U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the
Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Clare Ribando Seelke
Specialist in Latin American Affairs
Kristin M. Finklea
Analyst in Domestic Security
January 31, 2011
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R41349
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Summary
In recent years, U.S.-Mexican security cooperation has increased significantly, largely as a result
of the development and implementation of the Mérida Initiative, a counterdrug and anticrime
assistance package for Mexico and Central America that was first proposed in October 2007.
With the enactment of the FY2010 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-212) in July 2010,
Congress has provided almost $1.8 billion for the Mérida Initiative. Congress provided $248
million of that funding to Central America and included an additional $42 million for Caribbean
countries. However, Congress dedicated the vast majority of the funds—roughly $1.5 billion—to
support programs in Mexico, with an early emphasis on training and equipping Mexican military
and police forces engaged in counterdrug efforts. Escalating drug trafficking-related violence in
Mexico has focused congressional attention on the efficacy of U.S-Mexican efforts. Reducing
violence associated with organized crime (including drug trafficking), which, by Mexican
government estimates, has resulted in more than 34,600 deaths since President Felipe Calderón
took office in December 2006, has remained a focus of the Mérida Initiative.
With funding for the original Mérida Initiative technically ending in FY2010 and new initiatives
underway for Central America and the Caribbean, the Obama Administration worked with the
Mexican government to develop a new four-pillar strategy for U.S.-Mexican security cooperation.
That strategy, outlined in the FY2011 budget request, focuses on (1) disrupting organized
criminal groups; (2) institutionalizing the rule of law; (3) building a 21st century border; and (4)
building strong and resilient communities. The first two pillars largely build upon existing efforts,
whereas pillars three and four broaden the scope of Mérida Initiative programs to include new
efforts to facilitate “secure flows” through the U.S.-Mexico border and to improve conditions in
violence-prone border cities. The Administration’s FY2011 budget request included $310 million
for Mérida programs in Mexico. In the absence of FY2011 appropriations legislation, the 111th
Congress passed a series of continuing resolutions (P.L. 111-242 as amended) to fund government
programs, with the latest extension set to expire on March 4, 2011. The Continuing Resolution, as
amended, continues funding most programs at the FY2010-enacted level, with some exceptions.
The 112th Congress is likely to continue funding and overseeing the Mérida Initiative, as well as
examining the degree to which the U.S. and Mexican governments are fulfilling their pledges to
tackle domestic problems contributing to drug trafficking in the region. Congress may also
examine the degree to which the Administration’s new strategy for the Mérida Initiative
complements other counterdrug and border security efforts. Given current budget constraints,
Congress may also debate how best to measure the impact of current and future Mérida Initiative
programs. A July 2010 report by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) recommended
that the State Department develop better performance measures to track progress under Mérida.
Another congressional interest is likely to focus on whether human rights conditions placed on
Mérida Initiative funding are appropriate or sufficient.
For related information, see CRS Report R41576, Mexico’s Drug Trafficking Organizations:
Source and Scope of the Rising Violence
, by June S. Beittel; CRS Report RL32724, Mexico-U.S.
Relations: Issues for Congress
; CRS Report R41075, Southwest Border Violence: Issues in
Identifying and Measuring Spillover Violence
.

Congressional Research Service

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Concerns About Drug Trafficking-Related Violence .................................................................... 2
Drug Trafficking, Violence, and Mexico’s Antidrug Efforts ................................................... 2
Potential “Spillover” Violence in the United States................................................................ 5
Development and Implementation of the Mérida Initiative .......................................................... 6
Evolution of U.S.- Mexican Counterdrug Cooperation........................................................... 6
Implementation ..................................................................................................................... 8
U.S. Efforts to Complement the Mérida Initiative .................................................................. 9
Drug Demand ............................................................................................................... 10
Money Laundering/Bulk Cash Smuggling ..................................................................... 11
Beyond Mérida: the New Bilateral Security Strategy ................................................................. 12
Pillar One: Disrupting the Operational Capacity of Organized Crime................................... 13
Pillar Two: Institutionalizing the Rule of Law in Mexico..................................................... 14
Reforming the Police .................................................................................................... 15
Reforming the Judicial and Penal Systems..................................................................... 16
Pillar Three: Creating a “21st Century Border”..................................................................... 18
Northbound and Southbound Inspections ...................................................................... 20
Preventing Border Enforcement Corruption................................................................... 20
Pillar Four: Building Strong and Resilient Communities...................................................... 21
Issues........................................................................................................................................ 23
Measuring the Success of the Mérida Initiative.................................................................... 23
Dealing with Increasing Drug Production in Mexico ........................................................... 25
Human Rights Concerns and Conditions on Mérida Initiative Funding ................................ 26
Role of the U.S. Department Of Defense in Mexico ............................................................ 29
Balancing Assistance to Mexico with Support for Southwest Border Initiatives ................... 30
Integrating Counterdrug Programs in the Western Hemisphere ............................................ 31

