships in Taiwan’s navy, are equipped
with SM-2 air-defense missiles and a joint combat management system. The transfer ceremony
for the final two Kidds took place in Charleston, SC, on August 25, 2006.
Aegis-Equipped Destroyers
The Department of Defense considered the Kidds as platforms to provide Taiwan’s navy with the
necessary operational experience before any possible acquisition of more advanced Aegis-
equipped ships.59 The U.S. Navy deploys the Aegis combat system (e.g., on the Arleigh Burke-
class destroyer) for air defense and applies it in development of a future Navy missile defense
system (using SM-3 missiles). An alternative to the Arleigh Burke that retains the Aegis Spy-1D
radar, called the Evolved Advanced Combat System (EACS) has been considered. The Aegis
combat system has the capability to track over 100 targets and to conduct simultaneous anti-air,
anti-surface, and anti-submarine operations. During the U.S. war in Iraq in 2003, the Aegis
combat system helped the Patriot missile defense system to detect and intercept Iraqi missiles.60
In 2002, Taiwan again requested four Arleigh Burke-class, Aegis-equipped destroyers, for
delivery in 2010 and at a cost of about $4.8 billion. Taiwan did not get a U.S. response.61
Submarines
Despite initial skepticism about the Bush Administration’s April 2001 agreement to sell Taiwan
submarines (since the United States no longer manufactures diesel-electric submarines), the
Department of Defense has discussed options for a Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program for
eight boats with U.S. and foreign companies and Taiwan. In addition to the military and political
implications of selling submarines to Taiwan’s navy, issues for Congress include potential
technology transfers to Taiwan and European countries, and leaks of secrets from Taiwan to the

57 Author’s visit to Taiwan; and Taipei Times and China Post (Taipei), November 1, 2002.
58 Taipei Times, September 5, 2003; Taiwan Defense Review, March 10, 2004; Taipei Times, September 15, 2004;
Jane’s Defense Weekly, November 10, 2004.
59 Consultations; and Wendell Minnick, “What Those Systems are All About,” Topics, November 2004.
60 Discussion with Lockheed Martin executive, June 10, 2004; and U.S. Army, 32nd Army Air and Missile Defense
Command, Fort Bliss, TX, “Operation Iraqi Freedom: Theater Air and Missile Defense,” September 2003.
61 Lien-Ho Pao, September 1, 2004; Taiwan Defense Review, December 19, 2004; author’s consultations.
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PRC, that could involve U.S. submarine secrets and implications for the U.S. military.62 In a
report to Congress, as required by the National Defense Authorization Act for FY1992-FY1993,
the Secretary of the Navy reported in May 1992 that “to the extent that a potential diesel
submarine construction project would draw on U.S. resources, it has the potential to tap into the
state-of-the-art technology used in U.S. nuclear powered submarines.” The report also noted “the
fact that the diesel submarine is not a viable asset in the U.S. Navy” and that “construction of
diesel submarines for export in U.S. shipyards would not support the U.S. submarine shipbuilding
base and could encourage future development and operation of diesel submarines to the detriment
of our own forces.” The report also said that “it may be possible to control the release of the most
important information and specific technologies of concern, but an effective system would also
have significant costs. The problem will be more difficult, however, if a foreign entity is present
in the shipyards during submarine construction.”
In November 2001, seven companies submitted bids and concept papers to the Department of the
Navy. Companies interested in the contract reportedly include U.S. manufacturers, Northrop
Grumman (with its Ingalls Shipbuilding shipyard) and General Dynamics (with its Electric Boat
shipyard); Germany’s HDW; the Netherlands’ RDM (which sold its Zwaardvis-class submarine
design to Taiwan in the 1980s for two Hai Lung [Sea Dragon]-class submarines); France’s DCN;
and Spain’s IZAR (now Navantia). Although the Administration promised to help Taiwan buy
submarines, not build them, Taiwan’s China Shipbuilding Corporation also became interested in a
part of the contract, with support from some of Taiwan’s legislators. The U.S. Navy discussed
options with Taiwan’s Navy in July 2002 and initially planned to select the manufacturer(s) to
design and build the submarines in the latter half of 2003.63 On December 6, 2002, Secretary of
the Navy Gordon England informed Congress in a Determination and Findings memo that
bidding would be limited to four U.S. companies and the diesel subs would be of U.S. origin.64
The U.S. Navy held a second Industry Day on December 17, 2002, with General Dynamics,
Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, and Raytheon interested in being the prime contractor.65
The U.S. Navy provided the Independent Cost Estimate (ICE) on January 17, 2003.66 The ICE put
the sub program at about $10.5 billion, but private sector estimates have been said to be lower
(perhaps $6-7 billion). Greater risks and costs were factored into the ICE because of uncertainty
about funding by Taiwan and the availability of European designs.
However, by April 2003, the sale became at risk, when the United States and Taiwan reached an
impasse over the program start-up costs estimated by the U.S. Navy at $333 million, but offered
at $28.5 million by Taiwan. On May 20-23, 2003, Taiwan’s Navy sent a delegation led by Vice
Admiral Kao Yang to Washington to discuss the issue, but the differences reportedly remained
unresolved.67 Facing the delays in Taiwan’s commitment of funds (although it first requested
submarines in 1995) and a long acquisition process, the Administration then viewed the program
as a long-term solution for Taiwan that would not meet the near-term blockade and submarine

62 As for U.S. counter-espionage concerns, the FBI sent agents to Taipei to investigate alleged compromises of security
on the PRC’s behalf at Taiwan military’s Chungshan Institute of Science and Technology, reported the Central News
Agency
, August 13, 2003.
63 Central News Agency (Taiwan), July 30, 2002; Taipei Times, July 31, 2002; Defense Daily, September 16, 2002.
64 Gordon England, Memorandum to Congress with Determination and Findings, December 6, 2002.
65 Knight-Ridder/Tribune Business News, December 17, 2002.
66 Tung-sen Hsin-wen Pao, Taipei, September 28, 2005.
67 United Daily News, April 21, 2003, and April 22, 2003; Taiwan Defense Review, May 17, 2003, and May 30, 2003.
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threats posed by the PLA Navy.68 Defense Minister Tang Yiau-ming told visiting AIT
Chairwoman Therese Shaheen on October 16, 2003, that Taiwan still placed a high priority on
acquiring the submarines.69 Meanwhile, in 2003, the Bush Administration inquired with Italy
about buying eight decommissioning Sauro-class diesel-electric submarines for the estimated cost
of about $2 billion for delivery starting in 2006, but Taiwan’s military opted for new subs.70
A team from the U.S. Navy’s International Program Office arrived in Taipei in October 2003, for
further talks on whether Taiwan will procure submarines.71 The U.S. team also met with some of
Taiwan’s legislators, including Lin Yu-fang of the opposition People First Party.72 Lin was one of
the sponsors of legislation passed in May 2002, requiring Taiwan’s navy to arrange for six of the
eight submarines to be built in Taiwan using technology transfers.73 The total cost of new
submarines was estimated at $9-12 billion,74 leading Taiwan’s political leaders to consider a
controversial Special Budget.75 (See discussion on budgets below.)
Taiwan’s new demand for domestic industrial participation had added another issue and greater
potential costs to the program (about $2.5 billion to the total), which U.S. Navy officials
discussed with potential prime contractors at the third Industry Day meeting on December 15,
2003, in Washington.76 However, Deputy Secretary of Defense Wolfowitz told Taiwan’s visiting
legislative delegation on June 21, 2004, that the Bush Administration approved Taiwan’s request
for assistance in purchasing submarines but was opposed to Taiwan’s new proposal to build them
in Taiwan.77 With U.S. opposition to Taiwan’s domestic production of submarines conveyed in
official letters from the Defense Department in May and July 2004, Minister of Defense Lee Jye
estimated that the cost of the submarines could be reduced.78 Depending on the funds ultimately
approved in Taiwan, the scope of a program could be restricted to fewer than eight boats.
Thus, with delays in Taiwan’s decision-making after 2001, Taiwan’s request for and the Bush
Administration’s approval of a sale of submarines met with mixed opinions in Taipei and
Washington. In early 2003, officials in the Bush Administration stressed ASW surveillance as one
priority for Taiwan’s military to consider, with the focus on static arrays and patrol aircraft to
track submarines. The Administration approved submarines but did not consider them a priority.79
In early 2006, articles appeared alleging that the U.S. Navy failed to effectively implement the
diesel sub program for Taiwan, in part to protect the nuclear-powered submarine capability.80 The

68 U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, Defense and Aerospace Report, Second Quarter 2003; Bloomberg, July 10, 2003;
Defense Daily, July 11, 2003; TDReview, September 19, 2003.
69 Central News Agency, Taipei, October 16, 2003.
70 Wendell Minnick, “Submarine Decisions Show Lack of Creativity,” Taipei Times, October 16, 2004.
71 Lien-ho Pao [United Daily News], Taipei, October 23, 2003; Central News Agency, Taipei, October 26, 2003.
72 Taipei Times, October 31, 2003; Central News Agency, November 2, 2003.
73 Author’s discussion with Lin Yu-fang in Taipei in December 2003.
74 Lien-ho Pao [United Daily News], August 25, 2003; Taipei Times, October 31, 2003.
75 Taiwan Defense Review, April 30, 2004.
76 Ibid., February 6, 2004, and April 30, 2004.
77 United Daily News (Taipei), June 23, 2004.
78 Lien-Ho Pao, September 8, 2004; CNA, October 19, 2004. Deputy Under Secretary of Defense Richard Lawless
referred to his previous letters of May 20 and July 7, 2004, in a letter to Defense Minister Lee Jye on June 27, 2006.
79 U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, Defense and Security Report, 2nd Quarter 2005.
80 Wendell Minnick, “Taiwan Claims U.S. Navy is Sabotaging SSK Plans,” Jane’s Defense Weekly, February 15, 2006;
(continued...)
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Defense Department and the Navy repeated that they supported President Bush’s 2001 policy
decision on arms sales to Taiwan, but that Taiwan must commit to fund the program. In February
2006, Representative Rob Simmons visited Taiwan, saying that he represented his district in
Connecticut, home to General Dynamics’ Electric Boat shipyard. In a speech at the American
Chamber of Commerce in Taipei, Simmons suggested that the subs could cost less, perhaps
around $8 billion, and proposed an interim step to break the impasse whereby Taiwan could
procure a sub design first, costing perhaps $225 million.81 The Navy and DSCA said that Taiwan
could first submit a request for a sub design phase.82
On April 3, 2006, Taiwan’s military submitted a request for U.S. assessment of the feasibility of
using two phases (design then perhaps construction). Deputy Under Secretary of Defense Richard
Lawless conveyed the U.S. policy response to Taiwan’s defense minister in an official letter on
June 27, 2006, stating that a two-phased approach was “legally permissible and administratively
feasible.” However, Lawless warned that such a program likely would increase costs and risks,
making foreign design firms and their governments less willing to participate. The Defense
Department estimated the design phase to cost $360 million, if Taiwan requested it.83 Following
Lawless’ letter, Representative Rob Simmons wrote a letter to Defense Minister Lee Jye on July
17, noting that the next step was for Taiwan to request a letter of offer or acceptance for a phased
approach to the design and acquisition of subs.84 In answer to a question posed by Representative
Rob Simmons at a meeting of the Congressional Shipbuilding Caucus on September 27, 2006,
Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon England wrote that his department stood ready to support
the U.S. effort to help Taiwan acquire submarines, if Taiwan provided the necessary funds.85
Meanwhile, the U.S. Navy requested funds from Taiwan to keep an office to manage the sub
program and reportedly warned Taiwan in August 2005 that the “pre-selection” process would
stop without such funds. Through March 2006, Taiwan paid $7.5 million to retain the office.86
On June 15, 2007, Taiwan’s legislature passed the 2007 defense budget with $6 million to fund a
“feasibility study” (with LY participation) and did not commit to the design phase or full
procurement of submarines (the two U.S.-approved options). Representative James Langevin
expressed concerns in a letter to the Secretary of Defense and asked for a review of the U.S.
proposal to Taiwan.87 For the study, a LY delegation met with companies and officials in the
United States in August 2007. The LY delegation was positive about its visit but did not reach a
conclusion about the sub procurement. In September 2007, the stance of the KMT’s presidential
candidate, Ma Ying-yeou, was to support the sub purchase, but a KMT legislator who was in the

(...continued)
“Come Clean on Subs,” editorial, Defense News, February 13, 2006.
81 News from Rob Simmons, February 17, 2006; Central News Agency, February 22, 2006; Taipei Times, February 23,
2006; Defense News, February 27, 2006; and AmCham’s Taiwan Business Topics, March 2006.
82 Interviews with Navy and DSCA officials, including consultations in Taipei in April 2006.
83 Letter from Richard Lawless to Taiwan’s Defense Minister Lee Jye, June 27, 2006; Jim Wolf, “U.S. Clears Two-
Stage Path to Taiwan Submarine Deal,” Reuters, July 14, 2006.
84 Letter from Rob Simmons to Defense Minister Lee Jye, July 17, 2006.
85 Gordon England, letter to Rob Simmons, October 24, 2006.
86 National Journal, April 6, 2006; and author’s interviews in Taipei in April 2006.
87 James Langevin, letter to Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, July 20, 2007.
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LY delegation of August suggested a possible “new list” of arms requests depending on the
outcome of the presidential election in March 2008.88
Taiwan’s Defense Ministry requested in the 2008 defense budget about US$169 million as the
first of three annual installments for the design phase (total of US$360 million). The LY’s defense
committee kept the requested amount in the defense budget that it approved in October 2007, but
the question of procurement was left for inter-party negotiations and the full LY to address. In
December 2007, the LY approved the 2008 defense budget with the funds for the sub program cut
to US$61.5 million. With one sixth of the required amount, questions arose about Taiwan’s full
funding for the design phase and how the U.S. Navy would be able to execute the first phase as
approved by the Defense Department in June 2006. Nevertheless, in January 2008, Navy
Secretary Donald Winter assured Representative Joe Courtney that Taiwan was required to
commit to fully fund phase one and incremental payments would be acceptable.89 Later in
January 2008, the Navy accepted Taiwan’s Letter of Request (LOR) for the sub design phase.90
Then, a Navy team visited Taiwan in March 2008 to discuss details of the program.91
However, on October 3, 2008, after the KMT’s Ma Ying-jeou became president in May, the Bush
Administration did not submit for congressional review the pending submarine design program,
while notifying Congress of six other proposed arms sales to Taiwan. Representative Courtney
wrote to Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice on October 6, 2008, to inquire about the status of
the submarine design program given the failure to notify Congress. Reportedly, in 2008, President
Ma reevaluated then reaffirmed the program (adjusted with a goal of some local construction, if
not development).92 In his public remarks delivered to the United States on April 22, 2009,
President Ma affirmed to the Obama Administration Taiwan’s continued commitment to request
the sub design program. Also, in late 2009, Taiwan’s LY and military remained committed to the
procurement of new submarines.93 However, like President Bush, President Obama did not
submit for congressional review the pending program for a submarine design when he notified
Congress of five other programs in January 2010. Despite U.S.-Taiwan commitments, the Obama
Administration claimed it made no decision to rule in or rule out the submarine program, even
though the United States could have given Taiwan a clear answer of denial. Prospects for the sub
program appeared to be unlikely as a U.S. FMS program. Taiwan’s alternatives included domestic
construction and/or commercial contracts, including for small subs. Still, on January 25, 2011,
President Ma reiterated to visiting AIT Chairman Ray Burghardt Taiwan’s need to buy U.S.
submarines (and F-16C/D fighters) to replace its aging equipment (that could be four boats). Also,
Shuai Hua-ming, a key legislator on defense in the LY’s Foreign Affairs and National Defense
Committee, visited Washington on February 10-11, and reaffirmed a need for subs.

88 Su Chi’s remarks at U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, Defense Industry Conference, Annapolis, September 10-11,
2007; author’s consultations in Taipei in November 2007.
89 Assistant Secretary of the Navy John Thackrah, letter of response, January 18, 2008.
90 Consultations with TECRO, January and February 2008.
91 Wendell Minnick, “Hurdles Await Taiwan Efforts to Move Forward on Submarines,” Defense News, Mar. 17, 2008.
92 Asia-Pacific Defense Magazine, September 2008; U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, “Defense & Security Report,” 1st
Quarter 2009.
93 Author’s consultations in Taipei in November 2009.
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P-3C ASW Aircraft
After the United States approved Taiwan’s request for 12 P-3C planes, the two sides have
negotiated the proposed sale. But Taiwan questioned the estimated cost of $300 million per new
plane (in part due to Lockheed Martin’s need to reopen the production line) for a total cost of $4.1
billion (including parts and training) and sought alternatives in 2003, such as refurbished P-3Bs
or surplus P-3Cs retired from the U.S. Navy’s fleet. A longer-term option was the Multi-Mission
Maritime Aircraft (MMA) under development by Boeing’s subsidiary, McDonnell Douglas, for
the U.S. Navy. In 2004, Taiwan’s Ministry of Defense sought approval from the Legislative Yuan
(LY) of a Special Budget to include funds (about $1.6 billion) for 12 refurbished P-3C ASW
planes (sold as Excess Defense Articles) with possible delivery in 2008-2011.94 The sale became
more complicated in 2006, when L-3 Communications wanted to compete.95 The LY committed
to the procurement of the P-3C planes by budgeting about $188 million in the 2007 defense
budget passed on June 15, 2007 (with a total program cost of $1.4 billion). About three months
later in September 2007, the Bush Administration notified Congress of the proposed sale of 12
excess P-3C aircraft (and support) worth $1.96 billion. Upon this notification, China’s military
showed its displeasure by refusing to carry out U.S.-PLA military exchanges for about a month.
In March 2009, Lockheed Martin received the contract to refurbish the P-3Cs by 2015.
Patriot Missile Defense
After U.S. approval in 1992, Taiwan in 1997 acquired three Patriot missile defense fire units with
PAC-2 Guidance Enhanced Missiles. In the late 1990s, Congress also encouraged the Defense
Department to stress Taiwan’s missile defense capability in a regional context. (See congressional
actions below.) After the Bush Administration in 2001 decided to brief Taiwan on the advanced
PAC-3 hit-to-kill missile, Taiwan considered buying the PAC-3 system. (The U.S. Army
completed developmental testing of the PAC-3 in October 2001 and conducted operational tests
in 2002. The PAC-3 has been deployed with the U.S. Army, as seen in Operation Iraqi Freedom
during March-April 2003. Raytheon describes its Patriot system as the world’s most advanced
ground-based system for defense against aircraft, theater ballistic missiles, and cruise missiles.)
In late 2002, the Pentagon reportedly was disappointed with Taiwan’s delay in requesting the
PAC-3 missiles.96 At a private sector conference on Taiwan’s defense in February 2003, Bush
Administration officials openly stressed to Taiwan’s visiting Deputy Defense Minister Chen
Chao-min the imperative of acquiring advanced missile defense systems. (See “Policy Issues for
Congress” below.) In March 2003, Mary Tighe, the Director of Asian and Pacific Affairs, led a
Defense Department delegation to Taiwan to urge its acquisition of missile defense systems,
including the PAC-3.97 After Chen criticized the Patriot’s performance in Operation Iraqi
Freedom in 2003, a Pentagon spokesperson, Jeff Davis, publicly corrected Chen to Taiwan’s
media on March 27, 2003.98 According to the U.S. Army, the Patriot missile defense system (with
Guidance Enhanced Missiles (GEM) and PAC-3 missiles) intercepted nine Iraqi missiles out of

94 Taiwan Defense Review, April 30, 2004.
95 China Times, Taipei, September 4, 2006; Jane’s Defense Weekly, October 18, 2006.
96 Taiwan Defense Review, December 6, 2002.
97 Central News Agency (Taiwan), March 11, 2003.
98 Taipei Times, March 29, 2003.
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nine engagements.99 In April 2003, Taiwan submitted to the United States a request for price and
availability data in a step towards a contract, and in May 2004, Defense Minister Lee Jye
requested six PAC-3 firing units and upgrade of three PAC-2 Plus firing units (deployed around
Taipei and not major military bases or assets) to the PAC-3 standard for about $4.3 billion.100
Complicated by the failure of a referendum to pass in March 2004, Taiwan’s military looked to
buy PAC-3 units, originally seeking funds out of a Special Budget submitted in May 2004.101
Acquisition of missile defense systems was controversial in Taiwan, with some supporting the
development of domestic long-range missiles instead and some preferring short-range missile
defense systems. (See discussion below.) Missile defense also became politicized, when President
Chen Shui-bian pushed for a referendum on buying more missile defense systems that was held
on the presidential election day on March 20, 2004. That referendum became invalid when only
45% of eligible voters cast ballots (with 50% needed). (Out of the valid ballots cast, 92% agreed
with the proposal.) The opposition KMT and PFP parties objected to acquiring PAC-3 missiles for
three years, based on their claim that the referendum “vetoed” the question.102
In 2006, Taiwan’s military and lawmakers debated whether to upgrade Taiwan’s PAC-2 missile
defense units, if PAC-3 missiles were not purchased. Legislative Yuan President Wang Jin-pyng
promoted PAC-2 upgrades, but other KMT lawmakers did not support additional purchases of
Patriot missile defense. KMT Legislator Shuai Hua-ming, a retired army lieutenant general,
preferred more “cost-effective” weapons and “offensive” missile systems as “deterrence.”103 At
the time, Taiwan had not upgraded its Patriot missile defense systems (to the latest configuration
for radars and command and control with new training and hardware). The cheaper option to first
upgrade the ground systems for Taiwan’s three PAC-2 units was estimated at $600 million. In
April 2006, after first rejecting Patriot upgrades, Taiwan’s defense ministry requested U.S. price
and availability data for PAC-2 upgrades and requested a supplemental budget for Patriot
upgrades in 2006 (not passed).104 In the end, Taiwan’s LY deleted the defense ministry’s request
of about $347 million (out of a total program cost of $3.6 billion) to procure PAC-3 missiles in
the 2007 defense budget passed on June 15, 2007, and opted to fund about $110 million for PAC-
2 upgrades (out of a total program cost of $603 million). The President notified Congress in
November 2007 of the proposed Patriot ground systems upgrade program, valued at $939 million.
In late 2007, Taiwan’s LY partially resolved whether to procure PAC-3 missiles. In October 2007,
the LY’s defense committee retained a requested budget of about US$539 million in the 2008
defense budget to begin to procure PAC-3 missiles. However, the question was left for inter-party
negotiations and the full LY to address in December 2007, which decided to fund four sets but
freeze the funds for two more, freezing NT$5.8 billion (US$179 million) out of NT$17.5 billion
(US$539 million). By the second quarter of 2008, the LY’s Foreign Affairs and National Defense

99 U.S. Army, 32nd Army Air and Missile Defense Command, Fort Bliss, TX, “Operation Iraqi Freedom: Theater Air
and Missile Defense,” September 2003. For a skeptical view, see Randy Barrett, “Pentagon Releases Candid Glimpse
of Missile Defense During Iraq War,” Space News, November 10, 2003.
100 Far Eastern Economic Review, May 15, 2003; Jane’s, July 23, 2003; Taiwan Defense Review, June 15, 2004.
101 Central News Agency, March 3, 2004; China Times, April 13, 2004; Taiwan Defense Review, April 30, 2004.
102 A KMT lawmaker, Su Chi, voiced his objections to missile defense based on the referendum’s result during the
author’s visit to Taiwan in October 2004, before his election.
103 Taipei Times, April 10, 2006; and author’s interview with Shuai Hua-min in April 2006.
104 Central News Agency, February 21, 2006; Taipei Times, February 22, 2006; author’s interview with Raytheon in
March 2006; and author’s interviews in Taipei in April 2006.
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Committee released frozen funds, for the total program of six PAC-3 missile batteries with 384
missiles.105 On October 3, 2008, President Bush notified Congress of a proposed sale of 330 PAC-
3 missiles for a value of $3.1 billion. However, the President broke up into two parts the sale of
PAC-3 missile defense systems, excluding three of seven firing units (including one training unit)
and about 50 missiles. The implications of this arbitrary decision included the requirement of a
second notification of a second purchase as well as higher cost and longer delay for Taiwan.
President Obama did not notify Congress until January 29, 2010, of a sale of the remaining three
firing units with 114 PAC-3 missiles, for another program valued at $2.81 billion. Taiwan will
have a total of ten Patriot batteries to fire PAC-2 GEM or PAC-3 missiles. Still, Taiwan needed
early warning radars and a command, control, communications, and computers (C4) system.
Early Warning Radar
In 1999, some in Congress encouraged the Clinton Administration to approve a sale of early
warning radars (see “106th Congress” below), approval that was given in 2000. The Pentagon
stressed the importance of long-range early warning and tracking of ballistic and cruise missile
attacks against Taiwan. Taiwan reportedly considered two options: a radar similar to AN/FPS-115
Pave Paws sold by Raytheon and the LM Digital UHF Radar proposed by Lockheed Martin.106
Despite divided opinions among lawmakers, in November 2003, Taiwan’s legislature approved
the Defense Ministry’s request for about $800 million to fund one radar site (rather than an option
for two).107 Nonetheless, on March 30, 2004, the Defense Department notified Congress of the
proposed sale of two ultra high frequency long range early warning radars, with the potential
value of $1.8 billion, that would enhance Taiwan’s ability to identify and detect ballistic missiles
as well as cruise missiles, and other threats from the air, and improve the early warning capability
of Taiwan’s C4ISR architecture. The notification pointed out that U.S. personnel would not be
assigned to the radar(s). By early 2005, Taiwan had not contracted for the controversial program,
and Lockheed Martin withdrew its bid.108 In June 2005, Raytheon concluded a contract worth
$752 million to provide one Early Warning Surveillance Radar System to Taiwan by September
2009.109 However, by early 2007, Taiwan decided not to procure the second radar.110 Construction
of the radar in the Surveillance Radar Program (SRP) proceeded in 2009. It would set up a missile
warning center with links to Taiwan’s command authority and possibly the U.S. military.
However, Taiwan complained of delays and price increases for the SRP (and other programs).
The U.S. Air Force unexpectedly asked Taiwan to agree to two revised Letters of Offer and
Acceptance for two additional payments of about $141 million (requested in December 2007 to
cover costs in disaster response) and about $56 million (requested in June 2009 to enhance anti-
tampering). This U.S. request raised questions in Taiwan about whether there was greater U.S.-
Taiwan mistrust. While officials in Taiwan, including in the LY and Taiwan’s military, expressed
frustration at the extra U.S. demands, they said they remained committed to the SRP.111

105 U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, “Defense & Security Report,” Second Quarter 2008.
106 Jane’s Defense Weekly, March 26, 2003, and February 11, 2004.
107 Taiwan Defense Review, November 26, 2003; Jane’s Defense Review, December 3, 2003.
108 Jane’s Defense Weekly, February 9, 2005.
109 Raytheon, June 23, 2005; Department of Defense, Air Force Contract for Raytheon, June 23, 2005; Wall Street
Journal
, June 24, 2005; CNA, June 25, 2005.
110 Wendell Minnick, “Taiwan’s Military Grapples with a Major C4ISR Upgrade,” C4ISR Journal, March 2, 2007.
111 Author’s consultations with officials in Taipei in November 2009. Also see “Taiwan Pays NT$34 Billion on Behalf
(continued...)
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Command and Control
In addition, after approval in 1999, the United States has assisted Taiwan’s command, control,
communications, and computers (C4) program (named Po Sheng), intended to acquire datalinks
and integration of the services into a joint system.112 In July 2001, the Bush Administration
notified Congress of a proposed sale of Joint Tactical Information Distribution Systems
(JTIDS)/Link 16 terminals, a basis for an expanded program. In early 2003, the Administration
signaled to Taiwan that this FMS program (managed by the U.S. Navy’s SPAWAR command)
should be given top priority. However, Taiwan opted for a program costing about $1.4 billion,
rather than the comprehensive recommendation costing about $3.9 billion.113 In September 2003,
Lockheed Martin signed a contract with the initial value of $27.6 million.114 The Administration’s
notification to Congress submitted on September 24, 2003, indicated that the total value could
reach $775 million. Taiwan’s Defense Ministry also decided not to integrate U.S. communications
security (COMSEC) equipment that could facilitate crisis-management and interoperability.115
Full Operational Capability of the initial Po Sheng program was reached at the end of 2009, after
which Taiwan named the capability the Syun An C4 system.116
In May 2009, Taiwan submitted a Letter of Request for follow-on technical support for this Po
Sheng program (in 2010 to 2014). A program for Taiwan Integrated Support System (TISS)
would not be a new system or capability. Taiwan would integrate more platforms, systems, and
sensors in air, naval, and ground units to the Po Sheng command and control network.117
President Obama notified Congress on January 29, 2010, of this follow-on support program.
Nonetheless, Taiwan acquired only one third of the U.S.-recommended C4 network. A U.S.
private sector study in 2010 stressed that Taiwan could invest more to leverage critical C4ISR for
its “all-hazards defense” and warned that Taiwan’s defense and homeland security officials lagged
behind in leveraging the information technology (IT) that made Taiwan’s companies major
players in the global economy. Moreover, in early 2011, an ex-DSCA official urged Taiwan to
work towards the complete integration of the C4 system with the Patriot missile defense units and
the early warning radar (SRP). He critiqued Taiwan’s efforts as “slowly” moving toward a
credible missile defense capability that still required an expanded and integrated C4 network for
early warning detection, tracking, and prioritization of missile threats.118

(...continued)
of the U.S. to Guard its Own Door,” I Chou Kan, Taipei, October 22, 2009; Max Hirsch, “Taiwan ‘Frustrated’ with
U.S. Over Key Radar and Other Arms Deals,” Kyodo, November 4, 2009; and Liberty Times, February 22, 2010.
112 Chung-Kuo Shih-Pao [China Times] (Taiwan), July 18, 2001; Defense and Aerospace (U.S.-Taiwan Business
Council), 2001; Taiwan Defense Review, August 27, 2002.
113 SPAWAR briefing at U.S.-Taiwan Defense Industry Conference, February 12-14, 2003; Taiwan Defense Review,
July 17, 2003; Tzu-Yu Shih Pao [Liberty Times], July 14, 2003.
114 Taiwan Defense Review, September 17, 2003; Jane’s Defense Weekly, October 1, 2003.
115 U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, “Defense & Security Report,” Third Quarter 2004.
116 U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, defense industry conference, Charlottesville, VA, September 29, 2009.
117 Author’s consultation, September 2009.
118 Mark Stokes, “Revolutionizing Taiwan’s Security: Leveraging C4ISR for Traditional and Non-Traditional
Challenges,” Project 2049 Institute, February 19, 2010; Ed Ross (President of EWRoss International), “Taiwan’s
Ballistic-Missile Deterrence and Defense Capabilities,” China Brief, Jamestown Foundation, February 10, 2011.
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AMRAAM and SLAMRAAM
In April 2000, the Clinton Administration approved the sale of AIM-120 Advanced Medium-
Range Air-to-Air Missiles (AMRAAMs) to Taiwan, with the understanding that the missiles
would be kept in storage on U.S. territory and transferred later to Taiwan, if/when the People’s
Liberation Army (PLA) acquires a similar Russian missile, like the R-77 (AA-12) air-to-air
missile, or threatens to attack Taiwan. In September 2000, the Administration notified Congress
of a potential sale of 200 AMRAAMs.
On July 1, 2002, the Washington Times reported that, in June, two SU-30 fighters of the PLA Air
Force test-fired AA-12 medium-range air-to-air missiles acquired from Russia. The report raised
questions as to whether the PLA already deployed the missiles. According to Reuters (July 10,
2002), Raytheon planned to finalize production of the AMRAAMs for Taiwan by the fall of 2003.
Some in Congress urged the Bush Administration to transfer the AMRAAMs to Taiwan after
production. (See “107th Congress” below.)
By the end of 2002, the Bush Administration authorized delivery of the AMRAAMs to Taiwan
and briefed its Air Force on ground-launched AMRAAMs.119 (The U.S. Army has developed the
Surface Launched Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile, or SLAMRAAM, for cruise
missile defense.) By November 2003, Taiwan received its first delivery of AMRAAMs, and a
pilot of Taiwan’s Air Force test-fired an AMRAAM at Tyndall Air Force Base in Florida on
November 10, 2003.120 However, although the Clinton Administration agreed to Taiwan’s request
for 200 AMRAAMs for Taiwan’s 150 F-16 fighters, Taiwan’s Air Force actually purchased only
120 AMRAAMs (although some U.S. observers think Taiwan needs at least 350 AMRAAMs).121
By April 2004, the Defense Department reportedly encouraged Taiwan to acquire the
SLAMRAAM to help counter the PLA’s expected deployment of land attack cruise missiles.122
F-16C/D Fighters
Since 2006, Taiwan has been trying to request to procure new F-16C/D fighters, to add to its
existing F-16 force. In 2006, Taiwan’s Defense Ministry requested initial funding from the LY to
acquire 66 F-16C/D fighters and to boost the defense budget in 2007 (an attempt to reach 2.85%
of GDP).123 On November 6, 2006, the LY’s defense and budget committees jointly passed an
amended 2007 defense budget, which froze the requested budget for F-16C/D fighters for five
months (ending on May 31, 2007), pending U.S. provision of price and availability data. When
the LY passed the final 2007 defense budget on June 15, 2007, the deadline for releasing the
funds (about $488 million) for F-16C/Ds was extended until October 31. In the LY, there was

119 Lien-Ho Pao [United Daily News], Taipei, January 5, 2003; Remarks of Deputy Under Secretary of the Air Force
Willard Mitchell at the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council’s conference in February 2003.
120 Taiwan Defense Review, November 15, 2003; Central News Agency, November 18, 2003.
121 Wendell Minnick, “Taiwan’s Military will Fire Blanks,” Taipei Times, May 25, 2005.
122 Jane’s Defense Weekly, April 7, 2004.
123 In spring of 2006, Taiwan’s Defense Ministry considered asking to purchase new F-16C/D (not F-15) fighters
(author’s interviews in Taipei in April 2006). Also: Wendell Minnick, “Airplane Race in Taiwan Straits,” Defense
News
, May 15, 2006; Jim Wolf, “Taiwan Seeks 66 F-16 Fighters,” Reuters, July 27, 2006; Minnick, “U.S. Debates
Taiwan Request for 66 F-16s,” Defense News, August 28, 2006; author’s consultations in September 2006; and Central
News Agency
, Taipei, October 2, 2006 (quoting Minister Lee Jye).
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broad political support for procurement of new fighters, but there was uncertainty about next
steps if President Bush did not approve the release of pricing data (a potential sale).
The Bush Administration refused even to accept a formal Letter of Request (LOR) for F-16C/D
fighters, after Taiwan tried to submit one in July 2006, February 2007, and June 2007.124
Nonetheless, in October 2007, the LY’s defense committee passed a 2008 defense budget that
retained the requested F-16 procurement program. In December 2007, inter-party negotiations
and the final decision in the LY deleted NT$2.2 billion from NT$22.2 billion leaving NT$20
billion (US$615 million). But the whole amount was frozen pending U.S. price and availability
data. On September 22, 2008, Defense Minister Chen Chao-min reported to the LY that the
military needed to acquire the new F-16 fighters. The Defense Ministry had to return the unspent
funds in the 2007 defense budget and needed to return the funds in the 2008 budget.
In 2006, President Bush reportedly was reluctant to consider a formal request for new F-16
fighters without Taiwan’s resolution of pending arms sales and without a 2007 defense budget
that included funds for the fighters, given questions about Taiwan’s credibility on arms purchases.
Moreover, the Administration expressed disapproval in April 2007 about Taiwan’s domestic
development of land-attack cruise missiles (see discussion below). Then, within days after the
LY’s passage of the 2007 defense budget in mid-June 2007, Taiwan President Chen proposed a
referendum on membership in the U.N. under the name “Taiwan” to be held on the day of the
next presidential election (scheduled for March 22, 2008). At a U.S.-Taiwan defense industry
conference on September 10-11, 2007, at which there was concern about the persisting status of
“no decision” on whether to consider Taiwan’s interest in new F-16s, the Administration issued a
speech to stress U.S. opposition to this referendum while linking strength and moderation as two
requirements for the broader and longer-term security of Taiwan.125 President Bush looked to
Beijing to cooperate in nuclear nonproliferation efforts targeting North Korea and Iran. After
President George H. W. Bush approved the sale of 150 F-16A/B fighters to Taiwan in September
1992, the PRC ended its participation in the “Arms Control in the Middle East” talks and
transferred M-11 short-range ballistic missiles to Pakistan in November 1992 (albeit either in
retaliation or regardless of U.S. actions). Some critics argued that the sale in 1992 of F-16 fighters
violated the 1982 Joint Communique on reducing arms sales to Taiwan and that continuing arms
sales to Taiwan would harm U.S. ties with a rising China with greater wealth and influence. In
addition to concerns about the impact on the U.S.-PRC relationship and cross-strait engagement,
some questioned whether Taiwan’s limited defense dollars might be better spent on other defense
requirements, such as munitions, logistics, training, personnel, and other hardware for asymmetric
advantages. Also, some raised concern about the limited impact of 66 new fighters on the military
balance in the Taiwan Strait that shifted to the PLA’s favor (with its missile and other threats).126
Advocates argued that Taiwan’s legitimate requirement for F-16C/D fighters needed for air
defense should not be linked to other programs or political considerations.127 Taiwan was showing

124 Liberty Times, Taipei, November 2, 2007; consultation with TECRO, February 29, 2008; and U.S.-Taiwan Business
Council, “Defense & Security Report,” Second Quarter 2008.
125 Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Thomas Christensen, “A Strong and Moderate Taiwan,” U.S.-Taiwan Defense
Industry Conference, Annapolis, MD, September 11, 2007.
126 Chas. Freeman, Jr., “Preventing War in the Taiwan Strait,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 1998; Rand Corporation,
“Turning the Tide: Analysis of Military Modernization Options for Taiwan,” a study for the U.S. Defense Department
and Taiwan Defense Ministry, September 2009; and Bill Owens (retired admiral and co-chair of unofficial “Sanya
Talks” with the PLA), “America Must Start Treating China as a Friend,” Financial Times, November 17, 2009.
127 U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, “Defense & Security Report,” 3rd Quarter 2006, 2nd Quarter 2007, and “The Balance
(continued...)
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commitment to self-defense, a U.S. goal for cross-strait stability. Section 3(b) of the TRA
stipulates that the President and Congress shall determine arms sales “based solely upon their
judgment of the needs of Taiwan.” In 1994, Congress passed the Foreign Relations Authorization
Act for FY1994-FY1995 (P.L. 103-236), with language to affirm that Sec. 3 of the TRA (on arms
sales) takes primacy over policy statements (1982 Joint Communique). Moreover, in issuing the
August 17, 1982, Joint Communique, President Reagan wrote in a memo that “it is essential that
the quantity and quality of the arms provided Taiwan be conditioned entirely on the threat posed
by the PRC. Both in quantitative and qualitative terms, Taiwan’s defense capability relative to
that of the PRC will be maintained.”128 Further, supporters argued that the United States should
consider Taiwan’s request when Taiwan showed a commitment to raise its defense capabilities
and the KMT Party’s Ma Ying-jeou became president in May 2008 with the goal to resume cross-
strait talks to reduce tension. Also, withholding support for this request would undermine another
U.S. objective of discouraging Taiwan’s deployment of cruise missiles. In addition, supporters
pointed out that in April 2001, President Bush dropped the 20-year-old annual arms talks used to
discuss arms sales in favor of depoliticized determinations of Taiwan’s requests on an as-needed
basis. Selling more F-16s to Taiwan would affect Taiwan’s air defense beyond the number of 66
planes and upgrade overall capabilities that include pilots (whom the U.S. Air Force has trained).
Just after retiring as the Air Force’s Deputy Under Secretary for International Affairs, Bruce
Lemkin said in July 2010 that new F-16 fighters would help Taiwan to maintain the same
deterrent capability that the United States helped Taiwan to achieve in the late 1990s.129
Days after Taiwan’s presidential election in March 2008, Under Secretary of Defense for Policy
Eric Edelman promised Senators Tim Johnson and James Inhofe of the Senate Taiwan Caucus
that the department would consider carefully any request from Taiwan for defense articles and
services, “including replacement airframes.”130 (Also see the section on the “110th Congress.”)
Nevertheless, some were concerned that the Bush Administration stressed China’s objections over
U.S. policy consideration of arms sales based solely upon Taiwan’s legitimate defense needs.
Even after Taiwan approved a defense budget in December 2007 and Ma Ying-jeou succeeded
Chen Shui-bian as Taiwan’s president in May 2008, President Bush continued to rebuff Taiwan’s
efforts to request F-16 fighters, in part because of the Olympic Games in August 2008.131
U.S. policy has long helped Taiwan to maintain its Air Force capabilities. In January 1982,
President Ronald Reagan decided to sell F-5E fighters, as they were more advanced than the
PRC’s fighters at the time, and to consider the more sophisticated F-5G version if Taiwan needed
them.132 The F-16C/D (single-seat/two-seat versions) multi-role (air-to-air and air-to-surface
combat) fighters would not be a new type of weapon sold to Taiwan, as they are the improved
versions of F-16s sold in 1992. In September 1992, President George H. W. Bush notified

(...continued)
of Air Power in the Taiwan Strait,” May 2010; John Tkacik, “Approve Taiwan Arms Buy,” Defense News, July 30,
2007; Dean Cheng, “Meeting Taiwan’s Self-Defense Needs,” Heritage Foundation, February 26, 2010.
128 James Lilley, China Hands (Public Affairs, 2004); see CRS Report RL30341, China/Taiwan: Evolution of the “One
China” Policy—Key Statements from Washington, Beijing, and Taipei
, by Shirley A. Kan.
129 Quoted by Jim Wolf, “Taiwan Overdue for F-16 Jets, Ex-U.S. Official Said,” Reuters, July 6, 2010.
130 Eric Edelman, letter in response to Senators Tim Johnson and James Inhofe, March 28, 2008.
131 Washington Times, May 9 and 30, 2008; Rupert Hammond-Chambers, President of the U.S.-Taiwan Business
Council, “Taiwan’s Security on Hold,” op-ed, The Hill, June 6, 2008.
132 Ronald Reagan, The Reagan Diaries (Harper Collins Publishers, 2007).
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Congress of the sale of 150 F-16A/B fighters with a value of $5.8 billion. (The first F-16A
fighters entered service in the U.S. Air Force in 1979. In 1980, the Air Force began a program to
improve the F-16’s capabilities for precision strike, night attack, and beyond-visual-range
interception, with advanced controls and fire control radars. The U.S. Air Force received the first
F-16C fighters in 1984.)133 As discussed above, the U.S. Air Force has invested efforts in a
program to train Taiwan’s F-16 pilots at Luke Air Force Base, AZ, since 1997, and had concerns
when Taiwan’s defense minister considered ending the training program in 2004.
Since 1990, the PLA Air Force has bought Russian Su-27 and Su-30 fighters, and in late 2006,
received the first J-10 fighters (developed in China based on the Israeli Lavi program of the
1980s). The PLA Air Force also acquired Russian S-300PMU2 surface-to-air missiles with a
range that extends over Taiwan’s airspace. The Secretary of Defense’s annual report to Congress
on PRC military power warned in 2009 that the modernizing PLA continued to shift the cross-
strait military balance in its favor and that it was no longer the case that Taiwan’s Air Force
enjoyed dominance of the airspace over the strait. The Pentagon reported to Congress in 2010 that
the PLA Air Force deployed 490 combat aircraft (330 fighters and 160 bombers) within range of
Taiwan (without need to refuel), while Taiwan had 388 fighters and 22 bombers. However, these
numbers do not depict the dynamic situation, in which deployments and readiness could change.
More specifically, Taiwan’s Air Force deployed 146 F-16A/B fighters (with 14 of them at Luke
Air Force Base for training), 126 Indigenous Defense Fighters (IDFs) (with limited combat range
and payload capacity), 56 Mirage-2000 fighters (with costly spares and support that led to
mothballing many of them and reduced readiness by 2009), and 60 F-5s (with about 30
operational and used for training). Taiwan asserted a need to replace aging F-5 fighters but
actually also needs to replace the IDFs and Mirage fighters (bought from France in 1992).134
Taiwan included $82 million for the F-16C/D program in the 2009 defense budget, for a total cost
estimated at $4.7 billion. In public remarks on April 22, 2009, President Ma Ying-jeou reiterated
his commitment to the Obama Administration that Taiwan still requested the F-16C/Ds. By mid-
2009, Taiwan quietly admitted difficulty in sustaining costly maintenance of the Mirage fighters,
but Taiwan’s Air Force denied in October 2010 earlier reports that it had to mothball the Mirages.
On July 15, 2009, Taiwan’s Air Force lost an older F-5 fighter along with two personnel. Without
a U.S. decision through 2009 on whether to consider Taiwan’s request for F-16C/Ds (despite
Taiwan’s funding in defense budgets), 26 of Taiwan’s legislators, led by Shuai Hua-ming, sent a
letter to the Congress in early January 2010 to express their bipartisan commitment to the request.
(Also see “111th Congress”) On January 29, 2010, when President Obama submitted his first
notifications to Congress on arms sales to Taiwan, Administration officials noted that they were
still assessing Taiwan’s requirement for fighters.
In 2010, Lockheed Martin stressed the urgency of a new sale of F-16 fighters to Taiwan because it
would help sustain about 11,000 direct jobs in 43 states and keep the production line open as the
F-16 program draws to an end. The manufacturing process would need contracts three years
before the production line closes, in part to sustain sub-contracts for supplies. By 2020, Taiwan’s
fighters would drop in number by 70% without new F-16s and by 50% with 66 new F-16s.135

133 Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft, 1986-1987; U.S. Air Force fact sheet, June 2006.
134 Secretary of Defense, “Military Power of the People’s Republic of China, 2009,” March 25, 2009; “Taiwan Air
Defense Status Assessment,” DIA-02-1001-028, dated January 21, 2010; and “Military and Security Developments
Involving the People’s Republic of China, 2010,” August 16, 2010; Author’s consultations.
135 Lockheed Martin’s briefing, March 23, 2010.
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Still, Taiwan was not the only interested buyer of F-16s. Rather than commercial considerations, a
concern for policymakers would be the dim chance of an alternative if the F-16 is no longer
available. Moreover, years after Taiwan first asked about more F-16s, the question evolved to the
U.S. response to deterioration in Taiwan’s whole Air Force, beyond whether to sell new planes.
On January 25, 2011, President Ma reiterated to visiting AIT Chairman Ray Burghardt of
Taiwan’s need to buy F-16C/D fighters (and submarines) to replace its aging equipment.
F-16A/B Upgrade
Meanwhile, another consideration arose because Taiwan submitted a Letter of Request in
November 2009 to upgrade its F-16A/B fighters sold back in 1992. Taiwan argued this program
would be necessary in parallel to and not a substitute for new F-16C/D fighters. The mid-life
modernization would include upgrades to avionics, structure, flight controls, and munitions.
According to Lockheed Martin, the retrofit program would take one squadron (about 24) of
Taiwan’s F-16A/B fighters out of service at a time over six years.
Other Possible Future Sales
In addition to the major weapon systems discussed above, possible future arms sales to Taiwan’s
military include:136
• signals intelligence (SIGINT) aircraft (perhaps from Gulfstream, Raytheon, or
Cessna) for which Taiwan requested price and availability data in 2002;
• C-27J Spartan medium transport aircraft (sold by L3 Communications);
• F-35 Joint Strike Fighters (JSF), particularly the short take-off/vertical landing
(STOVL) version, under development by Lockheed Martin and foreign partners
(including Singapore but not Taiwan);
• Stryker armored wheeled vehicles (sold by General Dynamics);
• upgraded engines for F-16s (Pratt & Whitney or General Electric);
• CH-53X minesweeping helicopters (developed by Sikorsky);
• trainer aircraft to replace T-34 trainers (two of Taiwan’s crashed in 2010);
• KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling aircraft;
• Phalanx Close-In Weapons System (CIWS) (sold by Raytheon);
• Sensor Fuse Weapon for the Air Force (sold by Textron Systems);
• Armor Security Vehicle for the Military Police (sold by Textron Systems);