Figures
Figure 1. Rates of Drug Trafficking-Related Killings in Mexico by State in 2010 ........................ 3
Figure 2. Individuals Extradited from Mexico to the United States ............................................ 25

Tables
Table 1. FY2008–FY2011 Mérida Funding for Mexico by Aid Account and
Appropriations Measure........................................................................................................... 7
Table A-1. U.S. Assistance to Mexico by Account, FY2007-FY2011 ......................................... 33

Appendixes
Appendix A. U.S. Assistance to Mexico .................................................................................... 33
Congressional Research Service

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Appendix B. Selected U.S.—Mexican Law Enforcement Partnerships....................................... 34

Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 36

Congressional Research Service

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Introduction
Escalating drug trafficking-related violence in Mexico, which conservative sources say resulted in
close to 11,600 deaths in 2010, has focused congressional attention on the efficacy of U.S-
Mexican counterdrug efforts and related domestic initiatives.1 U.S. concerns about the violence in
Mexico have been heightened since the March 13, 2010, killing of three individuals, including
two U.S. citizens, connected to the U.S. Consulate in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. Congressional
concern about the possibility of drug trafficking-related violence in Mexico “spilling over” into
the United States has intensified since an Arizona rancher was killed on his own property by an
individual allegedly linked to Mexican drug traffickers in March 2010.
Between FY2008 and FY2010, Congress provided some $1.5 billion for Mérida Initiative2
programs in Mexico, with the bulk of that funding dedicated to training and equipping Mexican
military and police forces engaged in counterdrug efforts (see Table 1). With funding for the
Mérida Initiative, as it was originally conceived, technically ending with the FY2010 budget
cycle and new initiatives underway for Central America and the Caribbean3, the Obama
Administration worked closely with the Calderón government to develop a new strategy for U.S.-
Mexican security cooperation. An outline of the new strategy appeared in the Administration’s
FY2011 budget request, which included $310 million for Mérida programs in Mexico.
Shortly after a cabinet-level meeting in Mexico on March 23, 2010, the U.S. State Department
released a joint statement from Secretary Clinton and Mexican Foreign Secretary Patricia
Espinosa expressing both countries’ commitment to the continuation of U.S.-Mexican security
cooperation.4 The four pillars of the new “Beyond Mérida” strategy they outlined focus on (1)
disrupting organized criminal groups; (2) institutionalizing the rule of law; (3) building a 21st
century border; and (4) building strong and resilient communities. While the first two pillars
largely build upon efforts that began under the George W. Bush Administration, pillars three and
four broaden the scope of bilateral cooperation under Mérida. Pillar three includes efforts to
facilitate “secure flows” of people and goods through the U.S.-Mexico border, while pillar four
aims to promote social and economic development in violence-prone communities. During
President Calderón’s state visit to Washington, DC, on May 19-20, 2010, Presidents Obama and

1 Many experts use data from the national Mexican newspaper Reforma to tabulate deaths that have occurred as a result
of drug trafficking-related violence in Mexico. Reforma is generally more cautious about classifying a death as drug-
trafficking related than are official sources and other media outlets. See discussion in: Trans-Border Institute (TBI),
Drug Violence in Mexico: Data and Analysis from 2001-2009, January 2010. In January 2011, the Mexican
government reported that more than 15,200 people had died in 2010 has a result of violence related to organized crime
(including drug trafficking). See: “Mexico Admits 15,273 killed in 2010,” LatinNews Daily, January 13, 2011. For a
discussion of the government and media figures, see: CRS Report R41576, Mexico’s Drug Trafficking Organizations:
Source and Scope of the Rising Violence
, by June S. Beittel.
2 This total includes $175 million for justice sector programs included in the FY2010 Supplemental Appropriations Act
(H.R. 4899/P.L. 111-212), signed into law on July 29, 2010. For historical information on the Mérida Initiative, see
CRS Report R40135, Mérida Initiative for Mexico and Central America: Funding and Policy Issues.
3 In FY2008 and FY2009, Central America received $165 million in funding through the Mérida Initiative. In the
FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117), Congress provided $83 million for combating gangs and
drug trafficking under a new Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI), splitting Central America from the
Mérida Initiative. P.L. 111-117 also included $37 million for a new Caribbean Basin Security Initiative (CBSI) that was
first proposed by the Obama Administration in April 2009. See: CRS Report R41215, Latin America and the
Caribbean: Illicit Drug Trafficking and U.S. Counterdrug Programs
, coordinated by Clare Ribando Seelke.
4 Office of the Spokesman, U.S. Department of State, “Joint Statement of the Mérida Initiative High Level Consultative
Group on Bilateral Cooperation against Transnational Organized Crime,” March 23, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
1