136 Author’s consultations; and Flight International, November 25-December 1, 2003; Jane’s Defense Review, January
14, 2004; U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, Defense and Aerospace Report, First Quarter 2004; Taiwan Defense Review,
May 7, 2004; CNA, June 21, 2004; Flight International, July 13-19, 2004; Flight International, September 7-13, 2004;
Flight International, December 7-13, 2004; Taiwan Defense Review, December 30, 2004; AFP, Hong Kong, March 8,
2005; Jane’s Defense Weekly, May 4, 2005; Defense News, May 7, 2007; Taipei Times, June 24, 2007; Lien-ho Pao,
July 9, 2007; Defense News, April 27, 2009; JDW, May 21, 2009; Defense News, June 15, August 17, 2009; Aviation
Week & Space Technology
, September 14, 2009; CNA, January 11, 2010; and Defense News, February 1, 2010.
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• HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopters;
• Upgrades of Lafayette-class frigates, other ships, and Sea Dragon submarines;
• Air traffic control system for Taiwan’s Air Force (sold by ITT);
• Perry-class frigates (as Excess Defense Articles from the U.S. Navy);
• Newport-class landing ship tank (as Excess Defense Articles);
• Athena C4ISR situational awareness system (offered by Raytheon); and
• Sky Warrior tactical unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) (sold by General Atomics).
Policy Issues for Congress
Since the early 1990s, and accelerated after the Taiwan Strait crisis of 1995-1996, the PLA has
modernized with a missile buildup and foreign arms acquisitions, primarily from Russia.137 As a
result of the PLA’s provocative exercises and missile test-firings in 1995 and 1996 that were
directed against Taiwan, Congress has increasingly asserted its role vis-a-vis the Administration
in determining security assistance for Taiwan, as stipulated by Section 3(b) of the TRA, as well as
in exercising its oversight of Section 2(b)(6) of the TRA on the U.S. capacity to resist any resort
to force or other forms of coercion against Taiwan. Congress increasingly asserted its role in
determining arms sales to Taiwan before sales were decided.
Moreover, Section 3(c) of the TRA requires the President to inform Congress “promptly” of any
threat to “the security or the social or economic system” of the people on Taiwan and any danger
to U.S. interests, so that the President together with the Congress shall determine the appropriate
U.S. response. Nonetheless, in March 1996, during the Taiwan Strait Crisis when President
Clinton deployed two aircraft carrier battle groups near Taiwan, the State Department testified
that the situation did not constitute a “threat to the security or the social or economic system” of
Taiwan and did not invoke Section 3(c) for a congressional role.138 Policy issues center on how
effectively the Administration has helped Taiwan’s self-defense, the role of Congress in
determining security assistance to Taiwan, and whether aspects of U.S. security assistance are
stabilizing or destabilizing and should be adjusted based on changing conditions. Overall, the
question for policy has concerned whether to disengage from or increase engagement with
Taiwan in a number of specific areas.
Extent of U.S. Commitment to Help Taiwan’s Self-Defense
The persistent question for U.S. decision-makers in the military, Administration, and Congress is
whether the United States would go to war with the PRC over Taiwan and the purpose of any
conflict. The question of U.S. assistance for Taiwan’s defense involves two aspects: intention
(political commitment) and military capability to assist Taiwan’s self-defense. The TRA did not
replace the Mutual Defense Treaty of 1954 that ended in 1979. Nonetheless, some have called for
a clear commitment (to shore up deterrence and help Taiwan’s self-defense), advanced arms sales,

137 See the Defense Department’s annual reports to Congress on PRC Military Power.
138 Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs Winston Lord, before the House International
Relations Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific, hearing on “Crisis in the Taiwan Strait: Implications for U.S. Foreign
Policy,” March 14, 1996, 104th Congress.
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interoperability with Taiwan’s military, combined operational training and planning, high-level
meetings, and visits by U.S. flag and general officers to Taiwan. Others have argued that the
United States should avoid a war with China and needs a cooperative China to address a number
of global problems and that the United States should reconsider arms sales to Taiwan (either as
leverage against political moves or as a hindrance to a political settlement). Another option would
be to limit U.S. assistance to arms sales and related transfers while not committing U.S. forces.
In March 1996, President Clinton deployed two aircraft carrier battle groups near Taiwan in
response to the PLA’s provocative missile test-firings and exercises in the Taiwan Strait Crisis of
1995-1996. Another question arose in April 2001 when President Bush initially said that he would
do “whatever it took to help Taiwan defend herself” if China attacked.
Supporters viewed such clarity as needed to prevent miscalculations in Beijing and deter attacks
against Taiwan. However, critics argued that Bush encouraged provocations from Taipei, even if
the message was not meant for Taiwan, and weakened willingness in Taiwan to strengthen its own
defense. Later, when Taiwan’s President Chen Shui-bian advocated referendums and a new
constitution, President Bush said that “the comments and actions made by the leader of Taiwan
indicate that he may be willing to make decisions unilaterally to change the status quo, which we
oppose,” in appearing with PRC Premier Wen Jiabao in the Oval Office on December 9, 2003.
At a hearing in April 2004, in answer to Representative Gary Ackerman’s questions about
whether President Bush’s phrase on “whatever it took to help Taiwan defend herself” meant that
the United States would go to war with China if Taiwan made unilateral moves toward
independence, Assistant Secretary James Kelly stated that what the president said had a meaning
“at the time he says it to those listeners,” the United States intended to fulfill the responsibilities
under the TRA “to the extent necessary,” the United States opposed “actions that would
unilaterally alter Taiwan’s status,” leaders in Taiwan “misunderstood” if they believed that
President Bush supported whatever they did, and “decisions of war and peace are made by the
president with consultation with Congress.” Assistant Secretary of Defense Peter Rodman replied
that President Bush’s phrase was a reaffirmation of the TRA, which left a certain “ambiguity.”
Rodman also warned Beijing that its use of force would “inevitably” involve the United States.139
In December 2004, Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage also clarified the U.S. defense
commitment by saying, “we have the requirement with the Taiwan Relations Act to keep
sufficient force in the Pacific to be able to deter attack. We are not required to defend. And these
are questions that actually reside with the U.S. Congress, who has to declare an act of war.”140
On June 8, 2005, President Bush qualified U.S. assistance for Taiwan’s self-defense by saying
that “If China were to invade unilaterally, we would rise up in the spirit of the Taiwan Relations
Act. If Taiwan were to declare independence unilaterally, it would be a unilateral decision, that
would then change the U.S. equation, the U.S. look at ... the decision-making process.”141
In September 2005, the Defense Department further clarified the mutual obligations under the
TRA and limits to the U.S. ability to assist Taiwan. Deputy Under Secretary of Defense Richard
Lawless issued a speech, stressing the TRA’s focus on Taiwan’s self-defense. He declared that,

139 House International Relations Committee, “The Taiwan Relations Act: The Next 25 Years,” April 21, 2004.
140 Richard Armitage, Interview with PBS, December 10, 2004.
141 President George W. Bush, “Your World with Neil Cavuto,” Fox News, June 8, 2005.
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inherent in the intent and logic of the TRA is the expectation that Taiwan will be able to
mount a viable self-defense. For too long, the Taiwan Relations Act has been referenced as
purely a U.S. obligation.... Under the TRA, the U.S. is obligated to “enable” Taiwan to
maintain a sufficient self-defense, but the reality is, it is Taiwan that is obligated to have a
sufficient self-defense. There is an explicit expectation in the TRA that Taiwan is ready,
willing, and able to maintain its self-defense. Taiwan must fulfill its unwritten, but clearly
evident obligations under the Taiwan Relations Act by appropriately providing for its own
defense while not simply relying on the U.S.’s capacity to address a threat in the Strait. The
TRA requires both parties to do their part to deter aggression or coercion vis-a-vis Taiwan.142
A co-chair of the House Taiwan Caucus, Representative Steve Chabot, stated on September 27,
2005, at the Heritage Foundation that Taiwan was only one ally and that it was principally
Taiwan’s responsibility to defend itself. He said that it was “frustrating” and “disappointing” to
many Members of Congress that Taiwan delayed passage of the Special Budget on arms
procurement. He warned that if Taiwan did not pass the Special Budget, many Members of
Congress would “re-evaluate the extent of support for Taiwan.”
Taiwan’s President Chen Shui-bian announced on February 27, 2006, that he would “terminate”
the National Unification Council, again raising questions about new tensions. Senator John
Warner, Chairman of the Armed Services Committee, told Admiral William Fallon, PACOM
Commander, at a hearing on March 7, 2006, that “if conflict were precipitated by just
inappropriate and wrongful politics generated by the Taiwanese elected officials, I’m not entirely
sure that this nation would come full force to their rescue if they created that problem.” On April
24, 2007, at a hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee with the new PACOM
commander, Admiral Timothy Keating, Senator Warner said Taiwan should not play the “TRA
card” when the U.S. military was engaged heavily in the world.
After the KMT’s Ma Ying-jeou became President in May 2008, he resumed cross-strait dialogue
for the first time in a decade and pursued closer economic and other engagement with the PRC.
Aside from contrasting with the cross-strait tension under his predecessor who was perceived as
pushing for Taiwan’s de jure independence, President Ma went further in May 2010 when he
ruled out possible U.S. military deployments to help Taiwan’s self-defense. Ma said that Taiwan
will continue to purchase U.S. weapons, while Taiwan “will never ask the Americans to fight for
Taiwan.” In addition to stating this point in a reporter’s interview, President Ma reiterated this
stance in an attempt to assure visiting Senator Dianne Feinstein the next month.143
Changes in PLA Missile Deployments and Other CBMs
There has been interest among U.S. academic circles and think tanks for Washington to pursue
talks with Beijing on its military buildup and U.S. arms sales to Taiwan (instead of simply
enhancing security assistance to Taiwan).144 One catalyst for this debate arose out of the U.S.-

142 A DSCA official, Ed Ross, read the speech on September 19, 2005, in San Diego, CA, at the Defense Industry
Conference of the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, while Lawless was delayed in Beijing at the Six-Party Talks on
North Korea’s nuclear weapons.
143 President Ma’s interview with CNN, published on May 1, 2010; author’s consultation, Taipei, June 2010.
144 See David Lampton and Richard Daniel Ewing, “U.S.-China Relations in a Post-September 11th World,” Nixon
Center, August 2002; David Shambaugh’s arguments at conference by Carnegie Endowment, Stanford University,
Center for Strategic and International Studies, and National Committee on U.S.-China Relations, on “Taiwan and U.S.
Policy: Toward Stability or Crisis?,” October 9, 2002; Michael Swaine, “Reverse Course? The Fragile Turnaround in
U.S.-China Relations,” Carnegie Endowment Policy Brief, February 2003; and David Lampton, “The Stealth
(continued...)
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PRC summit in Crawford, TX, on October 25, 2002. As confirmed to Taiwan’s legislature by its
envoy to Washington, C.J. Chen, and reported in Taiwan’s media, then-PRC ruler Jiang Zemin
offered in vague terms a freeze or reduction in China’s deployment of missiles targeted at Taiwan,
in return for restraint in U.S. arms sales to Taiwan.145 President Bush reportedly did not respond
directly to Jiang’s linkage. Editorials in Taiwan were divided on whether to pursue Jiang’s offer.
Some argued that confidence building measures (CBMs), such as a reduction in actual
deployments of the PLA’s missile and other units, would improve the chances for cross-strait
political dialogue and lead to greater stability. They said that the United States could explore how
the PRC might reduce the threat against Taiwan, such as dismantling missile brigades in a
verifiable manner, since sales of U.S. systems are based on Taiwan’s defense needs. They argued
that Jiang’s offer represented the first time that the PRC offered meaningfully to discuss its forces
opposite Taiwan. Others said that a freeze or redeployment of missiles would not eliminate the
PRC’s continuing and broader military threat against Taiwan (including mobile missiles that can
be re-deployed) and that the PRC should hold direct talks with leaders in Taipei instead. They
argued that Jiang did not seek to reduce the PLA’s coercive threat but to undermine the
relationship between Washington and Taipei, including sales and deliveries of weapons systems
which take years to complete. They pointed out that the PLA’s missile buildup has continued.
One issue for congressional oversight has concerned whether and how the President might deal
with Beijing on the question of U.S. arms sales to Taiwan in the context of increasing cross-strait
dialogue. Policy considerations include the TRA, the 1982 Joint Communique (which discussed
reductions in U.S. arms sales to Taiwan premised on the PRC’s peaceful unification policy), and
the 1982 “Six Assurances” to Taiwan (including one of not holding prior consultations with the
PRC on U.S. arms sales to Taiwan). At a hearing in March 2001, Secretary of State Colin Powell
assured Senator Helms that the “Six Assurances” would remain U.S. policy and that the
Administration would not favor consulting the PRC on arms sales to Taiwan.146 The Bush
Administration reportedly did not counter Jiang’s verbal offer, noting the accelerated missile
buildup, continued military threats against Taiwan, the need for the PRC to talk directly to
Taiwan, the TRA, and the “Six Assurances” to Taiwan. Nonetheless, in April 2004, Assistant
Secretary of State James Kelly testified at a hearing that if the PRC meets its stated obligations to
pursue a peaceful resolution of the Taiwan issue and matches its rhetoric with a military posture
that bolsters and supports peaceful approaches to Taiwan, “it follows logically that Taiwan’s
defense requirements will change.”147 In May 2005, an official PRC newspaper reported that the
PLA continued to debate the question of whether to “withdraw” missiles opposite Taiwan.148
China has continued its buildup of short-range ballistic missiles, whose “adequate precision
guidance” could destroy key leadership facilities, military bases, and communication and
transportation nodes with “minimal advanced warning,” warned the Pentagon’s 2004 report to
Congress on PRC military power. Later, the Secretary of Defense reported to Congress that by
late 2008, the PLA deployed opposite Taiwan an arsenal of 1,050-1,150 mobile M-9 and M-11

(...continued)
Normalization of U.S.-China Relations,” National Interest, fall 2003.
145 Chung-Kuo Shih-Pao [China Times], Taipei, November 22, 2002; Taipei Times, November 23, 2002.
146 Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Hearing on U.S. Foreign Policy, March 8, 2001.
147 House International Relations Committee, “The Taiwan Relations Act: The Next 25 Years,” April 21, 2004.
148 Qingnian Cankao [Youth Reference News], Beijing, May 26, 2005.
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short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs).149 That build-up increased by 60-80 SRBMs from 2007,
less than the previously reported increase of about 100 missiles a year. The Secretary’s annual
report to Congress submitted in August 2010 estimated that the PLA deployed 1,050-1,150
SRBMs opposite Taiwan by the end of 2009. While the number of SRBMs remained constant, the
newer, advanced missiles in the force have precision strike capability with longer ranges, better
accuracy, and various conventional warheads. Moreover a private 2010 study found that the PRC
has the world’s largest force of ground-launched land attack cruise missiles (LACMs), with about
100 LACMs entering the operational force each year.150 Indeed, at a hearing of the Senate
Appropriations Subcommittee on Defense on June 16, 2010, Senator Feinstein asked Defense
Secretary Robert Gates about any changes in China’s military posture against Taiwan, and he
testified that there continued to be an “extraordinary” deployment by the PLA of cruise as well as
ballistic missiles opposite Taiwan, despite closer cross-strait engagement since 2008.
Potential CBMs between the PLA and Taiwan’s Ministry of National Defense gained momentum
after the KMT’s Ma Ying-jeou became President in Taipei in May 2008 and Hu Jintao in Beijing
issued a speech in December 2008 with six points that included a proposal similar to Ma’s,
namely, “to end the state of hostility and reach a peace agreement, including exploring the
establishment of a mechanism of mutual trust for military security.” (Top ruler Hu Jintao is the
Communist Party of China (CPC)’s General-Secretary, the Chairman of the Central Military
Commission (CMC), and the President of the PRC.) There are many possible steps that could
constitute CBMs, including changes in the PLA’s deployment of some ballistic missiles.
One issue for U.S. policy concerns how the increasing cross-strait dialogue concerning and
potential conduct of such CBMs positively and negatively might affect U.S. interests, with or
without Taipei’s consultation with Washington. Another issue asks whether the United States
should encourage or play another role in the increasing cross-strait dialogues that potentially
include such CBMs. In September 2009, Deputy Secretary of State James Steinberg stated that
the Obama Administration “encouraged” the PRC and Taiwan to explore CBMs that would lead
to closer ties and greater stability across the strait. His encouragement of CBMs raised
expectations of an active U.S. role and injected new U.S. pressure in a sensitive domestic debate
in Taiwan over whether such CBMs are premature at this time and would serve Taiwan’s security
interests. In contrast, later in the month, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Asian and Pacific
Security Affairs Wallace Gregson said that “we are encouraged by the PRC’s reciprocity in
encouraging renewed interactions in cultural and economic affairs, but we have not yet seen
similar progress or dialogue in military affairs. We encourage both sides to consider such steps at
the appropriate time and in a mutually agreed manner.” Gregson also urged Taiwan to stress
“asymmetrical advantages” in its defense. Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and
Pacific Affairs David Shear echoed those measured words, saying that his department did not
want to push Taiwan to hold CBMs and that they should occur at a pace acceptable to Taiwan’s
people. At a summit in Beijing in November, Presidents Obama and Hu issued a Joint Statement
in which the United States did not use “encouragement” of cross-strait CBMs. As worded, the
United States “welcomes the peaceful development of relations across the Taiwan Strait and looks
forward to efforts by both sides to increase dialogues and interactions in economic, political, and
other fields, and develop more positive and stable cross-Strait relations.”151

149 Secretary of Defense, “Annual Report on the Military Power of the People’s Republic of China,” May 29, 2004, and
“Military Power of the People’s Republic of China, 2009,” March 25, 2009.
150 Project 2049, “Evolving Aerospace Trends in the Asia-Pacific Region,” May 25, 2010.
151 James Steinberg, “Administration’s Vision of the U.S.-China Relationship,” September 24, 2009; Wallace Gregson,
(continued...)
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Presidents Ma and Hu’s proposals for CBMs and a “peace accord” have been considered in a
controversial debate in Taiwan (including between civilian and military officials) concerning
whether CBMs with the PLA serve Taiwan’s security interests and whether those interests are
better served in securing U.S. arms and other defense-related support that Taiwan’s officials
believe are necessary for the confidence to deal with Beijing. Some in Taiwan worry that CBMs
with the PLA could lead to the PLA’s stronger leverage at the expense of U.S.-Taiwan defense-
related ties. There is also the question of whether Taiwan’s expectations of a greater U.S. role
could be met. In October 2009, Shuai Hua-ming, a key KMT Member of the Legislative Yuan in
Taipei who is a retired Lieutenant General of the Army, questioned the U.S. commitment to help
Taiwan’s self-defense under the TRA (with delays and cost increases in arms programs), the push
by some in Taiwan to build trust through triangular talks among Taiwan, China, and the United
States (rather than traditional trust between Taiwan and the United States), and the will of
Taiwan’s military leadership to reform with new concepts of training, jointness, warfighting, and
strategy (not simply using defensive weapons with no combat experience for decades).152
On November 2, 2009, the international Sun Tzu conference took place in Beijing with the
attendance of Jia Qinglin, a Member of the Standing Committee of the Politburo of the CPC and
with discussion of cross-strait CBMs. The PLA’s Major General Luo Yuan of the Academy of
Military Science (AMS) and a few of Taiwan’s retired generals attended the conference.153 On
November 13-14, organizations with ties to officials of the two sides of the strait held the first
conference in Taiwan to discuss economic, political, and security engagement, including CBMs
and a peace accord. The PRC delegation attending the conference called “60 Years Across the
Taiwan Strait” included Zheng Bijian, former vice president of the CPC’s Central Party School,
Yu Keli of the Institute of Taiwan Studies, retired Major General Pan Zhenqiang of the PLA’s
National Defense University, and retired PLA Lieutenant General Li Jijun of the Association for
the Study of Sun Tzu’s Art of War (and formerly at AMS and the CMC’s General Office). Li Jijun
said that the two sides could discuss the PLA’s missiles only based on the “1992 Consensus”
(“one China, different interpretations”) and opposition to Taiwan’s independence, and he also
acknowledged that withdrawal of missiles would be meaningless since they are mobile. At the
end of July 2010, the PLA responded publicly for the first time to Taiwan’s demand that the PLA
withdraw missiles. However, the PLA said that the two sides of the strait could discuss both of
their military deployments in discussions of setting up military and security CBMs. Moreover, the
PLA could retain the threat of force or coercion as a political tool to influence Taiwan.

(...continued)
“Remarks to the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council Defense Industry Conference,” September 28, 2009; White House,
“U.S.-China Joint Statement,” November 17, 2009.
152 Author’s discussions. Also: Shuai Hua-ming, “Taiwan-U.S.-PRC CBM: From LY and Long-term Cross-Strait
Defense Security Observer’s Perspective,” October 2009. As an example of Steinberg’s “encouragement” of CBMs
raising expectations in Taiwan of a U.S. role that could or could not be met, Chen I-hsin, a professor in Taiwan at
Tamkang University who is also a vice president at the Foundation on Asia-Pacific Peace Studies (a think tank with
support from President Ma and other officials that is studying cross-strait CBMs) wrote “U.S. Roles in the Cross-Strait
Relations and Taiwan’s Democracy,” a paper for the International Conference on Obama’s New Policy – New
Situation in Asia Pacific and the Future Development of Taiwan, October 31, 2009, Legislative Yuan, Taipei. On June
15, 2010, an advisor on defense policy in the KMT and retired vice admiral, Lan Ning-li, published an article in Lien-
ho Pao
to criticize the many groups of Taiwan’s retired generals visiting the PRC as its “pawns” to push for CBMs.
153 Lien-Ho Pao [United Daily News], Taipei, November 3, 2009.
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Taiwan’s Commitment to Self-Defense and Defense Budgets
Congress has oversight of the Administration’s dialogue with Taiwan about its self-defense and
military budgets. Congress also has discussed with Taiwan these responsibilities. Since 2002,
some have expressed increasing concerns about Taiwan’s commitment to its self-defense and lack
of national consensus on national security. The Pentagon’s report on PRC Military Power
submitted to Congress in July 2002 said that reforms in Taiwan’s military were needed to achieve
a joint service capability to meet the growing challenge from the PLA’s modernizing air, naval,
and missile forces, but warned that “the defense budget’s steady decline as a percentage of total
government spending will challenge Taiwan’s force modernization.”154 The Pentagon’s report
issued in July 2003 further stressed that the relative decline in Taiwan’s defense budget
“increasingly” will challenge its force modernization.155 Especially since 2003, some U.S.
observers and officials have urged Taiwan’s civilian and military leaders to place more urgent
priority on upgrading Taiwan’s self-defense capability and to increase defense spending, while
noting that Taiwan has planned an independent defense (since it cannot assume foreign help).156
Meanwhile, the PRC has significantly increased military budgets, budgets that the Defense
Department has assessed as markedly understating actual defense-related expenditures (by
excluding funds for weapons research, foreign arms purchases, etc.). The Secretary of Defense’s
report on PRC military power estimated that China’s military-related spending for 2009 totaled
over $150 billion.157 This estimate was greater than the PRC’s announced military budget for
2009, which was $70.3 billion. Still, the PRC’s defense budget can be used as one indicator of the
priority placed on the PLA’s modernization. In March 2010, the PRC announced the military
budget for 2010 that totaled $76.3 billion. This budget was an increase of 8.8% in real terms
(accounting for inflation). Using the PRC’s own announced military budgets, the 2010 budget
was a doubling of the 2005 budget. The PRC’s defense budget has recorded a continued trend of
consecutive real increases every year since 1997 (after the Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1995-1996),
including double-digit percentage real increases from 1998 to 2008.
In Taiwan, some legislators argued in various ways that Taiwan’s defense spending was
sufficiently significant, that the legislature in a democracy has the right to scrutinize the defense
budget, that economic challenges constrained defense spending, and that Taiwan did not need
U.S. weapons in an accommodation with the PRC. The U.S. approvals of significant arms sales in
2001 came in the one year of negative real change in Taiwan’s GDP (-2.2%). Also, Taiwan’s
officials and legislators pointed out that Taiwan had funded defense out of separate Special
Budgets in addition to the regular (annual) defense budgets. Taiwan’s Special Budgets for defense

154 Department of Defense, “Annual Report on the Military Power of the People’s Republic of China,” July 12, 2002.
155 Department of Defense, “Report on PRC Military Power,” July 30, 2003.
156 Peter Brookes, “The Challenges and Imperatives in Taiwan’s Defense,” Heritage Lectures, January 9, 2003; John
Tkacik, “Taiwan Must Get Serious About Defense,” Defense News, January 27, 2003; John Tkacik, “Taiwan Must
Grasp on True Defense Needs,” Defense News, December 1, 2003; Wendell Minnick, “Taiwan Procurement in
Shambles,” Defense News, March 19, 2007; Randall Schriver, “Defense: Time to Take Ownership,” Taipei Times,
April 4, 2007; Ted Galen Carpenter, “Taiwan’s Free Ride on U.S. Defense,” Wall Street Journal, April 23, 2007; AEI
and Project 2049 Institute (Taiwan Policy Working Group), “Deter, Defend, Repel, and Partner,” July 2009; Wall
Street Journal
editorial, “In Taiwan’s Defense,” November 17, 2010.
157 Secretary of Defense, “Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China” (the annual
report to Congress was previously called Military Power of the People’s Republic of China), August 16, 2010. The
Defense Department has estimated China’s total military spending at 3.5% to 5% of GDP. Also see Secretary of
Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response, 2001.
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in 1994-2003 totaled US$22.6 billion and funded procurement of fighter aircraft and military
housing construction. In 2003, anti-American attacks in Taiwan targeted perceived U.S.
“pressure,” “extortion,” “sucker’s arms deals,” and “arms dealers’ profits.”158
In June 2003, Deputy Defense Minister Lin Chong-pin and a Defense Committee delegation led
by Legislative Yuan President Wang Jin-pyng visited Washington to reassure the Administration
and Congress that Taiwan remained committed to its self-defense.159 A former official in the
Pentagon involved in arms sales wrote in 2006 that the impasse over Taiwan’s defense spending
did not symbolize a lack of commitment to self-defense. Mark Stokes contended that the Bush
Administration’s policy on arms sales to Taiwan was right, but it came at the wrong time.160
Taiwan’s regular defense budget for 2004 was about US$7.8 billion, which accounted for 2.4% of
GDP and 16.7% of the total government budget, as compared with 3.8% of GDP and 24.3% of
total spending in 1994. (See Table 1.) These relative declines took place even as the Pentagon
warned of an increased threat posed by the PLA to Taiwan, U.S. support for Taiwan increased
after the 1995-1996 crisis, and the PLA obtained higher budgets. For 2005, Taiwan’s Defense
Ministry requested a budget of NT$260.7 billion, a reduction of NT$3.1 billion from that in 2004,
and the final 2005 defense budget was NT$258.5 billion (about US$8.0 billion).161
In August 2005, the Defense Ministry requested a budget for 2006 of NT$265.7 billion, an
increase of NT$7.2 billion from 2005. However, that budget included an initial request to buy
PAC-3 missile defense units, after the Ministry lowered the Special Budget by removing funds for
PAC-3. Minister of Defense Lee Jye acknowledged a major “crowding out” impact on the 2006
budget resulting from adding the PAC-3 request to the annual budget. He lamented that he had to
cut out 53 new programs that would have invested in combat strength.162 On January 12, 2006,
the legislature voted to cut NT$11.2 billion (US$348 million) from the annual defense budget for
2006 (funds that would have been supplementary funds to support procurement of PAC-3 missile
defense, P-3C aircraft, and submarines) and did not direct those funds to be used for munitions,
training, or other defense needs. Taiwan’s final 2006 defense budget was NT$252.5 billion (about
US$7.8 billion), a reduction of NT$6 billion from the previous year. Meanwhile, the Minister of
Defense requested a Supplemental Budget for the 2006 defense budget partly to procure U.S.
submarines, P-3C ASW aircraft, and PAC-2 missile defense upgrades, given the lack of
legislative approval for the requested Special Budget. In March 2006, the Defense Ministry
requested a 2006 Supplemental Budget totaling NT$13.7 billion (US$420 million) for 74 defense
programs, including NT$5.6 billion (US$172 million) for the three weapon systems, but the
Cabinet did not agree with it.
With general U.S. support, Taiwan’s leaders stated a goal of reversing the declining spending
trends and increasing the defense budget to 3% of GDP by 2008. However, this goal has not been
reached. In May 2005, Taiwan’s Defense Minister Lee Jye requested that the defense budget
increase from 2.4% of GDP to 3.0% of GDP in the next five years.163 President Chen Shui-bian

158 United Daily News, April 21, 2003; China Times, May 8, 2003, and August 18, 2003.
159 Meeting at CRS with Lin Chong-pin and congressional staff, June 5, 2003; Luncheon at the Heritage Foundation
with Taiwan’s legislative delegation led by Wang Jin-pyng, June 24, 2003; TECRO, Taipei Update, July 22, 2003.
160 Mark Stokes, “Taiwan’s Security: Beyond the Special Budget,” AEI, March 27, 2006.
161 Consultations in Taipei and Washington; and FBIS report, October 22, 2004.
162 Central News Agency, Taipei, August 30, 2005.
163 Taipei Times, May 24, 2005.
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announced on September 12, 2005, the goal of increasing the defense budget to 3% of GDP by
2008, and this goal was stated in Taiwan’s first National Security Report issued by President
Chen in May 2006. In reaction to the report, the State Department issued a statement on May 19,
2006, to stress that the United States encouraged “Taiwan to boost its defense spending,
concentrating in particular on immediate challenges of hardening and sustainability.” Taiwan
increased the defense budgets in 2007 and 2008. After the KMT’s Ma Ying-jeou became
president in May 2008, he retained the goal of defense budgets at 3% of GDP, a commitment
reaffirmed in the Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) of March 2009.
Table 1. Taiwan’s Defense Budgets
% of total
Military budget
Military budget
government
Fiscal year
(NT$ bil.)
(US$ bil.)
% of GDP
spending
1994 258.5
9.8 3.8
24.3
1995 252.3
9.5 3.5
24.5
1996 258.3
9.5 3.4
22.8
1997 268.8
9.4 3.3
22.5
1998 274.8
8.2 3.2
22.4
1999 284.5
8.8 3.2
21.6
2000 402.9
12.9 2.9
17.4
2001 269.8
8.0 2.9
16.5
2002 260.4
7.5 2.7
16.4
2003 257.2
7.6 2.6
15.5
2004 261.9
7.8 2.4
16.7
2005 258.5
8.0 2.3
16.1
2006 252.5
7.8 2.1
16.1
2007 304.9
9.2 2.4
18.7
2008 341.1
10.5 2.5
20.2
2009 318.7
9.6 2.7
17.6
2010 297.4
9.3 2.2
17.3
2011 294.6
10.2 2.1
16.6
Notes: This table was compiled using data on the regular, annual defense budgets provided by the ROC’s
Ministry of National Defense, author’s consultation, news reports, and data on GDP and exchange rates
reported by Global Insight. The local currency is the New Taiwan Dol ar (NT$). The FY2000 budget covered the
18-month period from July 1999 to December 2000. Taiwan also has separate funding for indirect defense-
related spending (e.g., for science and technology, environmental protection, retired personnel, construction).
Special Budget Proposed in 2004
In 2002, Taiwan’s Ministry of National Defense said that it needed the legislature to approve
NT$700 billion (about US$21 billion) over the next 10 years for arms procurement.164 Taiwan’s

164 Chung-Kuo Shih-Pao [China Times] (Taipei), May 17, 2002; Taiwan Defense Review, August 30, 2002.
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Defense Ministry has considered a Special Budget of $15 billion-$20 billion to procure the PAC-
3 missile defense system, submarines, and P-3 ASW aircraft over 10-15 years. As discussed
above, in 2003, Taiwan’s military received the U.S. cost estimate for new submarines as well as
price and availability data for PAC-3 missile defense systems and refurbished P-3C planes. In
May 2003, Minister of Defense Tang Yiau-ming sent a letter to U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense
Wolfowitz, saying that Taiwan planned to submit a Special Budget to the legislature to procure
the three weapon systems. However, Tang allegedly doubted the Special Budget would pass,
while looking to the regular defense budget to fund items of priority to the Army.165
As Taiwan considered a Special Budget, the Pentagon urged a decision. In April 2004, Assistant
Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs Peter Rodman testified to Congress that
“we have made clear to our friends on Taiwan that we expect them to reverse this budget decline.
Though our commitments to Taiwan are enduring, the American people and both the Executive
Branch and Congress expect the people of Taiwan to make their own appropriate commitment to
their freedom and security.” Rodman also stressed that “we expect Taiwan to go forward with its
plan to pass a Special Budget this summer to fund essential missile defense and anti-submarine
warfare systems and programs” [emphasis added].166 On May 29, 2004, the Pentagon issued a
report to Congress on PRC Military Power, stressing that “the principal indicator of Taiwan’s
commitment to addressing its shortfalls will be the fate of its annual defense budget” and that “the
island’s apparent lack of political consensus over addressing [its military challenges] with
substantially increased defense spending is undoubtedly seen as an encouraging trend in Beijing.”
On May 21, 2004, Taiwan’s Defense Minister Lee Jye—a retired Naval Admiral personally
committed to procuring new submarines—submitted to the Executive Yuan (Cabinet) a request
for a Special Budget for defense totaling about US$20 billion.167 On June 2, the Executive Yuan,
controlled by the ruling Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), then passed a Special Budget of
NT$610.8 billion (about US$18.2 billion), with about $4.3 billion for PAC-3 missile defense
systems, $12.3 billion for submarines, and $1.6 billion for P-3 aircraft.168 Taiwan’s legislators
have had the options of procuring all three systems, procuring one or two items, alternatives, or
none. However, Taiwan’s priorities remained unclear.
Taiwan’s 2004 Legislative Delegation
The Special Budget was not passed in 2004, although the United States urged passage and
welcomed the LY’s president, Wang Jin-pyng of the KMT, who led a multi-party legislative
delegation to the United States on June 17-27, 2004, to gain direct information on the weapons
systems. The LY delegation visited Pearl Harbor Naval Base, HI; Washington, DC; and Fort
Bliss, TX. Under Wang’s leadership, legislators from different political parties reached a
preliminary consensus in support of the Special Budget during their visit to Washington, where
they met with Members of Congress and defense officials. They said they would seek a new cost
estimate for the submarines, with the options of a construction or maintenance role for Taiwan’s
shipbuilding industry and delivery in 10 (not 15) years (after Deputy Secretary of Defense
Wolfowitz personally expressed to the delegation U.S. opposition to Taiwan’s more expensive

165 U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, “Defense and Security Report,” 3rd Quarter 2005.
166 Statement before the House International Relations Committee, hearing on “The Taiwan Relations Act: the Next 25
Years,” April 21, 2004.
167 Central News Agency, Taipei, May 26, 2004; China Times, Taipei, May 27, 2004.
168 Central News Agency, Taipei, June 2, 2004.
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proposal to build submarines domestically); and that they would consider splitting up the Special
Budget to approve funds for the P-3C aircraft and PAC-3 missile defense systems, ahead of
considering the subs.169
However, politicians made the Special Budget into a controversial political issue in gearing up for
legislative elections on December 11, 2004. Opposition parties of the “blue coalition,” the
Kuomintang (KMT) and People First Party (PFP), called for drastic cuts in the Special Budget
and retained their majority in the LY.
U.S. Frustrations and Shifts
In April 2004, Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs Peter Rodman told
Congress that the Pentagon believed Taiwan’s military needed to improve readiness, planning,
and interoperability among its services.170 In a speech in October 2004, Deputy Undersecretary of
Defense Richard Lawless urged Taiwan’s legislature to “vote in favor of Taiwan’s national
security.”171 In a strong tone, he warned that the Special Budget was a “litmus test” of Taiwan’s
commitment to its self-defense and that “inability” to pass the Special Budget would have
“serious long-term consequences” (for foreign support, further intimidation from Beijing, and
perceptions of Taiwan as a “liability”). Shifting the U.S. stress, Lawless called for Taiwan to
expand its efforts from national defense to national security, and to pay attention to countering
coercion, crisis management, and critical infrastructure protection (CIP) (of national command
centers, telecommunications, energy, water, media, computer networks, etc.). Raising frustrations
in the Bush Administration and Congress that Taiwan was not placing priority on self-defense, it
became increasingly doubtful in 2005 that the LY would vote on the Special Budget and fund it at
the full level, even if it would be considered. Meanwhile, the United States had increased
concerns about and shifted focus to the regular defense budget and other questions about
Taiwan’s self-defense.
Cutting the Special Budget in 2005
In January 2005, President Chen Shui-bian told visiting Representative Tom Lantos that PFP
Chairman James Soong changed his position on the Special Budget after visiting Washington
where he met with Deputy Under Secretary of Defense Richard Lawless and Deputy Assistant
Secretary of State Randy Schriver.172 The following month, Lawless warned that Taiwan’s failure
to approve the Special Budget signaled that it lacked seriousness about its own security, raising
questions about whether U.S. support has been necessary or not.173 In February 2005, the Defense
Ministry announced that the Special Budget’s figure dropped to NT$590 billion (after
appreciation of the NT dollar relative to the U.S. dollar) and that the request would be reduced to

169 Discussion with CRS and Congress on June 22, 2004; United Daily News, June 23, 2004.
170 Testimony before the House International Relations Committee, hearing on “The Taiwan Relations Act: The Next
25 Years,” April 21, 2004.
171 Richard Lawless, Deputy Undersecretary of Defense for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Keynote Address, U.S.-Taiwan
Defense Industry Conference, U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, October 4, 2004, Scottsdale, AZ. One of the ROC’s
Deputy Ministers of Defense, General Huoh Shou-Yeh, attended the conference.
172 Agence France Presse, Hong Kong, January 17, 2005. The author also confirmed Soong’s meeting with Lawless
with the KMT/PFP’s representative in D.C.
173 Taipei Times, February 26, 2005; Lawless gave a speech that was not publicly released, apparently at a meeting in
Washington of the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council.
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NT$480 billion (US$15.5 billion) (after removing certain costs, including an estimated US$2.3
billion associated with producing submarines domestically in Taiwan).174 The reduced figure also
factored in moving some infrastructure costs to the annual defense budget, but that budget has
faced cuts. The Cabinet approved the new request on March 16 and submitted it to the LY.175 Two
days earlier, the PRC’s National People’s Congress adopted its “Anti-Secession Law,” warning
that the government in Beijing “may” use force against Taiwan.
However, Chen and Soong issued a “Ten-Point Consensus” on February 24, 2005, that did not
mention the Special Budget. Indeed, the PFP raised another objection, saying that the major items
should be funded out of the annual defense budget instead of a Special Budget.176 The Defense
Ministry began to consider asking for funds for the PAC-3 missile defense systems out of the
annual defense budget, with submarines as the top priority rather than missile defense stressed by
the Bush Administration.177 In April-May 2005, the chairmen of the opposition parties, KMT’s
Lien Chan and PFP’s James Soong, made historic visits of reconciliation to mainland China,
meeting with Hu Jintao, Communist Party General-Secretary, Central Military Commission
Chairman, and PRC President. These visits to the PRC further dampened prospects that the
Special Budget would be passed.
Congressional Appeals
On May 24, 2005, the LY’s Procedure Committee failed to place the Special Budget on the
legislative calendar, blocking consideration before the session’s end on May 31. On May 27,
Representative Rob Simmons and 32 other House Members wrote to KMT chairman Lien Chan,
urging him to help expedite passage of the Special Budget in May. They warned that “failure to
pass the special budget has raised concerns in the United States about Taiwan’s ability to defend
itself against potential aggression.”178 However, Lien responded in a three-page letter by making
partisan attacks on the DPP and President Chen Shui-bian, and criticisms of the Special Budget
although the KMT used special budgets in the 1990s.179 Moreover, KMT and PFP members of the
LY’s Defense Committee refused to attend a luncheon on June 9 with the top U.S. representative,
AIT’s Director Doug Paal, while his strained relationship with the DPP apparently required
Deputy Director Dave Keegan to host the DPP lawmakers who showed up to discuss the arms
sales.180 There was no special session in the summer as the ruling DPP requested. On July 16,
2005, the KMT overwhelmingly elected Ma Ying-jeou (Taipei’s Mayor) instead of Wang Jin-
pyng (LY’s President) to replace Lien Chan as KMT Chairman, prompting some to ask whether
Ma would show leadership in considering the Special Budget. However, he focused on the city
and county elections on December 3, 2005, when the KMT won 14 out of 23 seats.
On August 1, 2005, three co-chairs of the House Taiwan Caucus wrote to Ma Ying-jeou as the
new KMT chairman. They urged him to “lead efforts in Taipei to ensure that the Legislative Yuan
quickly passes a special arms procurement package or increases its annual defense spending.”

174 Taipei Times, February 16, 2005; February 23, 2005.
175 Ettoday, Taipei, March 16, 2005.
176 Lien-ho Pao [United Daily News], Taipei, March 21, 2005.
177 Tzu-yu Shih-pao [Liberty Times], Taipei, March 21, 2005; China Post, March 22, 2005.
178 Representative Rob Simmons, et al., letter to Chairman Lien Chan, Kuomintang, May 27, 2005.
179 Lien Chan, Chairman of the KMT, letter to Rep. Simmons, et al., June 8, 2005.
180 Taipei Times, June 10, 2005.
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They also invited Ma to visit Washington.181 However, Ma responded as the Mayor of Taipei on
August 18 (one day before becoming KMT Chairman), by blaming the DPP administration for
“procrastinating for three years,” “negligence,” and “lack of leadership,” with no mention of
Wang Jin-pyng’s LY delegation in June 2004. Ma promised to focus his attention on the issue and
to “work closely with the KMT caucus” in the LY after taking over the KMT chairmanship. He
also declined to visit in September, writing that the LY will “address tough bills like the arms
procurement bill.”182 However, after PFP Chairman James Soong met with Ma on September 7,
he announced that the KMT and PFP party caucuses will continue to “consult each other” on
whether to advance the Special Budget for consideration in the LY.183 Meanwhile, Ma set up a
KMT task force to study the arms issue, and there have been questions about whether the KMT
would support certain arms purchases and incur rising differences with its weakening coalition
partner, the PFP, after the December 2005 elections.
Before the LY’s session began on September 13, 2005, the Defense Ministry submitted a new
Special Budget to cover submarines and P-3C aircraft, moving the request for PAC-3 missile
defense to the regular budget (so that the Special Budget was about half of the original amount).
LY President Wang Jin-pyng of the KMT acknowledged the reduction as a goodwill gesture and
said that “it is time to address the issue.”184 On August 31, 2005, the Executive Yuan approved a
Special Budget of NT$340 billion (US$10.3 billion), after removing NT$140 billion (US$4.2
billion) for PAC-3s. On September 28, 2005, the Defense Ministry issued details on its latest
funding request for eight submarines: about NT$288 billion in the Special Budget and NT$10.1
billion in the regular budget for a total of about US$9 billion.185
Defense Department Warned of Limits to U.S. Help
When asked about the LY’s delay in deciding to purchase U.S. weapons, Secretary of Defense
Donald Rumsfeld said in August 2005 that under the TRA, the U.S. obligation was “to work with
Taiwan” on security assistance, but it was up to Taiwan make its own decisions.186 On September
19, 2005, Deputy Under Secretary of Defense Richard Lawless issued another strong speech, this
time directed at Taiwan’s people and saying that he was not urging the passage of the Special
Budget because it has become a political “distraction.” Lawless applauded the goal of increasing
the defense budget to 3% of GDP. He warned of the danger that “Taiwan’s steadily declining
defense budgets, and the resulting erosion in its own defense capabilities, also adversely affect the
status quo,” in addition to the PLA build-up. He expressed the U.S. expectation that Taiwan has
the “collective will to invest in a viable defense to address a growing threat and be in a position to
negotiate the future of cross-strait relations from a position of strength.” He criticized the military
for “short-changing itself on reserves of critical munitions” and inadequate “hardening” for
defense. Lawless stressed that, under the TRA, Taiwan also has an obligation for its self-defense.
He warned that

181 Letter from Representatives Robert Wexler, Steve Chabot, and Sherrod Brown (without Dana Rohrabacher) to Ma
Ying-jeou, KMT Chairman, August 1, 2005.
182 Letter to the Taiwan Caucus from Ma Ying-jeou, Mayor of Taipei, August 18, 2005.
183 Chung-kuo Shih-pao [China times], Taipei, September 7, 2005.
184 Central News Agency, Taipei, August 24, 2005; Taipei Times, August 25, 2005.
185 Tung-sen Hsin-wen Pao, Taipei, September 28, 2005.
186 Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, news briefing, August 23, 2005.
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the time of reckoning is upon us.... The U.S. ability to contribute to Taiwan’s defense in a
crisis is going to be measured against Taiwan’s ability to resist, defend, and survive based on
its own capabilities.... As the lone superpower, our interests are plentiful and our attention
short. We cannot help defend you, if you cannot defend yourself.”187
Separately, PACOM Commander, Admiral William Fallon, raised questions in press articles and
interviews about his assessment of whether Taiwan should prioritize its limited defense resources
on “defensive” weapons rather than submarines, given Taiwan’s urgent need to effectively
upgrade its self-defense. Admiral Fallon reportedly raised this question with Taiwan’s Chief of
General Staff, General Lee Tien-yu, who recently had visited Hawaii. Admiral Fallon also told the
United Daily News his concern that if he was to be able to maintain the U.S. commitment to assist
Taiwan’s defense, then Taiwan should have a strong self-defense capability.188 On October 26,
2005, eight Members, led by Representative Simmons, asked Admiral Fallon to explain his
discussions with Taiwan on submarines. Admiral Fallon responded that he has not tried to
discourage this purchase. He added, however, that PACOM has “strongly and consistently
encouraged [Taiwan] to acquire capabilities that would have an immediate impact on [its]
defense,” and “while submarines would provide Taiwan with significant capabilities, a lengthy
period of time would be needed to fulfill this long-term acquisition program.”189
On October 29, 2005, at the transfer ceremony for the first two Kidd-class destroyers, Marine
Brigadier General John Allen, Principal Director for Asian and Pacific Affairs in the Office of the
Secretary of Defense, gave a speech, saying that “it is imperative that the people of Taiwan hold
their leaders of all political parties accountable for reaching a consensus to increase defense
spending,” while it was not appropriate for the United States to tell Taiwan what “budgeting
mechanism” to use. The U.S. role, he said, was to provide the “assistance necessary” to help
Taiwan’s strategy for stability, “but at the end of the day, it is Taiwan that must decide its fate.”
In the first notification to Congress on arms sales to Taiwan since March 2004, the Defense
Department in October 2005 put a new stress on the TRA’s objective, which was to assist Taiwan
to provide for its “own self-defense.”
Like Lawless, the Director of DSCA, Air Force Lt. Gen. Jeffrey Kohler, also highlighted Taiwan’s
inadequate attention to its stocks of air-defense missiles and other munitions as well as pending
decisions on defense spending, in an interview in December 2005.190
At a hearing of the House Armed Services Committee on March 9, 2006, in response to
Representative Rob Simmons’ question about the submarine sale to Taiwan, Admiral William
Fallon expressed the dilemma for PACOM regarding Taiwan. Fallon said that he was:
in bit of a box here, because I’m committed to defend this country in the event of any
military aggression should that occur from the PRC, and yet the history is that they have not