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Calderón reaffirmed their commitment to the strategy and pledged to work together to combat the
organized criminal groups that traffic drugs into the United States and illicit weapons and cash
into Mexico. The State Department has indicated that it intends to continue Mérida assistance
beyond 2012 (when President Calderón leaves office) and to provide assistance to Mexican states
and municipalities.5
The 112th Congress is likely to continue overseeing how Mérida and related funds have been
used, any planned adjustments in the uses of funds appropriated during the FY2008-FY2010
budget cycles, and the degree to which the Obama Administration’s new strategy for Mexico
complements other U.S. counterdrug and border security efforts. On August 12, 2010, President
Obama signed legislation (P.L. 111-230) that provides $600 million in supplemental funding to
strengthen U.S. border security efforts.6 Congress is likely to continue debating what types and
amounts of funding to provide for U.S.-Mexican security efforts in FY2011 and beyond.7
Congress may also consider legislation that would define what role U.S. National Guard troops
should play in supporting law enforcement efforts along the Southwest border, which could have
implications for U.S.-Mexican law enforcement efforts.8
This report provides a framework for examining the current status and future prospects for U.S.-
Mexican security cooperation. It begins with a brief discussion of the scope of the threat that drug
trafficking and related crime and violence now pose to Mexico and the United States, followed by
an analysis of the development and implementation of the Mérida Initiative. It then analyzes key
aspects of the new U.S.-Mexican security strategy. The report concludes by raising some policy
issues that may affect U.S.-Mexican security cooperation.
Concerns About Drug Trafficking-Related Violence
Drug Trafficking, Violence, and Mexico’s Antidrug Efforts9
Mexico is a major producer and supplier to the U.S. market of heroin, methamphetamine, and
marijuana and the major transit country for more than 90% of the cocaine sold in the United
States (see “Dealing with Increasing Drug Production in Mexico”). A small number of Mexican
drug trafficking organizations (DTOs), often referred to as drug “cartels,”10 control the most
significant drug distribution operations along the Southwest border. U.S. government reports have
characterized Mexican drug trafficking organizations as representing the “greatest organized

5 U.S. Department of State, Report to Congress on Mérida and Post-Mérida, June 11, 2010.
6 The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “Statement by the President on the Passage of the Southwest Border
Security Bill,” press release, August 12, 2010.
7 Congress has passed a series of continuing resolutions (P.L. 111-242 as amended) to fund government programs, with
the latest extension set to expire on March 4, 2011. The Continuing Resolution, as amended, continues funding most
foreign aid programs at the FY2010-enacted level, with some exceptions.
8 For background, see CRS Report R41286, Securing America’s Borders: The Role of the Military, by R. Chuck
Mason.
9 For background, see CRS Report R41576, Mexico’s Drug Trafficking Organizations: Source and Scope of the Rising
Violence
, by June S. Beittel.
10 The term drug cartel remains the term used colloquially and in the press, but some experts disagree with this because
“cartel” often refers to price-setting groups and it is not clear that Mexican drug cartels are setting illicit drug prices.
Congressional Research Service
2


U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

crime threat” to the United States today.11 Mexican DTOs have expanded their U.S. presence by
increasing their transportation and distribution networks, as well as displacing other Latin
American traffickers, primarily Colombians.12 In the past few years, the violence and brutality of
the Mexican DTOs have escalated as they have battled for control of lucrative drug trafficking
routes into the United States (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Rates of Drug Trafficking-Related Killings in Mexico by State in 2010
(January-November 3, 2010)

Source: Crime Indicator Database at the Trans-Border Institute (TBI) at the University of San Diego, adapted
by CRS. The data represented are from Reforma newspaper.
Drug trafficking-related violence resulted in more than 5,100 lives lost in 2008 and 6,500 deaths
in 2009. According to conservative estimates, drug trafficking-related deaths in Mexico in 2010
totaled almost 11,600, a more than 70% increase over 2009. 13 As in 2009, a large percentage of

11 U.S. Department of Justice’s National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC), 2009 National Drug Threat Assessment,
December 2008.
12 NDIC, 2010 National Drug Threat Assessment, February 2010.
13 TBI, Drug Violence in Mexico: Data and Analysis from 2001-2009, January 2010, citing Reforma data; “Mexico
Admits 15,273 killed in 2010,” LatinNews Daily, January 13, 2011.
Congressional Research Service
3