187 Speech issued on September 19, 2005, in San Diego, CA, at the Defense Industry Conference of the U.S.-Taiwan
Business Council, while Richard Lawless was delayed in Beijing at the Six-Party Talks on North Korea’s nuclear
weapons. Edward Ross, a DSCA official, delivered the speech for Richard Lawless.
188 Japan Times, September 26, 2005 [reprinted in Washington Times, October 8, 2005]; Liberty Times [Chinese-
language newspaper in Taipei], October 12, 2005, which named General Lee Tien-yu; Associated Press, October 14,
2005 [reprinted in Taipei Times, October 16, 2005]; and Lien-Ho Pao [United Daily News in Taipei], October 18, 2005.
189 Letter to Representative Simmons from Admiral William Fallon, November 8, 2005.
190 Jim Wolf, “Pentagon Official Says Taiwan Short on Weapons,” Reuters, December 7, 2005.
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been forthcoming in investing in their own defense.... What I’d like to see is some steps
being made, some investment by Taiwan to actually acquire some of these capabilities and to
boost their own readiness and ability to provide for their own defense.
Special Budget Blocked in Legislature
On December 13, 2005, opposition lawmakers in the Procedures Committee voted for the 41st
time to block the statute governing the Special Budget, keeping it from the LY’s agenda since it
was first introduced in 2004. However, at the Procedures Committee meeting on December 20,
the DPP and its allied lawmakers called a vote at a moment when they had a majority, and the
committee voted 12-5 to report the statute to the LY. On the eve of full LY consideration, the
KMT and PFP chairmen, Ma Ying-jeou and James Soong, announced their joint opposition to a
“wealthy fool’s arms deal.” The Defense Ministry said it will move the request for P-3s and
reduce the Special Budget to one request of NT$299 billion (US$9 billion), about half of the
original Special Budget, for subs. Meanwhile, Representatives Rob Simmons and Tom Tancredo
issued statements, saying the Special Budget was “critical for the defense of Taiwan” and
applauded its passage out of the Procedures Committee. Representative Simmons also said that
“blocking this arms package tells the United States—correctly or not—that Taiwan’s leadership is
not serious about the security of its people or its freedom. The American People have come to the
aid of foreign countries in the name of freedom many times in our history; but Americans will not
in good conscience support countries that are unwilling to defend themselves.”191
When the LY convened on December 23, 2005, to consider the Special Budget, KMT and PFP
lawmakers proposed to end the meeting before debating the bill. Taiwan’s lawmakers voted 113-
100 to end the meeting 20 minutes after it began. This move effectively sent the bill on the
Special Budget back to the Procedures Committee, which then voted as before to block its
progress on December 27, 2005, January 3, and January 10, 2006, the 45th time that opposition
lawmakers blocked the statute on the Special Defense Budget after its introduction in 2004.
Waiting for Ma Ying-jeou’s KMT Defense Policy
LY president Wang Jin-pyng (KMT) visited Washington on January 24-25, 2006, and promised a
KMT policy on defense from Ma Ying-jeou, including on arms sales, in February or March.
Unlike his visit in 2004, Wang’s highest-level interlocutors in the Pentagon were Deputy
Assistant Secretary of Defense Mary Beth Long and the Principal Director for Asian and Pacific
Affairs, Brigadier General John Allen. There were no results from this visit.
In February 2006, Representative Rob Simmons visited Taipei and suggested a lower cost for the
submarine sale (perhaps $8 billion) and an interim step for Taiwan to procure a sub design
(perhaps $225 million). Also in February, Representative Henry Hyde, Chairman of the House
International Relations Committee sent a letter to Ma, citing “deep concern” in Congress about
the LY’s failure in the past two years to pass the Special Budget and about significant cuts in
other defense spending that would improve readiness. Hyde also wrote that Americans are left
wondering whether Taiwan’s legislators have the resolve to meet the challenges in providing for

191 Rob Simmons, “U.S. Congressman Congratulates Taiwan on Defense Spending Bill Progress,” December 21, 2005.
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Taiwan’s own defense.192 In a March 7 letter, Ma responded to Representative Hyde by blaming
the DPP administration and promising his own policy in the near future.
While the House Taiwan Caucus, in August 2005, had invited KMT chairman Ma Ying-jeou to
visit, he scheduled a trip to Washington for March 22-23, 2006, while Congress was in recess. Ma
failed on March 14 to gain his party’s approval to issue a long-awaited policy on defense and
arms procurement, despite his upcoming visit to Washington. Ma had no details on his defense
priorities in meetings during his visit (with the private sector and the Bush Administration). While
campaigning to be president, Ma issued a defense policy in September 2007 with a stance that
supported purchases of U.S. weapons, including submarines.
2006 Supplemental Budget Instead of Special Budget
When the LY reconvened on February 21, 2006, the Procedures Committee blocked the statute on
the Special Budget for the 46th time. Thus, in a March 20 special report to the LY, Defense
Minister Lee Jye decided to request procurement of subs and P-3s through supplemental funds in
the regular 2006 defense budget (instead of the Special Budget): NT$200 million (about US$6
million) as “working fees” to study a sub procurement program and NT$1.7 billion (about US$52
million) for P-3C aircraft. The Defense Ministry then decided also to request supplemental funds
of NT$3.7 billion (about US$113 million) for PAC-2 upgrades (not PAC-3 missiles). The
supplemental request for the 2006 budget for these three weapon systems totaled NT$5.6 billion
(about US$172 million). This amount for the three proposed programs was included in the
minister’s broader 2006 Supplemental Budget request of NT$13.7 billion (about US$420 million)
for 74 programs.193
In March 2006, the Defense Ministry submitted its request to the Executive Yuan (EY), or
Cabinet, which then approved on May 24 a Supplemental Budget for the 2006 defense budget of
NT$6.3 billion (about US$194 million) with the three weapons requests plus NT$700 million for
construction of an airstrip on Taiwan-controlled Taiping island (in the Spratly Islands in the South
China Sea). The Supplemental Budget also needed to be approved by the LY, but its session
ended on May 30 and KMT legislators, including Lin Yu-Fang, raised concerns, particularly
about the supplemental budget’s legal basis.194 The LY decided on June 12 to hold a special
session on June 13-30, but consideration of the Supplemental Budget for defense was not on the
agenda that focused on trying to recall President Chen from office. On June 14, the EY approved
a draft bill to govern the Supplemental Budget. The KMT demanded in mid-October 2006 that
the DPP Administration withdraw the original Special Budget if the Supplemental Budget was to
be considered. While the DPP agreed to this compromise, it fell apart when the KMT and PFP
still voted on October 24 to oppose placing the 2006 supplemental request on the LY’s agenda.
This outcome prompted the U.S. Representative in Taipei, Stephen Young, to call a press
conference two days later, at which he strongly urged the LY to “pass a robust defense budget in
this fall’s legislative session.” He pressed the legislators to “permit the supplemental budget to

192 Letter from Henry Hyde to Ma Ying-jeou, Chairman of the KMT, February 15, 2006.
193 CNA, March 20 and April 4, 2006; Special Report of the Ministry of Defense, March 20, 2006; and author’s
interviews in Taipei in April 2006.
194 During consultations in Taipei in April 2006, Lin Yu-fang said that a Supplemental Budget request would be illegal,
that the issue is not the budgeting mechanism but whether the three weapon systems should be procured, and that such
requests could “crowd out” other funding needs of the army and air force or other ministries.
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pass through the procedural committee and be taken to the floor of the legislature so that an open
debate can begin.”195 However, his remarks stirred controversy in Taiwan’s charged domestic
political context. In defiance of this latest U.S. message, the opposition KMT and PFP legislators
voted in the Procedures Committee on October 31 to block the Supplemental Budget. On
December 26, 2006, after some opponents forgot to vote against the supplemental bill, it was
passed out of the Procedures Committee. Three days later, the LY voted (194-162) to allow
committee review of the draft bill governing the supplemental budget but returned the
supplemental budget to the Procedures Committee.
2007 Defense Budget
Taiwan reversed the negative trend in the budget for the Ministry of National Defense (MND),
with an increase in 2007. In August 2006, the Executive Yuan (EY), or Cabinet, approved a
proposed 2007 defense budget of NT$323.5 billion (US$9.8 billion), an increase of NT$71 billion
(US$2.2 billion).196 A proposal to buy F-16C/D fighters made up NT$16.1 billion (US$488
million) of this increase.197 Without a Special Budget or 2006 Supplemental Budget, the Bush
Administration, U.S. industry, and Congress shifted the focus to whether the LY would approve
the 2007 defense budget with a spending increase during what was considered its critical
September 2006 to January 2007 session. At the U.S.-Taiwan defense industry conference in
September 2006, the Defense Department declined even to issue a policy address to Taiwan, after
making the effort in 2004 and 2005. The State Department’s Director of the Taiwan office warned
Taiwan’s political figures from opposition and ruling parties that “leaders who aspire to represent
the Taiwan people” to the United States should recognize that their decisions “right now on core
national security issues” will have an impact on the future bilateral relationship. He also focused
attention on how the LY will pass the 2007 defense budget specifically “this fall.”198
On November 6, 2006, the LY’s defense and budget committees jointly passed an amended 2007
defense budget. They approved requested funds to procure P-3C ASW planes and PAC-2
upgrades; deleted about US$347 million for PAC-3 missiles; and cut the request for the sub
program from about US$139 million to US$6 million (for the LY’s own “feasibility study” for
subs). They also froze funds for F-16C/D fighters for five months (ending on May 31, 2007),
pending U.S. provision of price and availability data. However, the LY session ended on January
19, 2007, without passing a government budget, including the 2007 defense budget, because of a
separate political dispute. Finally, on June 15, 2007, the LY passed the 2007 Defense Budget,
with about: $6 million to conduct a “feasibility study” on buying submarines (not a commitment
to either design phase or submarines); $188 million for P-3C planes; $110 million for PAC-2
upgrades (and no funds for PAC-3 missiles); and $488 million for F-16C/D fighters (with funds
frozen until October 31 pending U.S. approval). The final 2007 defense budget totaled NT$304.9
billion (US$9.2 billion), accounting for 2.4% of GDP. However, without U.S. data, the Defense
Ministry lost the funding for F-16C/Ds in the 2007 defense budget.

195 AIT Director Stephen Young, press conference, Taipei, October 26, 2006.
196 CNA, August 23, 2006.
197 Author’s consultations with MND officials, September 2006.
198 Clifford Hart, speech to the U.S.-Taiwan Defense Industry Conference, September 12, 2006, Denver, CO.
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2008 Defense Budget
Regarding the 2008 defense budget, the MND requested and the EY approved in August 2007 a
budget of NT$349.5 billion (US$10.6 billion), an increase of 15%. However, on December 20,
2007, the LY approved the final 2008 defense budget that totaled NT$341.1 billion (US$10.5
billion), making up 2.5% of GDP. The budget included funds (but also froze some of the funds)
for procurement of PAC-2 upgrades, PAC-3 missiles, P-3C planes, sub design phase, F-16C/D
fighters, utility helicopters, and attack helicopters.
2009 Defense Budget
The Bush Administration advanced the process for the programs for the P-3C planes and PAC-2
upgrades by formally notifying Congress of the proposed sales in September and November
2007. However, Taiwan’s military had unused budgeted funds to apply to 2009 with no progress
(no presidential notifications to Congress) on several other arms programs and with the U.S.
refusal to accept a request for F-16C/D fighters through August 2008, when Taiwan’s EY
submitted the proposed 2009 defense budget to the LY, with a reduction from the previous year’s
defense budget. While Taiwan explained that the cut was due to unused funds for arms
procurement, Taiwan could have increased its defense budget for the new transition to all-
volunteer personnel, training, ammunition stocks, and maintenance. The LY failed to pass the
government’s budget by the end of 2008 and held an ad hoc meeting on January 15, 2009. The LY
passed the final 2009 defense budget with NT$318.7 billion (US$9.6 billion), making up 17.6%
of the total government budget and 2.7% of GDP. That was a cut of 6.6% from the 2008 budget.
2010 Defense Budget
In July 2009, the EY approved a total budget for 2010 and submitted the budget request to the LY
in late August. However, after Typhoon Morakot also in August caused devastating destruction
and about 700 deaths, President Ma replaced Taiwan’s Premier and Cabinet. The new Cabinet
took office on September 10 and replaced the budget with a new one.
Taiwan’s military faced budgetary pressures as it also faced the challenges of deterring the PLA’s
continuing buildup, securing support from President Ma for defense upgrades, and losing funds
from appropriated defense budgets due to delays that Taiwan did not expect in U.S. arms sales
programs. Taiwan’s MND regretted that it saw budgetary uncertainty and US$1.7 billion canceled
from its appropriations in 2007 to 2009 due to the lack of U.S. approvals for sales of the F-16C/D
fighters, a submarine design, and Black Hawk utility helicopters. After issuing the 2009 National
Defense Report with the priorities in force buildup of information and electronic warfare, missile
defense, counter air, sea control, and homeland defense, on October 22, 2009, Defense Minister
Kao Hua-chu submitted to the LY a 2010 defense budget of NT$300.1 billion. The portion for
arms acquisitions dropped in part because of the ongoing U.S.-Taiwan discussions. On October
28, the LY’s Foreign Affairs and National Defense Committee froze for three months (pending
the minister’s report) funds totaling about US$135 million for the pending procurement of a U.S.
submarine design, F-16C/D fighters, and Javelin anti-tank missiles. Yet, there was concern that
the United States could question the LY’s resolve, while it remained committed to the
procurement of U.S. arms. The LY was expressing its frustration and asserting its role to press the
MND and the Ma Administration to deal with Washington’s price increases and perceived
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delayed decisions. The LY also pressed the MND to carry out bold transformations, focusing on
training, reorganization, operations, etc. (not simply cutting personnel).199 On January 12, 2010,
the LY passed the 2010 defense budget with a 0.9% reduction in the minister’s request, to
NT$297.4 billion (US$9.3 billion). This cut of 6.7% from the 2009 budget was greater than the
cut of 5.2% in the total government budget. The 2010 defense budget accounted for 17.3% of
government expenditures and 2.2% of GDP.
2011 Defense Budget
In mid-2010, Taiwan’s EY projected about NT$300 billion (US$9.4 billion) in the defense budget
in 2011 and the same amount in the following two years. In contrast, the MND argued that it
required over the next few years about US$3 billion in addition to the EY’s projected budgets.
Without the additional funds, the MND was concerned that it would have to delay the transition
to an all-volunteer force (requiring even more funds to pay professional personnel), cut operations
and maintenance funds (that could reduce readiness), postpone or cancel some arms acquisitions
(while keeping the commitment to fund U.S. arms acquisitions), further reduce the force, or seek
a special budget. The policy to reach an all-volunteer force faced another challenge due to
Taiwan’s low birth rate (that fell to a record low in 2010). In August 2010, the MND submitted to
the LY the 2011 budget of NT$297.2 billion. As proposed by the Ma Administration, the defense
budget would drop slightly from that in 2010 and drop to 16.6% of the total budget. Legislator
Lin Yu-fang told reporters that NT$45 billion (US$1.4 billion) would fund U.S. arms acquisitions,
including those programs awaiting U.S. approval (e.g., submarines, F-16C/Ds). Lin also said in
December 2010 that the budget included about US$2.9 billion for Black Hawk helicopters. The
budget constraint compelled the Ministry of Defense to propose in October that the payment
and/or production schedules be extended for the Patriot and Black Hawk programs, but media
reports raised confusion with a claim that Taiwan “deferred” the buys. The Defense Ministry also
sought to be able to reallocate funds if not used for U.S. arms (due to the lack of U.S. approvals).
In addition to having to return to the Treasury about US$1.7 billion in unspent funds in the 2007-
2009 budgets (as discussed above), the Defense Ministry allocated in each of the 2010 and 2011
budgets about US$138 million for F-16C/Ds and a sub design. Further, a claim of economic
constraint was belied by Taiwan’s economic growth of 10% in 2010 and the passage of a special
budget for 2011 for infrastructure of US$5.3 billion. In early 2011, the LY passed the final
defense budget of NT$294.6 billion (US$10.2 billion), at 2.1% of GDP.
Visits by Generals/Admirals to Taiwan
As for senior-level contacts, the United States and Taiwan have held high-level defense-related
meetings in the United States, as discussed above. U.S. policy previously restricted high-level
military contacts but changed to welcome Taiwan’s senior military officers and defense officials
to visit the United States, shifting the question to their willingness to make the visits. At the same
time, the State Department’s policy has avoided sending to Taiwan U.S. flag and general officers
or officials at or above the level of Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense or State. For a hearing
in 1999, Assistant Secretary of State Stanley Roth responded to a submitted question on this issue
by writing that “following the 1994 policy review, the Administration authorized travel by high-
level officials, including cabinet officers, from economic and technical agencies. However,

199 Author’s consultations; Lien-ho Bao, Taipei, October 29; Kyodo, November 4; Central News Agency, November 12,
2009. In 2009, Taiwan’s officials expressed frustrations with the increases in the per unit cost for the Javelin missiles.
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restrictions remained at the same level for visitors from military or national security agencies at
or above the position of Deputy Assistant Secretary and at the rank of one-star flag officer or
above. This policy is based on the determination that visits of such officials would be inconsistent
with maintaining an unofficial relationship.”200
The State Department issued guidelines on relations with Taiwan to continue the policy to ban
official travel to Taiwan for State or Defense Department officials above the level of office
director or for uniformed military personnel above the rank of O-6 (colonel, navy captain).201 The
Pentagon and some in Congress have sought to lift this restriction in order to advance U.S.
interests in boosting Taiwan’s deterrence capability and U.S. leverage in Taiwan. Senior-level
exchanges could help to understand Taiwan’s crisis-management and self-defense capabilities and
limitations.202 The TRA does not specify unofficial or official relations with Taiwan. Some have
cited the NSC’s record of sending senior officials to Taipei for clear and direct talks.203 Also, after
starting in 2003 as the Deputy Under Secretary of the Air Force for International Affairs, Bruce
Lemkin traveled twice to Taiwan by 2009 to discuss the Surveillance Radar Program (SRP) and
other programs.204 Nonetheless, the NSC, State Department, and some in Congress have opposed
ending the general rule to send senior military officers and defense officials to Taiwan as an
unnecessary, ineffective change in a sensitive situation. (See also “Major Congressional Action.”)
Taiwan’s Missile Program
Policy-makers have faced an issue of how to respond to Taiwan’s programs for counter-strike
missiles (ballistic and cruise missiles). Some officials in Taiwan and U.S. supporters have talked
about missiles as a deterrent.205 Some Americans have viewed Taiwan’s missile defense strategy
with recognition of the tactical utility of missiles (including in U.S. military doctrine206) and as
inherently defensive against the PRC’s missile and other threats. They also have considered
Taiwan’s efforts in self-defense as its own decisions. Other officials and observers have raised a
question of conformity to international missile nonproliferation standards of the Missile
Technology Control Regime (MTCR). The MTCR is a set of voluntary guidelines in export
controls to prevent primarily the transfer of missiles capable of delivering at least a 500 kg (1,100
lb) payload to at least 300 km (186 mi). However, Taiwan reportedly has developed missiles for
its own defense, not for export. Taiwan has the options of unilaterally adhering to the MTCR and
fielding missiles without U.S. involvement. Another argument has called the longer-range
weapons unhelpful for stability and U.S. escalation control in a possible crisis or conflict.207

200 Senate Foreign Relations Committee, hearing on “United States-Taiwan Relations: the 20th Anniversary of the
Taiwan Relations Act,” March 25, 1999.
201 Department of State, “Guidelines on Relations with Taiwan,” February 2, 2001, September 5, 2006.
202 Dan Blumenthal and Gary Schmitt (AEI), “A Strange Calculus,” Wall Street Journal, August 21, 2006; Therese
Shaheen (ex-AIT Chairwoman), “Why is the U.S. Ignoring Taiwan?” Wall Street Journal, June 14, 2007.
203 The NSC has sent the Senior Director for Asian Affairs, including James Moriarty and Michael Green, to Taiwan.
For example: Far Eastern Economic Review, May 20, 2004.
204 U.S.-Taiwan Defense Industry Conference, Charlottesville, VA, September 27-29, 2009; Bruce Lemkin’s remarks at
a meeting of the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission on May 20, 2010 (as reported by Reuters).
205 John Tkacik, “The Best Defense is a Good Offense,” Taipei Times, February 14, 2007.
206 See discussion in CRS Report RL30379, Missile Defense Options for Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan: A Review of
the Defense Department Report to Congress
, by Robert D. Shuey, Shirley A. Kan, and Mark Christofferson.
207 Michael McDevitt, “For Taiwan, the Best Defense is not a Good Offense,” PacNet #9, February 22, 2007.
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The Bush Administration objected to Taiwan’s missile programs.208 However, this objection
raised an issue of whether the Administration contradicted its past position and undermined
Taiwan’s defense.209 Another issue has concerned whether the refusal to consider Taiwan’s
request (first raised in 2006) for F-16C/D fighters undermined this concern about missiles. A third
policy issue has questioned whether U.S. opposition should be stronger or whether U.S. concern
should be limited to U.S. adherence to the MTCR, focusing on technology transfers.
At a press conference in October 2006, the U.S. Representative in Taipei, Stephen Young, said
that U.S. policy helps Taiwan to have self-defense, “not to attack the mainland, because that was
never in the cards and still isn’t now, but to defend itself.” By April 2007, the Administration
became more concerned about a misperception of U.S. assistance for or approval of Taiwan’s
Hsiung-feng 2E (HF-2E) land-attack cruise missile (LACM) program. Also, U.S. officials
reportedly linked Taiwan’s planned deployment of such missiles to consideration of a request for
F-16C/D fighters.210 Right after Taiwan’s Han Kuang exercise in April 2007, the new PACOM
Commander, Admiral Timothy Keating, testified to Congress about the situation in the Taiwan
Strait while expecting Dennis Blair’s full briefing on the exercise. To clarify its intention for
tactical utility of missiles, Taiwan issued a new name for the missile under development, called
Tactical Shore-based Missile for Fire Suppression (TSMFS). Keating stressed “how emphatically
we emphasize to [Taiwan] that [its] actions should be defensive in nature and not offensive.”211
Finally, because the Han Kuang military exercise included demonstration of the use of the LACM
to Blair, a National Security Council official publicly stated,
We think that developing defensive capabilities is the right thing to do. We think that
offensive capabilities on either side of the Strait are destabilizing and, therefore, not in the
interest of peace and stability. So when you ask me whether I am for offensive missiles, I’m
not for offensive missiles on the Chinese side of the Strait, and I’m not for offensive missiles
on the Taiwan side of the Strait. But appropriate defense capabilities are certainly the right of
the people of Taiwan.212
AIT Director Stephen Young followed up at a news conference in Taipei in May 2007, stating that
“there were claims that the United States Government approved of the use of long-range
offensive missiles during the [Han Kuang military] exercise and that they even offered a name for
these systems. I want to say categorically here, on behalf of the U.S. Government, that these
stories are inaccurate.” He added that “what we think Taiwan should be placing its emphasis on,
is missile defense,” citing the PAC-3 missile defense system.213 In December 2007, Taiwan’s LY
approved about $117 million but froze $77 million for the HF-2E program in the final 2008
defense budget. Under KMT President Ma, Deputy Defense Minister Andrew Yang testified to
the LY in March 2010 that Taiwan needed missiles for deterrence and maintenance of “peace
through strength.”214 Taiwan reportedly budgeted in 2008-2010 to produce 300 HF-2E missiles
with a range of 600-800 km (375-500 miles), a cut from 1,000 km, and KMT Legislator Lin Yu-

208 Lien-ho Pao [United Daily News], Taipei, October 21, 2006, quoting unnamed U.S. officials.
209 Rupert Hammond-Chambers, President of the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council, “Taiwan Goes It Alone,” Defense
News
, and “Special Commentary,” February 25, 2008.
210 Defense News, July 16, 2007.
211 Senate Armed Services Committee’s hearing on April 24, 2007.
212 Dennis Wilder, Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for East Asian Affairs, NSC, remarks at a
Foreign Press Center Briefing, April 26, 2007.
213 AIT Director Stephen Young, press conference, Taipei, May 3, 2007.
214 Tzu-yu Shih-Pao [Liberty Times], Taipei, March 30, 2010.
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fang said in August 2010 that the missiles (with unspecified number and payload) would be
deployed to the Missile Command by the end of the year.215
President’s “Freezes” or Delays in Arms Sales Notifications
In 2008, congressional concerns and frustrations mounted about perceived delays in the
President’s notifications and briefings to Congress on eight pending arms sales as well as his
refusal to accept Taiwan’s request for F-16C/D fighters. As discussed above, President Bush
changed policy in April 2001 to consider Taiwan’s arms requests routinely on an as-needed basis,
similar to acceptance of other foreign requests for security assistance. However, the President’s
refusal to accept a formal request from Taiwan for F-16C/D fighters since 2006 has raised the
issues of whether the Administration violated or changed policy and did so without consultation
with Congress. In October 2007, the House passed H.Res. 676, and Senator Lisa Murkowski
wrote a letter to National Security Advisor Stephen Hadley. (See “110th Congress” below.)
In addition to the uncertainty of the Bush Administration’s decision-making, there were also
questions about any changes in the security strategy and defense policy of President Ma Ying-
jeou, particularly given the past ambivalence of the KMT party. There were questions about the
KMT’s review of pending U.S. arms programs, reportedly including whether to pursue the
submarine purchase.216 After the inauguration of Taiwan’s KMT President Ma on May 20, 2008,
he promptly resumed a dialogue with the PRC on June 12-13, resulting in expanded charter
flights and tourism across the Taiwan Strait in July. While the resumption of the cross-strait
dialogue for the first time in a decade was welcomed, both the Ma and Bush Administrations
were concerned about the timing of announcements on arms sales to Taiwan during the first round
of the resumed dialogue, particularly concerns expressed by Ma’s National Security Advisor Su
Chi in discussion with a visiting Senate Foreign Relations Committee staffer in June.217
Nonetheless, Taiwan later showed concern about the Bush Administration’s delay in making
progress on pending arms sales. On July 12, 2008, Ma finally clarified publicly that Taiwan still
considered the U.S. arms programs as important and urgent, in spite of the cross-strait talks.218 In
the summer and fall of 2008, President Ma’s military viewpoint reportedly was influenced by one
U.S. article critical of the proposed arms sales programs, causing disarray and disputes between
the Defense Ministry and National Security Council.219 Visiting Washington on July 27-August 1,
Wang Jin-pyng, President of the LY, said that U.S. officials told him that the Administration had
not imposed a “freeze,” continued to adhere to the TRA, and was working on the notifications.
Taiwan’s military was increasingly concerned about the potential loss of unspent budgeted funds
for programs as it neared the end of the 2008 budget year.
Members of Congress suspected that President Bush effectively suspended arms sales to Taiwan
in violation of the TRA and U.S. policy. Congress also was concerned about the lack of timely
and complete information requested from the Administration, in disregard for the Congressional
role. They feared that President Bush deferred to objections in Beijing or other considerations.
Even before June, Deputy Secretary of State John Negroponte testified to Senator Lisa

215 Chung-kuo Shih-Pao [China Times], Taipei, August 31, 2010.
216 CRS Report RL34441, Security Implications of Taiwan’s Presidential Election of March 2008, by Shirley A. Kan.
217 Washington Post, June 12; Defense News, June 16; Taipei Times, June 20, 2008.
218 DPA, July 12, 2008, and Taiwan News, July 13, 2008.
219 William Murray, “Revisiting Taiwan’s Defense Strategy,” Naval War College Review, Summer 2008.
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Murkowski at the Foreign Relations Committee on May 15, 2008, that after Taiwan’s legislature
approved funding of the weapons programs (which was in December 2007), the Administration
did not take or plan to take subsequent steps in arms sales. Despite the lack of notifications to
Congress on pending arms sales (after the last notification in November 2007), Assistant
Secretary of Defense for Asian and Pacific Security Affairs James Shinn denied at a hearing that
“we made a decision to put things in abeyance” in testimony on June 25.220 (After the Bush
Administration’s notifications to Congress of arms sales to Taiwan in September and November
2007, the PRC protested by refusing to hold military exchanges, including an annual meeting on
the Military Maritime Consultative Agreement (MMCA) scheduled for October 2007. The PRC
also denied port visits at Hong Kong in November 2007 by U.S. Naval minesweepers in distress
and by the aircraft carrier group led by the USS Kitty Hawk for Thanksgiving.)
On July 16, 2008, PACOM Commander Admiral Timothy Keating confirmed at a public event at
the Heritage Foundation that the Administration’s policy was to freeze arms sales to Taiwan. He
reportedly confirmed discussions with PRC officials about their objections, raising a question
about the Administration’s violation of the TRA and Six Assurances. Moreover, Keating implied
that arms sales would be “destabilizing” to the situation in the Taiwan Strait and that there was no
pressing need for arms sales to Taiwan at this moment, even as he acknowledged a cross-strait
military imbalance favoring the PRC. In contrast, former PACOM Commander Dennis Blair who
just visited Taiwan in June said that Taiwan’s military and civilian leaders understood the need to
negotiate with the PRC from a position of strength and to maintain Taiwan’s defense.221 Also,
former Bush Administration officials urged President Bush to keep his commitment on Taiwan.222
Some in Congress became concerned that the Administration suspended arms sales, but the
Administration publicly denied a “freeze” or change in policy. The State Department responded
in a letter to Representative Joe Courtney on July 17, 2008, arguing that the Administration was
conducting an “inter-agency process” to consider Taiwan’s requests for eight “highly complex”
weapons programs, even though one program involved simply aircraft spare parts. In any case,
the Bush Administration delayed sending notifications to Congress for eight approved, pending
arms sales programs with a total value of $12-13 billion (for a sub design, Patriot PAC-3 missile
defense systems, Apache helicopters, Blackhawk helicopters, E2-T airborne early warning aircraft
upgrade, aircraft parts, Harpoon sub-launched anti-ship missiles, and Javelin anti-tank missiles).
As late as September 29, 2008, after the originally scheduled congressional adjournment on
September 26, the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Asian and Pacific Security Affairs
gave a speech at the U.S.-Taiwan defense industry conference, stating that he had “no news” on
the long-awaited notifications on arms sales and that the Administration’s “internal processes”
were still continuing.223 On October 3, the last day of congressional session that was extended to
pass a bill to bail out banks during the financial crisis, President Bush finally notified Congress. A
Pentagon spokesman said that the PLA suspended some military meetings and port visits, in

220 House Armed Services Committee, hearing on China: Recent Security Developments, June 25, 2008.
221 Wendell Minnick, “China Wields New Diplomatic Skills Against Taiwan,” Defense News, July 7, 2008.
222 Ed Ross, “Arming Taiwan,” Wall Street Journal Asia, July 18, 2008; Dan Blumenthal, Aaron Friedberg, Randall
Schriver, Ashley Tellis, “Bush Should Keep His Word on Taiwan,” Wall Street Journal, July 19, 2008.
223 David Sedney, speech at the U.S.-Taiwan Defense Industry Conference held by the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council,
Jacksonville, FL, September 29, 2008.
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“continued politicization” of contacts. (The PRC suspended such contacts in 2007, as discussed
above.) The PRC also suspended bilateral talks to cooperate on weapons non-proliferation.224
However, President Bush submitted only six of the eight pending sales for a total value of $6.5
billion, or about half of the pending total. The Administration did not submit for congressional
review the pending programs for Black Hawk helicopters or the submarine design. Moreover, the
sale of PAC-3 missile defense systems was broken up, excluding three of seven firing units and
about 50 missiles. Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen stated on the day of the formal
notifications that they were in accordance with the TRA but criticized the President for not
following the “letter and spirit” of the law and for keeping Congress “in the dark about U.S. arms
sales policy toward Taiwan.” She noted this “grave breach of Executive Branch cooperation with
Congress.” Also, Senator John McCain pointed out that the arms sales were “on hold for too
long” and urged the Administration to reconsider its decision not to provide submarines or F-16
fighters.225 In addition to freezing out Congress, the Bush Administration’s long-awaited decision
to submit the notifications raised more questions about arbitrary decision-making in addition to
piling up the notifications for months (that were not programs in a so-called “package”).
President Bush left confusion in the process for Taiwan to make requests for objective U.S.
consideration of its defense needs and undermined his policy change of 2001 to depoliticize the
decision-making. This situation raised the policy implication of whether to conduct a strategic
review. (See discussion below.)
Despite concerns raised by President Bush’s decision-making, President Obama repeated that
process since 2008 to decide on submissions to Congress all at one time (no notifications for
FMS programs after October 3, 2008, until his first notifications on January 29, 2010). On one
day, he notified Congress of five programs (not a “package”) with a total value of $6.4 billion that
involved PAC-3 missile defense systems (a sale that was broken up into two parts with
notification of one part in 2008), Black Hawk utility helicopters, Harpoon anti-ship training
missiles, follow-on technical support for the Posheng joint command and control project, and
Osprey-class minehunters (that Congress authorized for sale in P.L. 110-229). Like Bush,
President Obama did not advance the submarine design program (the only one pending for
notification to Congress stemming from decisions in 2001) and has not accepted Taiwan’s formal
request for F-16C/D fighters (pending since 2006). Still, the Administration asserted on January
29 that it made no decision to rule in or rule out the sub program and that it was still assessing
Taiwan’s requirement for new fighters.
The Obama Administration argued through 2009 that it did not “hold up” the notifications and
was “reviewing” decisions in an “inter-agency process” and that at the U.S.-PRC summit in
Beijing in November 2009, President Obama publicly reiterated the U.S. commitment to the
TRA, signaling no change in the long-standing U.S. policy toward Taiwan. Nonetheless, the
Presidential decisions raised questions about whether the process could return to routine reviews,
whether Washington passed a watershed in arms sales, and whether Taipei will reduce defense
acquisitions and budgets. Moreover, with the delays in decision-making since 2008 that were
perceived by some in Washington, Taipei, and Beijing, the PRC harbored a rising expectation of
compromise in U.S. policy on arms sales and issued more strident warnings than in the past.

224 VOA and AP, October 6, 2008; Xinhua, October 7, 2008; and author’s consultations.
225 Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Ranking Republican, Foreign Affairs Committee, press release, October 3,
2008; and Senator John McCain, press release, October 7, 2008.
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After President Obama’s five notifications on January 29, 2010, the PRC threatened the next day
to respond in four ways: postpone “partial” military-to-military exchanges; postpone deputy
ministerial level meetings on international security, arms control, and weapons nonproliferation;
impose sanctions on U.S. defense firms involved in the arms sales to Taiwan; and react in
interactions on international and regional problems. The immediate response was the PRC’s
postponement of Deputy Secretary of State James Steinberg’s meetings in Beijing in February
(that later took place in early March). The threat to U.S. firms was new in public but already
existed and remained vague (with possible, partial impact on two companies with civilian
business in the PRC, Boeing and General Electric) and risked backfiring on Beijing (in trade or
other ties). Further, the PRC Embassy in Washington even called at least one U.S. defense firm’s
executive directly on a personal phone on a weekend in early February with an implied warning.
The company countered that the PRC already had a “blacklist” against some U.S. firms, the
embassy’s contact was highly inappropriate, and the senior diplomat should direct the PRC’s
messages instead to the State Department. The firm then informed the State Department of the
harassment against U.S. private executives.226 In early June, the PRC did not welcome Defense
Secretary Robert Gates when he proposed to visit while in Asia for the defense ministers’
conference in Singapore (Shangri-la Dialogue). In his speech on June 5, Gates countered that U.S.
arms sales to Taiwan are nothing new, do not support Taiwan’s independence, and maintain peace
and stability given China’s “accelerating military buildup” that has focused on Taiwan. Still,
while the PLA and others pointed to U.S. arms sales as the reason for the PLA’s snub, another
factor could have been the timing of a visit, right after South Korea announced on May 20 the
finding that North Korea sank the South Korean naval ship Cheonan on March 26.
However, after President Obama’s notifications in January 2010 and despite his statement and
Gates’s speech, the Administration held up at least three arms sales programs from early to
summer of 2010.227 Rather than the previous pending FMS programs that faced what critics called
delays in notifications to Congress, these three programs involved Direct Commercial Sales
(DCS) usually notified to Congress without controversy under Section 36(c) of the AECA. In
July, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State David Shear strongly denied any “hesitancy” to sell
arms to Taiwan. On August 10, 2010, the State Department notified Congress of one program that
involved support for Taiwan’s existing Hughes Air Defense Radar and Air Defense System
(HADAR) and two programs to upgrade the GD-53 multimode radar on Taiwan’s IDFs.
Strategic Policy Review
During Taiwan’s politically motivated impasse over funding for self-defense, a former Pentagon
official warned in 2005 that if Taiwan did not pass the Special Budget and there were no expected
improvements in defense, the United States would be more hesitant to approve future requests for
weapons and possibly conduct a review of policy toward Taiwan.228 Another former Bush
Administration official contended in 2007 that U.S. policymakers should look at whether there
was even a clear-eyed strategy for China that includes Taiwan’s role.229 After Taiwan passed arms
procurement funds in 2007, the Bush Administration delayed progress on some arms sales in

226 Author’s consultations in February and June 2010.
227 Rupert Hammond-Chambers (President of the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council), “Take China Out of the Driver’s
Seat on Taiwan,” Opinion Asia column in Wall Street Journal, June 13, 2010. Also see Defense News, June 28, 2010.
228 Interview with Mark Stokes, retired Air Force Lieutenant Colonel and Country Director in the Office of the
Secretary of Defense, in Taipei Times, April 24, 2005.
229 Randall Schriver, “In Search of a Strategy,” Taiwan Business Topics, September 2007, AmCham, Taipei.
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2008, and the Obama Administration did not decide on major FMS in 2009, delaying notifications
to Congress until January 2010. This situation raised a policy option of resurrecting the annual
arms sales talks.230 Another option would rectify President Bush’s policy of 2001 to consider
Taiwan’s requests on an as-needed basis. U.S. policy could reassess arms sales in the context of
Taiwan’s joint defense requirements in a regional approach that includes addressing a rising
China. An alternative would be to conduct a more serious and consequential defense dialogue,
beyond the existing meetings whose effectiveness has come under question by some in Taiwan
and the United States. Taiwan has lacked clear answers to some significant requests, like for
submarines and F-16C/D fighters. There have been rising concerns about the military imbalance
in the Taiwan Strait. Taiwan could help with U.S. and international security concerns, in common
interests. One option would be for a new annual “two-plus-two” strategic dialogue between
officials from the Departments of Defense and State and their counterparts from Taiwan.231
Congress has a role in oversight of any reviews of policy toward Taiwan and could hold hearings
even without the Administration’s formal policy review. There has been no major policy review
acknowledged to Congress since 1994. In September 1994, the Clinton Administration explicitly
and publicly testified to Congress about a major Taiwan Policy Review.232 Defense ties would
likely be included in any policy reviews of how to enhance leverage over Taiwan and affect the
cross-strait situation, including whether to limit defense ties, apply conditions, or strengthen ties.
Policy promotes the U.S. objectives of assisting Taiwan’s self-defense capability, preventing
conflict, minimizing the chance of U.S. armed intervention, dispelling dangerous misperceptions,
and promoting cross-strait dialogue. While U.S. objectives have been consistent, developments in
China and Taiwan since the 1970s have required U.S. re-assessments and responses.
In late 2002, the Pentagon reportedly conducted a policy review of cooperation with Taiwan that
examined whether its leaders have taken defense seriously, whether defense cooperation with
Taiwan has been effective, and whether U.S. policy should change.233 (The NSC, State
Department, and AIT would have input into any review by the Administration of policy toward
Taiwan.)234 At the U.S.-Taiwan Business Council’s conference on Taiwan’s defense in February
2003, in San Antonio, TX, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense Richard Lawless told Taiwan’s
Vice Defense Minister Chen Chao-min and others that, while the President said that we will do
whatever it takes to help Taiwan defend itself, Taiwan “should not view America’s resolute
commitment to peace and stability in the Taiwan Strait as a substitute for investing the necessary
resources in its own defense.” At the same occasion, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Randall
Schriver indicated a new proactive U.S. approach to Taiwan’s defense modernization, pointing
Taiwan to three priorities: missile defense, command and control, and ASW.
Taiwan’s election in March 2004 brought the re-election of President Chen Shui-bian and his
advocacy of a new constitution for Taiwan by 2008. In April 2004, the Defense and State
Departments testified at a hearing on Taiwan of the House International Relations Committee,

230 Mark Stokes, “Taiwan Must Review Security Risks,” Taipei Times, March 12, 2008. On the annual arms sales talks,
see CRS Report RS20365, Taiwan: Annual Arms Sales Process, by Shirley A. Kan.
231 Walter Lohman (Heritage Foundation) and Rupert Hammond-Chambers (U.S.-Taiwan Business Council), “Shore
Up U.S.-Taiwan Relations Now As Two-China Tensions Have Abated,” Investor’s Business Daily, October 6, 2010.
232 Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs Winston Lord, “Taiwan Policy Review,” before the
Senate Foreign Relations Committee on September 27, 1994. See CRS Report RL30341, China/Taiwan: Evolution of
the “One China” Policy—Key Statements from Washington, Beijing, and Taipei
, by Shirley A. Kan.
233 Taiwan Defense Review, January 18, 2003.
234 The Nelson Report (January 31, 2003) reported there was an interagency East Asia Policy Review.
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expressing a readjustment in the Bush Administration’s policy toward Taiwan.235 Assistant
Secretary of State James Kelly clarified U.S. policy by stating:
• The United States “does not support” independence for Taiwan or unilateral
moves that would change the status quo “as we define it” and opposes statements
or actions from either side that would unilaterally alter Taiwan’s “status.”
• U.S. efforts at deterring PRC coercion “might fail” if Beijing ever becomes
convinced Taiwan is embarked upon a course toward independence and
permanent separation from China, and concludes that Taiwan must be stopped.
• It would be “irresponsible” of us or of Taiwan’s leaders to treat the PRC’s
statements as “empty threats.”
• The United States looks to President Chen to exercise the kind of responsible,
democratic, and restrained leadership that will be necessary to ensure a peaceful
and prosperous future for Taiwan.
• There are “limitations” with respect to what the United States will support as
Taiwan considers possible changes to its constitution.
• We urge Beijing and Taipei to pursue dialogue “as soon as possible” through any
available channels “without preconditions.”
One policy issue has concerned the relative stress on cross-strait dialogue vs. deterrence. In his
testimony, Assistant Secretary of State Kelly argued that a premise of arms sales to Taiwan has
been that “a secure and self-confident Taiwan is a Taiwan that is more capable of engaging in
political interaction and dialogue with the PRC, and we expect Taiwan will not interpret our
support as a blank check to resist such dialogue.” However, some observers questioned the
continued validity of this premise. James Lilley, former ambassador in Beijing and representative
in Taipei, warned in April 2004 that:
The implicit American premise was that a secure and stable Taiwan would be a more willing
and successful partner in dealing with China. Judicious arms sales to Taiwan were part of
this formula and in the past it has worked.... If elements of this broader formula are
disregarded by the current Taiwan authorities, however, then the successful historic pattern
has been broken. U.S. military support and arms sales cannot be used by Taiwan to move
away from China—they were meant to make Taiwan feel secure enough to move toward
accommodation with China. Our support should be conditional on upholding our successful
pattern.236
Any policy review might be coordinated with allies in Asia and Europe, involving a regional
strategy to deal with a rising China. While in Beijing in August 2004, Australian Foreign Minister
Alexander Downer expressed doubts about whether any U.S. military help for Taiwan’s defense
against China would involve invoking Australia’s defense treaty with the United States.237
Nonetheless, in its Defense White Paper of 2009, Australia stated particular concern about the rise
of China and about the Taiwan question as a source of potential miscalculation. In February 2005,
Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice with Japan’s

235 House International Relations Committee, “The Taiwan Relations Act: The Next 25 Years,” April 21, 2004.
236 James Lilley, “Strait Talk,” Wall Street Journal, April 19, 2004.
237 Catherine Armitage, “Downer Assures China on Taiwan,” The Australian, August 18, 2004.
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Ministers for Defense and Foreign Affairs issued a Joint Statement of the U.S.-Japan Security
Consultative Committee (“2+2 statement”). They declared that a common strategic objective was
to “encourage the peaceful resolution of issues concerning the Taiwan Strait through dialogue.”
China objected to the alliance’s mere mention of Taiwan. In addition to Japan, Taiwan also lies in
proximity to the Philippines, another U.S. ally. In December 2007, the Council of the European
Union (EU) approved “Guidelines on the EU’s Foreign and Security Policy in East Asia” that
expressed concern about stability in the Taiwan Strait.
Greater cross-strait integration has raised concerns about the leakage of military technology,
intelligence, and other secrets from Taiwan to mainland China. As supporters of Taiwan wrote in
October 2006, “there is little sense in America’s continued support of Taiwan’s defenses if Taiwan
has no intention of using them to deter attack by the Chinese. Washington is increasingly alarmed
that Taiwan’s politicians—wittingly or unwittingly—are shifting responsibility for their island’s
defense from Taipei to Beijing, thus jeopardizing the integrity of U.S. defense technology that has
already been transferred to Taiwan.”238 Others have pointed out that Taiwan has its own concern
and control of military information and technology that could leak to the PRC and that the United
States has transferred weapons to countries like Pakistan with close ties to the PLA.
A critical case of compromising Taiwan’s intelligence and military, including the U.S.-origin
Posheng C4 program, came to light on February 8, 2011, when Taiwan’s military announced the
detention on January 25 of Army Major General Lo Hsien-che for allegedly passing secrets to the
PRC after PRC intelligence recruited him (while assigned in Thailand in 2002-2005). He could
have continued to pass sensitive information after subsequent assignment at Army headquarters as
director of the Communications and Electronic Information Department and promotion in 2008 to
major general with even broader access to information on command and control. Lo was reported
as Taiwan’s highest-ranking alleged military spy for the PRC in decades and was not uncovered
until 2010, with U.S. counter-intelligence involvement in investigations. In an interview with the
Washington Post, Taiwan’s President Ma acknowledged that this “very serious case” started in
2002 and, after its discovery in 2010, Taiwan’s military started “stricter safeguards” and damage
control. Nevertheless, Taiwan was not the only compromise. Cases in the United States that
concerned PRC espionage against Taiwan and U.S.-Taiwan weapons programs (including
Posheng) involved Gregg Bergersen and James Fondren, Jr. Bergersen was a weapon systems
policy analyst at the Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA), the agency involved in arms
sales, and was arrested in February 2008 and sentenced in July 2008 to 57 months in prison.
Fondren was a civilian official in PACOM’s Washington office and was sentenced in January
2010 to 36 months in prison.239 Still, there have been concerns about structural weaknesses in
Taiwan’s military that could allow for broad (beyond a need to know) and unquestioned access to
secrets (particularly by general and flag officers or senior civilian officials), as compared to U.S.
compartmentalized information, background security investigations, and routine procedures for
safeguarding classified data and discussions. While it was possible that there was a coincidence
that these cases involved the Posheng C4 program or that the PRC targeted Posheng in particular,
it was probable that PRC espionage has been aggressive and comprehensive in targeting the
militaries of Taiwan, the United States, and others, which included Taiwan’s C4 system.

238 Michael Needham and John Tkacik, “Grim Future for Taiwan’s Defenses,” Heritage Foundation, October 31, 2006.
239 Taiwan’s Ministry of National Defense, February 8, 2011; Tzu-yu Shih-pao [Liberty Times], February 9, 2011;
Chung-kuo Shih-pao [China Times], February 10, 2011; Washington Post, February 17, 2011; Taipei Times, February
18, 2011; Department of Justice, releases, February 11, 2008, July 11, 2008, May 13, 2009, and January 22, 2010.
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In addition, after the KMT’s Ma Ying-jeou became president in May 2008, there has been a
question of whether Taiwan’s pursuit of closer integration with the PRC—beyond détente—has
an implication of Taiwan’s strategic reorientation away from the United States and U.S. allies
like Japan and South Korea toward the PRC.240 Indeed, on June 10, within weeks of President
Ma’s inauguration, a boat from Taiwan sank in the East China Sea after a collision with a coast
guard ship from Japan near the disputed Senkaku islands (claimed as the Tiaoyutai islands in
Taiwan and Diaoyu islands in the PRC). The situation escalated into a crisis between Taiwan and
Japan. A KMT legislator, Lin Yu-fang, demanded that the Ministry of National Defense deploy
one of the Kidd-class destroyers that the United States sold for Taiwan’s self-defense to take
legislators to the disputed maritime area. Not until a week later did President Ma call for a
“peaceful resolution” and KMT legislators put off their plan to assert Taiwan’s claims with a trip
on a naval vessel. Then, from May to December 2009, President Ma met only twice with Japan’s
Representative to Taipei Masaki Saito, in a dispute over Saito’s note of Japan’s long-held stance
that Taiwan’s status remained unsettled. On May 20, 2010, when South Korea issued findings that
North Korea sank its naval ship (Cheonan) on March 26, killing 46 sailors, Taiwan issued a
statement that raised questions in the United States and Asia about Taiwan’s weak support for
South Korea and whether Taiwan was out of alignment with the United States and allies. Later in
2010, Taiwan protested to Japan when it expanded slightly the Air Defense Identification Zone
(ADIZ) to fully cover the airspace over Yonaguni island, though there was no impact on Taiwan.
Despite a lack of consensus in Taiwan, its closer engagement with the PRC under KMT President
Ma Ying-jeou since May 2008 raised an issue among some observers of whether the United
States should review U.S. policy. One debate centered on the relative importance of a “balance of
power” versus “peace and stability”
in the U.S. objective.241 A better defined strategy to set
clear objectives and improve mutual consensus might be needed. The dynamics of the closer
cross-strait interactions have positive and negative implications for U.S. interests and influence.
For the hearing on January 13, 2009, on Hillary Clinton’s nomination as Secretary of State, the
Senate Foreign Relations Committee asked a question for the record about whether the Obama
Administration would hold another Taiwan Policy Review, but she did not answer the question.
Meanwhile, more narrowly than a review by the Administration, Admiral Robert Willard,
Commander of PACOM in Honolulu, initiated in January 2010 reviews of approaches toward the
PRC and toward Taiwan (among other concerns like North Korea) by “Strategic Focus Groups
(SFGs)” under a Director of Strategic Synchronization.
Major Congressional Action
105th Congress
In the 105th Congress, the FY1999 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 105-261) required
the Secretary of Defense to study the U.S. missile defense systems that could protect and could be

240 CRS Report RL34441, Security Implications of Taiwan’s Presidential Election of March 2008, by Shirley A. Kan.
241 For example: Robert Sutter’s presentation at a conference at George Washington University on January 29, 2009;
Nadia Tsao, “U.S. Urged to Review Taipei Policy,” Taipei Times, January 31, 2009; Robert Sutter, “Cross-Strait
Moderation and the United States – Policy Adjustments Needed,” PacNet Newsletter #17, March 5, 2009; Richard
Bush and Alan Romberg, “Cross-Strait Moderation and the United States – A Response to Robert Sutter,” PacNet
Newsletter 17A, March 12, 2009, Pacific Forum CSIS. Also see a debatable thesis by Bruce Gilley, “Not So Dire
Straits: How the Finlandization of Taiwan Benefits U.S. Security,” Foreign Affairs, January/February 2010.
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transferred to “key regional allies,” defined as Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.242 In addition, the
conference report (H.Rept. 105-746 of the FY1999 Defense Appropriations Act, P.L. 105-262)
required a report from the Pentagon on the security situation in the Taiwan Strait, in both
classified and unclassified forms.243
106th Congress
In the 106th Congress, Representative Ben Gilman, Chairman of the House International Relations
Committee, wrote President Clinton on April 19, 1999, urging approval for the sale of long-range
early warning radars to Taiwan. He also wrote Secretary of State Madeleine Albright on April 22,
1999, saying that if the Administration did not approve the sale, he would introduce legislation to
do so. In the end, the Clinton Administration decided in principle to sell early warning radars to
Taiwan. The State Department spokesperson confirmed that the United States agreed on the
request in principle and acknowledged that under the TRA, “the President and Congress
determined which defense articles and services Taiwan needs.”244 The Pentagon spokesperson
also confirmed that the United States “agreed to work with the Taiwanese to evaluate their early
warning radar needs, and that will take place over the next year or so, but there is no specific
agreement on a specific type of radar, specific sale, or specific terms of sale at this time.”245
In July 1999, after President Clinton reportedly delayed a visit to Taiwan by Pentagon officials
and considered a cutoff of arms sales after President Lee Teng-hui said Taiwan and the PRC have
a “special state-to-state relationship,” Representative Gilman responded by threatening to suspend
all U.S. arms sales. He stated that “I cannot accept undercutting Taiwan’s national security and its
right under the 1979 Taiwan Relations Act to receive appropriate security assistance from our
nation to meet its legitimate self-defense needs. Accordingly, as a result of my concern, I plan at
this point to withhold my approval for arms transfers notified to the Congress until this matter is
resolved to my satisfaction.”246
Also, Members debated whether the “Taiwan Security Enhancement Act (TSEA)” (S. 693,
Helms; H.R. 1838, DeLay) was needed to better assist Taiwan or was unnecessary and
counterproductive in a delicate situation, as the Clinton Administration maintained. The TSEA
also raised attention to U.S.-Taiwan military exchanges, including that on communication and
training. The Pentagon was said to have supported the spirit of the bill but not its passage.247 The
TSEA was not enacted, although the House passed H.R. 1838 on February 1, 2000, by 341-70.

242 Department of Defense, “Report to Congress on Theater Missile Defense Architecture Options for the Asia-Pacific
Region,” May 1999; and CRS Report RL30379, Missile Defense Options for Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan: A
Review of the Defense Department Report to Congress
, by Robert D. Shuey, Shirley A. Kan, and Mark Christofferson.
243 Department of Defense, “Report to Congress Pursuant to the FY99 Appropriations Bill, The Security Situation in
the Taiwan Strait,” unclassified version, February 1, 1999; CRS Report RS20187, Taiwan's Defense: Assessing The
U.S. Department of Defense Report, "The Security Situation in the Taiwan Strait"
, by Robert G. Sutter.
244 Shenon, Philip, “U.S. Plans to Sell Radar to Taiwan to Monitor China,” New York Times, April 30, 1999;
Department of State, Daily Press Briefing, April 29, 1999.
245 Department of Defense, News Briefing, April 30, 1999.
246 Quoted in “Clinton Confirms Rebuke to Taiwan,” Washington Times, July 22, 1999.
247 Steven M. Goldstein and Randall Schriver (former official in the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for
International Security Affairs), “An Uncertain Relationship: The United States, Taiwan, and the Taiwan Relations
Act,” China Quarterly, March 2001.
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Seeking more information from the Pentagon on which to base its considerations, Congress
passed the FY2000 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 106-65), requiring annual reports on
PRC military power and the security situation in the Taiwan Strait.248 Also, in consolidated
appropriations legislation for FY2000 (P.L. 106-113), Congress required a report on the
operational planning of the Defense Department to implement the TRA and on gaps in knowledge
about PRC capabilities and intentions affecting the military balance in the Taiwan Strait.249
Concerning Congress’s role before the Administration’s decisions on arms sales and formal
notifications, the 106th Congress passed language, introduced by Senator Lott, in the FY2000
Foreign Operations Appropriations Act (in Div. B of P.L. 106-113), requiring the Secretary of
State to consult with Congress to devise a mechanism for congressional input in determining arms
sales to Taiwan. Again, in the FY2001 Foreign Operations Appropriations Act (P.L. 106-429),
Congress passed the Taiwan Reporting Requirement, requiring the President to consult on a
classified basis with Congress 30 days prior to the next round of arms sales talks. (Those required
consultations took place on March 16, 2001.)
107th Congress
In the 107th Congress, some Members opposed the sale of Aegis-equipped destroyers, because
they could be interpreted as offensive rather than defensive sales and could involve significant
interaction with the U.S. military, as Senators Feinstein and Thomas (chairman of the Foreign
Relations Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs) wrote in the Washington Times on
March 28, 2001. Other Members—83 in the House (led by Representatives Cox and Wu) and 20
in the Senate (led by Senators Helms and Torricelli)—wrote letters to President Bush on April 3,
2001, urging approval of the sale of those destroyers. A March 2001 staff report to Senator Helms
of the Foreign Relations Committee called for meeting Taiwan’s defense needs, particularly for
submarines and destroyers.250
Also, some in Congress urged the Administration to deliver AMRAAMs to Taiwan after the
Washington Times on July 1, 2002, reported that, in June, two SU-30 fighters of the PLA Air
Force test-fired AA-12 medium-range air-to-air missiles acquired from Russia. The report raised
questions as to whether the PLA already deployed the missiles, meeting one of the conditions by
which the United States would deliver the AMRAAMs to Taiwan—rather than keep them in
storage—as approved for sale by President Clinton in 2000. On July 16, 2002, Senators Kyl,
Helms, Bob Smith, and Torricelli wrote Secretary of State Colin Powell, urging the Bush
Administration to transfer the AMRAAMS to Taiwan “as soon as they are produced” rather than
“quibble over whether the AA-12 tests mean that China has an ‘operational’ capability.”
The National Defense Authorization Act for FY2002 (P.L. 107-107), enacted on December 28,
2001, authorized the President to transfer (by sale) the four Kidd-class destroyers to Taiwan
(Section 1011), under Section 21 of the AECA. Also, Section 1221 of the act required a new
section in the annual report on PRC military power (as required by P.L. 106-65) to assess the

248 Department of Defense, “Annual Report on the Military Power of the People’s Republic of China,” unclassified
version, June 2000 and July 2002.
249 Department of Defense, “Report to Congress on Implementation of the Taiwan Relations Act,” unclassified version,
December 2000.
250 Senate Foreign Relations Committee, “U.S. Defense Policy Toward Taiwan: In Need of an Overhaul,” a Staff Trip
Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, S. Prt. 107-26, by James Doran, printed April 2001.
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PLA’s military acquisitions and any implications for the security of the United States and its
friends and allies. The scope of arms transfers to be covered was not limited to those from Russia
and other former Soviet states, as in the original House language (H.R. 2586).251
The Foreign Operations Appropriations Act for FY2002 (P.L. 107-115), enacted on January 10,
2002, brought unprecedented close coordination between the Executive and Legislative branches
on arms sales to Taiwan. Section 573 required the Departments of State and Defense to provide
detailed briefings (not specified as classified) to congressional committees (including those on
appropriations) within 90 days of enactment and not later than every 120 days thereafter during
FY2002. The briefings were required to report on U.S.-Taiwan discussions on potential sales of
defense articles or services to Taiwan. (The responsible Deputy Assistant Secretary of State and
Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense consulted with Congress in the first half of 2002.)
Some Members called for ensuring regular and high-level consultations with Taiwan and a role
for Congress in determining arms sales to Taiwan, after President Bush announced on April 24,
2001 (the day of the last annual arms sales talks), that he would drop the annual arms talks
process with Taiwan in favor of depoliticized determinations on an “as-needed” routine basis.252
Due to the absence of diplomatic relations, successive administrations used a process in
determining arms sales to Taiwan that was institutionalized in the early 1980s as annual rounds of
talks with Taiwan defense authorities consisting of several phases leading up to final meetings
usually in April.253 In overseeing the new process, implications or factors to consider included:
• Congress’s role in decision-making and ability to exercise oversight
• role of arms sales talks in the broader long-range and joint defense strategy for
Taiwan (vs. a narrower focus on specific requests)
• role of arms sales in U.S. diplomatic and defense policies (including various
elements of the “one China” policy)
• U.S. objectives for the Taiwan military
• nature of the U.S.-Taiwan military relationship
• extent of high-level U.S.-Taiwan military exchanges
• effect of an annual high-profile controversy on U.S. interests
• usefulness to Congress and Taiwan of a deadline for decisions
• influence of various interest groups in a more defused process
• changes in high-level, intensive attention given by the White House and its
coordination of the inter-agency debates
• changes in the Pentagon’s basis for recommendations
• Taiwan’s desire to receive similar treatment given to others

251 Still, the Pentagon’s report, issued on July 12, 2002, discussed China’s military acquisitions from states of the
former Soviet Union, and not other countries (e.g., Israel).
252 Milbank, Dana and Mike Allen, “Bush to Drop Annual Review of Weapons Sales to Taiwan,” Washington Post,
April 25, 2001.
253 See CRS Report RS20365, Taiwan: Annual Arms Sales Process, by Shirley A. Kan.
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• consultations with allies, including Japan.
The Foreign Relations Authorization Act for FY2002 and FY2003 (H.R. 1646), passed in the
House on May 16, 2001, contained provisions on arms sales to Taiwan. First, H.R. 1646 included
authority (in Section 851) for the President to sell the four Kidd-class destroyers as EDA to
Taiwan. Second, as proposed by Representative Brad Sherman in the House International
Relations Committee, Section 813 sought to require that Taiwan be treated as the “equivalent of a
major non-NATO ally” for defense transfers under the AECA or the Foreign Assistance Act,
while the language stopped short of designating Taiwan as a major non-NATO ally. According to
the Member’s office, the provision would show tangible support for Taiwan’s defense, provide it
with status similar to that given to Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina, offer it the “right of
first refusal” for EDA, and treat it with enhanced status for anti-terrorism assistance, cooperative
research and development projects in the defense area, and expedited review in satellite licensing.
Third, Representative Gary Ackerman introduced Section 814 to require the President to consult
annually with Congress and Taiwan about the availability of defense articles and services for
Taiwan. The consultations with Taiwan would occur at a level not lower than that of the Vice
Chief of General Staff and in Washington, DC—as has been the case.
Finally enacted as P.L. 107-228 on September 30, 2002, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act
for FY2003 authorized—at the Bush Administration’s request—the Department of State and other
departments or agencies (including the Department of Defense) to detail employees to AIT
(Section 326); required that Taiwan be “treated as though it were designated a major non-NATO
ally” (Section 1206); required consultations with Congress on U.S. security assistance to Taiwan
every 180 days (Section 1263); and authorized the sale to Taiwan of the four Kidd-class
destroyers (Section 1701).254 Section 326, amending the Foreign Service Act of 1980, has
significant implications for the assignment of government officials to AIT, including active-duty
military personnel for the first time since 1979. (Employees have been separated from
government service for a period of time in the name of “unofficial” relations, but personnel issues
have affected AIT and its contractors. Defense Department personnel, including those supporting
security assistance, have been civilian staff and retired or resigned military personnel.)
In signing the bill into law on September 30, 2002, President Bush issued a statement that
included criticism of Section 1206 (“major non-NATO ally”). He said that “Section 1206 could
be misconstrued to imply a change in the ‘one China’ policy of the United States when, in fact,
that U.S. policy remains unchanged. To the extent that this section could be read to purport to
change United States policy, it impermissibly interferes with the President’s constitutional
authority to conduct the Nation’s foreign affairs.”
Nonetheless, the Acting Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics,
Michael Wynne, submitted a letter to Congress on August 29, 2003, that designated Taiwan as a
“major non-NATO ally” under Section 1206. The are implications for defense industrial
cooperation with Taiwan, under Section 65 of the Arms Export Control Act (P.L. 90-629).
The FY2003 National Defense Authorization Act, passed in the House on May 10, 2002,
contained Section 1202 seeking to require the Secretary of Defense to implement a
comprehensive plan to conduct combined training and exchanges of senior officers with Taiwan’s

254 For more details on the proposed House and Senate language, see “Arms Sales to Taiwan,” by Shirley Kan in CRS
Report RL31046, Foreign Relations Authorization, FY2003: An Overview, coordinated by Susan B. Epstein.
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military and to “enhance interoperability” with Taiwan’s military.255 The language was similar to
that of Section 5(b) in the “Taiwan Security Enhancement Act” proposed in the 106th Congress.
The Senate’s version, passed on June 27, 2002, did not have the language. The Washington Times
reported on August 9, 2002, that the Department of State opposed the language as unnecessary
(given U.S. support under the TRA).
As Members worked out differences in conference, Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz
wrote in a letter to the House and Senate Armed Services Committees on September 27, 2002,
that “while we welcome Congress’ support for the U.S. commitments under the Taiwan Relations
Act and for the President’s commitment to the defense of Taiwan, we believe that the objectives
of Section 1202 are best achieved by preserving the traditional statutory role of the Secretary to
exercise authority, direction, and control over the Department of Defense to conduct such
activities as are needed to support those commitments, including his authority to preserve the
confidentiality of those activities.” The Pentagon “strongly recommends that this provision be
deleted, although we would not object to language that would call upon the Department to brief
the Congress periodically on progress we are making to meet our commitments to Taiwan
security,” Wolfowitz wrote. As enacted on December 2, 2002, the FY2003 National Defense
Authorization Act (P.L. 107-314) contained a revised section (1210), requiring a Presidential
report 180 days after the act’s enactment (due May 31, 2003) on the feasibility and advisability of
conducting combined operational training and exchanges of senior officers with Taiwan’s
military. (U.S. policy has allowed Taiwan’s senior military officers and defense officials to visit
the United States, while not sending U.S. flag and general officers to Taiwan, or senior officials.)
108th Congress
On May 20, 2004, the House passed H.R. 4200 (FY2005 National Defense Authorization Act)
with Section 1013 to authorize the sale to Taiwan of a dock landing ship (Anchorage) as an
Excess Defense Article and Section 1215 to require the Defense Department to send general or
flag officers and officials at or above the level of deputy assistant secretary of defense to Taiwan
(as proposed by Representative Jim Ryun). After a floor debate about whether his amendment
was necessary or dangerous, the House passed it by 290-132. Supporters cited the Defense
Department’s support for this policy change and challenges in Taiwan’s military in integrating
new acquisitions and prioritizing self-defense needs against the PLA. Opponents cited resistance
by the NSC and State Department, the TRA as existing authority for security assistance, and the
need for caution in a tense part of Asia. On May 19, 2004, Senator Sam Brownback submitted for
the record a similar amendment intended to be proposed to the Senate’s bill (S. 2400). However,
on June 23, 2004, the Senate passed S. 2400 without considering or voting on such language.
During conference, the House receded, and the conference report did not contain Section 1215
(H.Rept. 108-767, issued on October 8, 2004). President Bush signed H.R. 4200 into law (P.L.
108-375) on October 29, 2004.
109th Congress
In January 2005, eight Members led by Representative Rob Simmons wrote to Secretary of State
Condoleezza Rice to express concerns that the Bush Administration delayed notifications to

255 For an argument for interoperability with Taiwan, see Justin Bernier (staffer for the House Armed Services
Committee) and Stuart Gold, “China’s Closing Window of Opportunity,” Naval War College Review, summer 2003.
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Congress on the three major items until after LY decided on the Special Budget. The State
Department responded that it supports the President’s decision of April 2001 to make available to
Taiwan P-3s, PAC-3s, and submarines, but that it does not believe “notification at this time will
have any influence on the Taiwan Legislature’s decision.”256 At issue were the Bush
Administration’s effectiveness in encouraging Taiwan to boost its self-defense, extent of U.S.
leverage in Taiwan, and risks in relations with Beijing.
On May 20, 2005, the House Armed Services Committee reported its National Defense
Authorization Act for FY2006 (H.R. 1815, H.Rept. 109-89), again proposing language to change
U.S. policy to allow U.S. flag and general officers and senior officials at or above the level of
deputy assistant secretary of defense to visit Taiwan (Section 1203). Such visits would reciprocate
visits by senior military officers and officials from Taiwan that already take place in the United
States. Also, Chairman Duncan Hunter’s press release noted that the Defense Department
exchanged with the PLA over 80 senior-level visits in the 1990s and about 14 in recent years.257
The bill added new language that would ensure that Capstone classes at the National Defense
University (for new general and flag officers) conduct trips to the PRC and Taiwan (Section 528).
The House passed H.R. 1815 on May 25 without debate on the Taiwan-related language. The bill
reported by the Senate Armed Services Committee on May 17, 2005 (S. 1042) did not contain
similar sections. On December 18, 2005, the conference committee filed its report for H.R. 1815
(H.Rept. 109-360), after the House receded on the two Taiwan-related sections. The House passed
the conference report on December 19, and the Senate agreed on December 21. The President
signed it into law (P.L. 109-163) on January 6, 2006.
As mentioned above on the impasse over the Special Budget, on May 27, 2005, Representative
Simmons and 32 other House Members wrote to KMT chairman Lien Chan, urging him to help
expedite passage of the Special Budget in May. They warned that “failure to pass the special
budget has raised concerns in the United States about Taiwan’s ability to defend itself against
potential aggression.”258 On August 1, 2005, three co-chairs of the House Taiwan Caucus wrote to
Ma Ying-jeou as the new KMT chairman. They urged him to “lead efforts in Taipei to ensure that
the Legislative Yuan quickly passes a special arms procurement package or increases its annual
defense spending.” They also invited Ma to visit Washington.259
On July 27, 2005, Representative Robert Andrews introduced H.Con.Res. 219 to express the
sense of Congress, inter alia, that the President should abolish restrictions on visits by senior U.S.
military officials to Taiwan and should authorize the sale of the Aegis combat system to Taiwan.
As mentioned above on Pacific Commander Admiral Fallon’s questions about Taiwan buying
submarines, eight Members of Congress led by Representative Rob Simmons wrote a letter in
October 2005 to ask Admiral Fallon to explain his discussions with Taiwan on submarines.260
Also discussed above, in February 2006, Representative Simmons visited Taiwan and suggested a

256 Letters between the State Department and Representatives Rob Simmons, Lane Evans, Roskoe Bartlett, Chris
Smith, John Hostettler, Madeleine Bordallo, Trent Franks, and Jeb Bradley, January 31 and February 15, 2005.
257 CRS Report RL32496, U.S.-China Military Contacts: Issues for Congress, by Shirley A. Kan.
258 Rep. Simmons, et al., letter to Chairman Lien Chan, Kuomintang, May 27, 2005.
259 Letter from Representatives Robert Wexler, Steve Chabot, and Sherrod Brown (without Dana Rohrabacher) to Ma
Ying-jeou, KMT Chairman, August 1, 2005.
260 Letter to Admiral William Fallon, Commander of the Pacific Command, from Representatives Rob Simmons, Dan
Burton, Robert Andrews, Henry Brown, James Langevin, Phil Gingrey, Thomas Tancredo, and Patrick Kennedy,
October 26, 2005.
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lower cost for the subs and an interim design phase to break the impasse over whether to procure
U.S. submarines, and House International Relations Committee Chairman Henry Hyde wrote a
letter to KMT Chairman Ma about the defense issues.
On May 3, 2006, the House Armed Services Committee reported H.R. 5122, the National
Defense Authorization Act for FY2007, after approving amendments with relevance for Taiwan
and the PRC that were introduced by Representative Simmons. The bill added new language that
would make it U.S. policy to make available to Taiwan plans and options for design work and
construction on future diesel electric submarines and would require the Navy to report to
Congress on its dealings with Taiwan on the submarine sale (Section 1221). Other provisions
would again seek to change policy to require at least one CAPSTONE visit to Taiwan every year
(and one to the PRC) (Section 1205); to authorize general and flag officers to visit Taiwan
(reciprocating Taiwan’s senior-level visits to the United States and balancing exchanges with the
PLA) (Section 1206); and to restrict procurement by the Defense Department from foreign firms
that supply weapons to the PRC (Section 1211). On May 11, the House passed H.R. 5122 with
these sections. On June 22, the Senate passed its version, S. 2766, without similar language, and
incorporated it into H.R. 5122. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld wrote a letter to Congress on July
24, 2006, to oppose a policy change to allow generals/admirals to visit Taiwan, in line with the
views of the State Department and White House.261 So, for the conference report dated September
29, the House receded, and Sections 1205, 1206, 1211, and 1221 were deleted. On October 17,
2006, President Bush signed the bill (P.L. 109-364).
On June 28, 2006, Representative Tom Tancredo introduced an amendment (Section 801) to H.R.
5672, the Science, State, Justice, Commerce Appropriations Act for FY2007, to ban funds from
being used to enforce the State Department’s guidelines restricting contact with Taiwan’s
officials. The House agreed to the amendment by voice vote. On June 29, the House passed H.R.
5672. The Senate Appropriations Committee reported H.R. 5672 on July 13 without that section.
The Senate did not pass the bill. On September 7, 2006, the Senate passed S. 3722 (Lugar), the
Naval Vessels Transfer Act of 2006, that included authority for the President to sell to Taiwan two
Osprey-class minehunter coastal ships. It was referred to the House as the last action.
110th Congress
On June 21, 2007, the House passed (by voice vote) Representative Tom Tancredo’s amendment
to H.R. 2764 (State Department appropriations act for FY2008) to ban funds from being used to
enforce the “Guidelines on Relations With Taiwan” (Sec. 699E). (As discussed above, the
guidelines include a ban on official travel by senior Defense officials and general or flag military
officers to Taiwan.) The House passed H.R. 2764 on June 22. The Senate Appropriations
Committee reported the bill (S.Rept. 110-128) without this section. The final version that became
P.L. 110-161 on December 26, 2007, did not have the section.
On September 26, 2007, the House Foreign Affairs Committee approved H.Res. 676, introduced
by Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, that noted the Bush Administration’s lack of response to
Taiwan’s interest in buying F-16C/D fighters and that urged the President to determine security
assistance “based solely” upon the legitimate defense needs of Taiwan (consistent with Section
3(b) of the TRA). The House passed H.Res. 676 on October 2, 2007.

261 Dan Blumenthal and Gary Schmitt, “A Strange Calculus,” Wall Street Journal, August 21, 2006; and author’s
consultations, September 2006.
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Also in October 2007, Senator Lisa Murkowski, Ranking Member of the Senate Foreign
Relations Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, wrote to National Security Advisor
Stephen Hadley, noting that the Administration refused to accept Taiwan’s request for F-16
fighters and asking if it was subjecting Taiwan to “unequal treatment” in the FMS process. At a
hearing of the Foreign Relations Committee in May 2008, the Senator noted that Hadley failed to
provide any response.262
In January 2008, Representative Joe Courtney wrote to Navy Secretary Donald Winter asking
about the Navy’s understanding of Taiwan’s funding for a submarine design (phase one of the
program).263 Concerning the Administration’s refusal to accept Taiwan’s formal request for F-
16C/D fighters since 2006, Senators Tim Johnson and James Inhofe, Co-chairs of the Senate
Taiwan Caucus, wrote a letter in March 2008 to Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, asking if his
department received such a request and offering their “assistance” if he needed it. Gates simply
responded that Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Eric Edelman would answer the Senators.
Edelman promised that the department will consider carefully any request from Taiwan for
defense articles and services, “including replacement airframes.”264
On June 17, 2008, Representatives Joe Courtney and James Langevin wrote to Secretary of State
Rice, requesting an explanation on the reported suspension of arms sales and timeline for
notifications to Congress.265 The State Department responded in a letter on July 17, 2008, arguing
that the Administration was conducting an “inter-agency process” to consider Taiwan’s requests
for eight weapons programs. In late June, Senators Inhofe and Johnson led a total of 14 Senators
in sending a letter to President Bush, noting that a “freeze” on arms sales to Taiwan violates the
spirit of the TRA and that their attempts to clarify the status of Taiwan’s requests have been to no
avail. They requested a briefing on the status of arms sales and urged the Administration to
expeditiously consider Taiwan’s requests. They wrote that upon receipt of Congressional
Notifications, they look forward to the opportunity to work with the Administration in completing
these sales as soon as possible.266 In late July, 25 Members in the House, led by a Co-chair of the
Taiwan Caucus, Representative Shelley Berkley, sent a similar letter to President Bush, warning
against a “freeze,” requesting a briefing on arms sales, and looking forward to the notifications.267
The Ranking Member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Representative Ros-Lehtinen,
introduced H.R. 6646 on July 29, 2008, to require the Secretaries of State and Defense to provide
detailed briefings to Congress on arms sales to Taiwan not later than 90 days after enactment and
not later than 120 days thereafter. Without the President’s response or notifications on pending
arms sales, on September 23, the House passed H.R. 6646 by voice vote. Members expressed
frustration at the President’s continued refusal to notify and brief Congress. Representative David
Scott who brought up the bill on the floor, said “the White House does not understand the Taiwan
Relations Act.” Mr. Ed Royce stated that the bill would assert the TRA’s authority for the role of

262 Senator Lisa Murkowski, letter to Stephen Hadley, October 12, 2007; Senate Foreign Relations Committee, hearing
on U.S.-China Relations, May 15, 2008.
263 Representative Joe Courtney, letter to Donald Winter, January 3, 2008.
264 Tim Johnson and James Inhofe, letter to Robert Gates, March 19, 2008; response letter from Robert Gates, March
25, 2008; letter to Senators from Eric Edelman, March 28, 2008.
265 Joe Courtney and James Langevin, letter to Condoleezza Rice, June 17, 2008.
266 Senators Inhofe, Johnson, Coburn, Vitter, Kyl, Brownback, Sessions, Chambliss, Martinez, Lieberman, Graham,
Bond, Allard, Grassley, letter to President George W. Bush, June 27, 2008.
267 Representative Shelley Berkley, et al, letter to President George Bush, July 31, 2008.
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Congress, which has been left out, and the bill would “right that wrong.” Ms. Ros-Lehtinen also
questioned the President’s compliance with the “Six Assurances” policy, suspecting that U.S.
officials have discussed China’s objections and “while Congress has been left in the dark ... the
Chinese leadership has been kept fully abreast of our Nation’s intentions.” A Co-Chair of the
Taiwan Caucus, Ms. Berkley, lamented that “we have written letters, Members of this body have
made statements, and now we’re passing a law just to get simple answers from the President of
the United States.” On the same day, the Departments of State and Justice wrote letters to oppose
H.R. 6646, claiming that it would “infringe” upon the President’s constitutional authority.
However, the TRA explicitly provided for a congressional role, and there were previous laws
enacted to require the Executive Branch to consult or brief Congress on arms sales to Taiwan.
The next day, September 24, 2008, Representative Tom Tancredo introduced H.R. 7059 to require
progress on pending arms sales, notwithstanding notifications to Congress required by Section
36(b) of the Arms Export Control Act. After Bush’s notifications to Congress of six of the eight
pending arms programs, Representative Joe Courtney wrote to Secretary of State Condoleezza
Rice on October 6, 2008, to inquire about the status of the submarine design program.
Also, on July 31, 2007, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee reported S. 1565, the Naval
Vessel Transfer Act of 2007 introduced by Senator Joseph Biden, which would authorize the sale
to Taiwan of two retiring Osprey-class coastal minehunters (Oriole and Falcon) as Excess
Defense Articles, among other foreign transfers. On October 23, 2007, the House Foreign Affairs
Committee considered a similar bill, H.R. 3912, introduced by Representative Tom Lantos.
Congress did not pass those bills. Nonetheless, in April 2008, Congress passed the authority as
Section 810 (Transfer of Naval Vessels to Certain Foreign Recipients) in S. 2739, Consolidated
Natural Resources Act of 2008, that became P.L. 110-229 on May 8, 2008, including the authority
to sell the two ships to Taiwan. This authority will expire on May 8, 2010.
111th Congress
The 111th Congress could further assert the legislative role in determinations of Taiwan’s needs
and oversee President Obama’s adherence to the TRA. There could be oversight of any review of
policy and clarification of any objective process to consider Taiwan’s requests for weapons.
Related to the authority to transfer the minehunters in P.L. 110-229 (discussed above), Section
7016 of the Omnibus Appropriations Act of 2009 that became P.L. 111-8 on March 11, 2009,
requires notification to the Committees on Appropriations before the Defense Department may
issue Letters of Offer to sell major Excess Defense Articles under the Arms Export Control Act.
On July 23, 2009, Senator John Cornyn introduced an amendment to S. 1390, National Defense
Authorization Act for FY2010, to require President Barack Obama to submit a report on an
assessment of Taiwan’s Air Force and U.S. options to assist Taiwan in self-defense and control of
its air space. On the same day, the Senate passed the amendment and S. 1390, whose language
was substituted in H.R. 2647. The House had passed H.R. 2647 on June 25, without the similar
reporting requirement. On September 23, the House Taiwan Caucus sent a letter to the House
Armed Services Committee, requesting the House to recede to the Senate’s language.268 In
resolving their differences, Conferees in the Armed Services Committees issued the conference

268 Representatives Phil Gingrey, Shelley Berkley, Lincoln Diaz-Balart, Robert Wexler, Trent Franks, and Doug
Lamborn, letter to Representatives Ike Skelton and Buck McKeon, September 23, 2009.
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report (H.Rept. 111-288) on October 7, in which the Senate receded on the section to require in
the legislation for a Presidential report on Taiwan’s Air Force and U.S. options. Nonetheless, the
conference report directed the Secretary of Defense instead to submit an unclassified report to
Congress, no later than 90 days after the enactment of this act, on an assessment of Taiwan’s air
defense forces, ability of those forces to defend Taiwan’s air space, and any possible measures
that Taiwan could take to strengthen its air defense forces. On October 28, 2009, President
Obama signed H.R. 2647 into law (P.L. 111-84). The Secretary’s report was due by January 26,
2010. Senators Cornyn, James Inhofe, and Joe Lieberman sent a letter on January 15 to Secretary
Robert Gates, requesting an accurate assessment of Taiwan’s shortfalls in air defense, including
status of its force of F-16 fighters, when they would become obsolete, and other information. On
February 16, the Defense Department submitted an unclassified assessment to Congress,
concluding that Taiwan has diminished ability to deny the PRC air superiority in a conflict.269
This study raised a question of what basis the Bush and Obama Administrations had for not
accepting or agreeing to Taiwan’s request for F-16s for almost four years, before there was this
assessment. The Congressional directive was a catalyst in advancing the Pentagon’s consideration
of Taiwan’s requirements for air defense.
On September 23, 2009, the House passed H.Res. 733 (Gingrey) that expressed condolences for
losses in Taiwan and recognized the U.S. military’s deployment in disaster relief operations in
Taiwan in response to Typhoon Morakot in August 2009.
While speaking at an event on September 15 to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the TRA,
Representative Shelley Berkley, a Co-Chair of the House Taiwan Caucus, said that the caucus
would write a letter to President Obama in support of a sale of F-16 fighters to Taiwan. Three Co-
Chairs of the Caucus sent a letter on October 2, writing that “if we fail to show the necessary
resolve, it would mean missing a significant opportunity to improve cross-strait peace and
security – a vital U.S. interest.” The White House did not respond but instead delegated to the
Defense Department to reply. Principal Deputy Under Secretary of Defense James Miller replied
on November 2, promising that “the Department of Defense, in consultation with Taiwan and as
part of an interagency review process, carefully reviews on an on-going basis what defensive
articles, including aircraft, are required to deter aggression against Taiwan.”270
On October 15, Representative Robert Andrews introduced H.Con.Res. 200 to express a concern
about the threat of ballistic missiles directed at Taiwan, to urge the President to seek the PRC’s
renunciation of force against Taiwan, and to express an expectation that Taiwan’s future should be
determined free from coercion, peacefully, and with the express consent of Taiwan’s people.
On November 18, 2009, Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen introduced H.R. 4102, to require the
Secretaries of State and Defense to provide detailed briefings to Congress on discussions with
Taiwan on potential arms sales, a bill similar to the House-passed H.R. 6646 in the 110th
Congress. The briefings would be mandatory not later than 90 days after enactment of this act and
at least annually thereafter. (Even without this legislated requirement, State Department officials
consulted with Congress on August 31, 2010.)

269 Defense Intelligence Agency, “Taiwan Air Defense Status Assessment,” DIA-02-1001-028, dated January 21, 2010.
270 Representatives Shelley Berkley, Lincoln Diaz-Balart, and Phil Gingrey, letter to President Barack Obama, October
2, 2009; James Miller, letter to Representative Shelley Berkley, November 2, 2009.
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The next day, Representative Joe Barton introduced H.Res. 927, to declare that it shall continue
to be U.S. policy, consistent with the TRA, to make available to Taiwan defense articles and
services necessary for Taiwan to maintain a sufficient self-defense capability; and to make such
determinations based solely upon the legitimate defense needs of Taiwan.
In March 2010, a month after the Defense Department submitted an assessment on Taiwan’s air
defense, Senator Cornyn referred to the report’s “grim” findings and stressed that President
Obama’s review of whether Taiwan needs F-16s “cannot be allowed to continue indefinitely”
(Congressional Record, March 16, 2010). Representative Kay Granger also urged the Obama
Administration to sell the F-16s, noting that the production of the fighters was nearing an end
(Congressional Record, April 14, 2010). The next month, 136 Representatives led by the four Co-
chairs of the Taiwan Caucus (Shelley Berkley, Lincoln Diaz-Balart, Gerald Connolly, and Phil
Gingrey) signed a letter dated May 12, 2010, to urge President Obama to move ahead
immediately with a sale of F-16 fighters. The President did not reply directly. National Security
Advisor James Jones responded in a letter dated July 20, assuring Members that the Obama
Administration “will examine” Taiwan’s air defense needs that could benefit Taiwan’s security.
Representative Edward Royce followed up with a floor statement on September 14, asserting that
a sale of F-16 fighters would be an appropriate signal to Taiwan and the Asian region at a time
when China’s neighboring countries strengthened security ties with the United States.
In an alternative approach, Senator Dianne Feinstein, Chair of the Intelligence Committee, visited
the PRC and Taiwan in June 2010. While in Shanghai, she said that the arms sales notified in
January 2010 were a “mistake,” as a problem in the relationship with the PRC (in an interview
published by the Wall Street Journal on June 6, 2010). As another Senator who discussed a sale of
F-16 fighters with President Ma in Taipei, Senator Arlen Specter argued on the floor on
September 16 that the new fighters would be more symbolic than sufficient to defend against an
invasion by the PRC and that the United States might revise the policy on arms sales to Taiwan,
which have been an irritant to Beijing.
Major U.S. Arms Sales as Notified to Congress
The following table provides information on U.S. sales (not deliveries) of major defense articles
and services to Taiwan, as approved by the President and formally notified to Congress since
1990. Based on unclassified notices and news reports, this list includes the date of notification,
major item or service proposed for sale, and estimated value of the arms sales program. The list
was compiled based on unclassified notifications to Congress or announcements by the
Administration as well as press reports. These were primarily government-to-government Foreign
Military Sales (FMS) programs. Before the Defense Department may issue Letters of Offer and
Acceptance, the President must notify major FMS to Congress as required by Section 36(b) of the
Arms Export Control Act (AECA), P.L. 90-629.271 If 30 calendar days pass after the formal
notification and Congress does not pass a joint resolution of disapproval, the Executive Branch is
allowed to proceed with the proposed arms sales to Taiwan. Not all of these approved sales were

271 As with all U.S. arms sales, months or years after the President’s decisions on Taiwan’s requests and Taiwan’s
subsequent decisions on which sales to pursue, the role of Congress includes informal and formal review of major
proposed FMS deals notified to Congress (during which Congress may enact a joint resolution of disapproval) as
stipulated under Section 36(b) of the AECA. See CRS Report RL31675, Arms Sales: Congressional Review Process,
by Richard F. Grimmett.
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necessarily purchased by Taiwan. There have been other transfers of U.S. defense articles and
services not included in this list (that amounted to billions of dollars), including sales and
technical assistance with smaller individual values not required to be notified to Congress, those
with classified notifications, and Direct Commercial Sales (DCS) licensed for export by the State
Department and notified to Congress under Section 36(c) of the AECA (subject to the commercial
confidentiality requirements of Section 38(e)). There have been leases of naval vessels and other
equipment. Moreover, each year, hundreds of Taiwan’s military personnel at different levels
receive training and education at U.S. military colleges, academies, and other institutions or units.
Table 2. Major U.S. Arms Sales as Notified to Congress
Date of
Major item or service as proposed
Value of
notification
(usually part of a program with related support)
program
($ million)
1990
07/26
Cooperative Logistics Supply Support
$108
09/06
(1) C-130H transport aircraft
$45
1991
01/07
(100) MK-46 torpedoes
$28
07/24
(97) SM-1 Standard air defense missiles
$55
09/13
(110) M60A3 tanks
$119
11/18
Phase III PIP Mod Kits for HAWK air defense systems
$170
1992
05/27
Weapons, ammunition, support for 3 leased ships
$212
05/27
Supply support arrangement
$107
08/04
(207) SM-1 Standard air defense missiles
$126
09/14
(150) F-16A/B fighters
$5,800
09/14
(3) Patriot-derived Modified Air Defense System (MADS) fire units272
$1,300
09/18
(12) SH-2F LAMPS anti-submarine helicopters
$161
1993
06/17
(12) C-130H transport aircraft
$620
06/25
Supply support arrangement
$156
07/29
(38) Harpoon anti-ship missiles
$68
07/30
Logistics support services for 40 leased T-38 trainers
$70
08/
(4) E-2T Hawkeye airborne early warning aircraft273
$700
09/08
Logistics support services for MADS
$175
11/04
(150) MK-46 Mod 5 torpedoes
$54
11/09
Weapons, ammunition, and support for 3 leased frigates
$238

272 Commercial sale. Opall Barbara and David Silverberg, “Taiwanese May Soon Coproduce Patriot,” Defense News,
February 22-28, 1993; Military Balance 1999-2000.
273 Flight International, September 1-7, 1993.
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Date of
Major item or service as proposed
Value of
notification
(usually part of a program with related support)
program
($ million)
11/23
MK-41 Mod Vertical Launch Systems for ship-based air defense missiles
$103
1994
08/01
(80) AN/ALQ-184 electronic counter measure (ECM) pods
$150
09/12
MK-45 Mod 2 gun system
$21
1995
03/24
(6) MK-75 shipboard gun systems, (6) Phalanx Close-In Weapon Systems
$75
06/07
Supply support arrangement
$192
1996
05/10
Improved Mobile Subscriber Equipment communications system
$188
05/10
(30) TH-67 training helicopters, (30) sets of AN/AVS-6 night vision goggles
$53
05/23
(465) Stinger missiles, (55) dual-mounted Stinger launcher systems
$84
06/24
(300) M60A3TTS tanks
$223
08/23
(1,299) Stinger surface-to-air missiles, (74) Avenger vehicle mounted guided
$420
missile launchers, (96) HMMWVs (high-mobility multi-purpose wheeled
vehicle)
09/05
(110) MK-46 MOD 5 anti-submarine torpedoes
$66
1997
02/14
(54) Harpoon anti-ship missiles
$95
05/23
(1,786) TOW 2A anti-armor guided missiles,
$81
(114) TOW launchers, (100) HMMWVs
07/24
(21) AH-1W Super Cobra helicopters274
$479
09/03
(13) OH-58D Kiowa Warrior Armed Scout helicopters
$172
11/09
Pilot training and logistics support for F-16 fighters
$280
11/09
Spare parts for various aircraft
$140
1998
01/28
(3) Knox-class frigates,275 (1) MK 15 Phalanx Close-In Weapons System
$300
06/01
(28) Pathfinder/Sharpshooter navigation and targeting pods for F-16 fighters276
$160
08/27
(58) Harpoon anti-ship missiles
$101
08/27
(61) Dual-mount Stinger surface-to-air missiles
$180
08/27
(131) MK 46 Mod 5(A)S anti-submarine torpedoes
$69
10/09
(9) CH-47SD Chinook helicopters
$486

274 Taiwan reportedly ordered 63 AH-1W helicopters, 42 of which were delivered by early 2000, and Taiwan may order
an additional 24 helicopters (Defense News, March 6, 2000).
275 In 1992, the Bush Administration submitted legislation that Congress passed to lease three Knox-class frigates to
Taiwan. Taiwan leased a total of six (and bought them in 1999) and purchased two in 1998 (plus one for spares).
276 The sale of the navigation/targeting pods excluded the laser designator feature, but the Pentagon notified Congress
on May 16, 2000, that 20 sets would be upgraded to include the feature.
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Date of
Major item or service as proposed
Value of
notification
(usually part of a program with related support)
program
($ million)
1999
05/26
(240) AGM-114KS Hel fire II air-to-surface missiles
$23
05/26
(5) AN/VRC-92E SINCGARS radio systems,
$64
(5) Intelligence Electronic Warfare systems, (5) HMMWVs
07/30
Spare parts for F-5E/F, C-130H, F-16A/B, and IDF aircraft
$150
07/30
(2) E-2T Hawkeye 2000E airborne early warning aircraft
$400
2000
03/02
Modernization of the TPS-43F air defense radar to TPS-75V configuration
$96
03/02
(162) HAWK Intercept guided air defense missiles
$106
06/07
(39) Pathfinder/Sharpshooter navigation and targeting pods for F-16 fighters
$234
06/07
(48) AN/ALQ-184 ECM pods for F-16s
$122
09/28
(146) M109A5 howitzers, 152 SINCGARS radio systems
$405
09/28
(200) AIM-120C AMRAAMs for F-16 fighters
$150
09/28
(71) RGM-84L Harpoon anti-ship missiles
$240
09/28
Improved Mobile Subscriber Equipment (IMSE) communication system
$513
2001
07/18
(50) Joint Tactical Information Distribution Systems (JTIDS) terminals (a
$725
version of Link 16) for data links between aircraft, ships, and ground stations
09/05
(40) AGM-65G Maverick air-to-ground missiles for F-16s
$18
10/26
(40) Javelin anti-tank missile systems and (360) Javelin missiles
$51
10/30
Logistical support/spare parts for F-5E/F, C-130H, F-16A/B, and IDF aircraft
$288
2002
06/04
(3) AN/MPN-14 air traffic control radars
$108
09/04
(54) AAV7A1 amphibious assault vehicles
$250
09/04
Maintenance and spare parts for aircraft, radars, AMRAAMS, other systems
$174
09/04
(182) AIM-9M-1/2 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles
$36
09/04
(449) AGM-114M3 Hel fire II anti-armor missiles to equip AH-1W and OH-
$60
58D helicopters
10/11
(290) TOW-2B anti-tank missiles
$18
11/21
(4) Kidd-class destroyers
$875
2003
09/24
Multi-functional Information Distribution Systems (MIDS) (for Po Sheng)
$775
2004
03/30
(2) Ultra High Frequency Long Range Early Warning Radars
$1,776
2005
10/25
(10) AIM-9M Sidewinder and (5) AIM-7M Sparrow air-to-air missiles;
$280
continued pilot training and logistical support for F-16 fighters at Luke AFB
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Date of
Major item or service as proposed
Value of
notification
(usually part of a program with related support)
program
($ million)
2007
02/28
(218) AMRAAMs and (235) Maverick air-to-ground missiles for F-16 fighters
$421
08/08
(60) AGM-84L Harpoon Block II anti-ship missiles
$125
09/12
(144) SM-2 Block IIIA Standard air-defense missiles for Kidd-class destroyers
$272
09/12
(12) P-3C maritime patrol/ASW aircraft
$1,960
11/09
Patriot configuration 2 ground systems upgrade
$939
2008
10/3
(330) Patriot Advanced Capability (PAC)-3 missile defense missiles
$3,100
10/3
(32) UGM-84L sub-launched Harpoon anti-ship missiles
$200
10/3
spare parts for F-5E/F, C-130H, F-16A/B, IDF aircraft
$334
10/3
(182) Javelin anti-armor missiles
$47
10/3
upgrade of (4) E-2T aircraft (Hawkeye 2000 configuration)
$250
10/3
(30) AH-64D Apache Longbow attack helicopters
$2,532
2010
01/29
(114) PAC-3 missile defense missiles
$2,810
01/29
(60) UH-60M Black Hawk utility helicopters
$3,100
01/29
(12) Harpoon Block II anti-ship telemetry (training) missiles
$37
01/29
(60) MIDS (follow-on technical support for Posheng C4 systems)
$340
01/29
(2) Osprey-class mine hunting ships (refurbished and upgraded)
$105


Author Contact Information

Shirley A. Kan

Specialist in Asian Security Affairs
skan@crs.loc.gov, 7-7606


Congressional Research Service
67