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

the violence occurred in the states of Chihuahua (along the U.S.-Mexico border), Sinaloa,
Guerrero, and Durango. However, a split between the Gulf DTO and Los Zetas has sparked
violence in new areas of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León (also border states), feuding for control
over the Beltrán Leyva organization has increased violence in Morelos, and turf battles have
invaded Nayarit and Jalisco as well.14 Victims of the violence have increasingly included police,
soldiers, politicians (including 14 mayors and a gubernatorial candidate killed in 2010),
journalists, and other civilians. Kidnapping, robbery, extortion, and migrant smuggling have also
increased significantly, as DTOs have branched out into other criminal enterprises. In August
2010, drug traffickers executed 72 U.S.-bound migrants from Central and South America in
Tamaulipas for apparently refusing to participate in their organized criminal activities.15
Since taking office in December 2006, President Calderón has made combating DTOs a top
priority of his administration. He has called increasing drug trafficking-related violence in
Mexico a threat to the Mexican state and has sent thousands of soldiers and police to drug
trafficking “hot-spots” in states throughout Mexico. Joint deployments of federal military and
police officials are just one part of the Calderón government’s strategy against the DTOs. That
strategy involves (1) deploying the military to restore law and order, (2) expanding law
enforcement operations, (3) initiating institutional reform and anti-corruption initiatives, (4)
recovering social cohesion and trust, and (5) building up international partnerships against drugs
and crime (like the Mérida Initiative).16 President Calderón has secured legislative approval of a
number of constitutional reforms and laws related to national security, including, most recently,
an anti-kidnapping law. Other initiatives that he has proposed, including a reform of the national
security law and a law to reorganize municipal police forces, remain pending. The Calderón
government has also used extradition as a major tool to combat drug traffickers, extraditing 107
individuals in 2009 and 94 individuals in 2010.17 Increased collaboration and intelligence-sharing
with U.S. law enforcement agencies have resulted in significant government victories against the
DTOs, which have accelerated since the December 2009 killing of Arturo Beltrán Leyva.18
Despite these successes, the persistent and increasingly brazen violence committed by the drug
traffickers, which has occurred partially in response to government pressure, has led to increasing
criticism of Calderón’s military-led strategy.19 The apparent inability of Mexican military forces
and/or federal police to curb the violent crimes committed by drug traffickers and their allied
gangs has also raised concerns that Calderón’s strategy, which for some has exposed the military

14 TBI, Justice in Mexico: December 2010 News Report, December 2010.
15 See, for example, Dudley Althaus, "7 Arrested in Slayings of Migrants in Northern Mexico," Houston Chronicle,
September 8, 2010.
16 Embassy of Mexico, Washington, DC. “Mexico and the Fight Against Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime:
Setting the Record Straight,” June 2009, p. ii. President Calderón further expounded on this strategy in an editorial
published in Mexican newspapers on June 13, 2010. It is available in Spanish at http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/
prensa/lucha_seguridad_publica/index.html.
17 U.S. Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) 2010, March 1, 2010; Email
from U.S. Department of Justice, January 4, 2011. For an illustration of trends in extraditions, see Figure 2.
18 Recent high-profile results have included: the July 2010 killing of Ignacio Coronel Villarreal (Sinaloa DTO), the
August 2010 arrest of Edgar “La Barbie” Valdez Villarreal (Beltrán Leyva) and the November 2010 killing of Antonio
“Tony Tormenta” Ezequiél Cárdenas Guillén (Gulf DTO). See: Stratfor, Mexican Drug Wars: Bloodiest Year to Date,
December 20, 2010.
19 Jorge C. Castañeda, “What’s Spanish for Quagmire?” Foreign Policy, January/February 2010; Mathieu von Rohr,
“The Mexican Drug War - A Nation Descends into Violence,” Spiegel Online International, December 23, 2010.
According to a November 2010 survey by Milenio, a Mexico City newspaper, just 21% of those polled thought the
Calderón government was winning its struggle against organized crime.
Congressional Research Service
4

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

to corruption and resulted in human rights abuses, may need to be revised.20 Many experts assert
that, in order to regain popular support for its security policies, the Calderón government will
have to show success in dismantling the DTOs, while also reducing drug trafficking-related
violence. Some have urged President Calderón to press governors and other officials to accelerate
efforts to implement much-needed judicial and police reforms, while others have urged the
government to concentrate its crime control efforts in the country’s most violent municipalities.21
President Calderón and his top advisers began consulting with local and state officials to revise
the government’s military-led strategy for Ciudad Juárez after the massacre of 15 civilians, many
of them teenagers, at a private home there in January 2010. The new strategy that the Calderón
government has developed, “We Are All Juárez” (discussed later in this report) involves
significant federal government investments in education, job training, and community
development programs to help address some of the underlying factors that have contributed to the
violence. The strategy for Juárez also involved an April 2010 shift from military to federal police
control over security efforts in the city, a strategy shift which has yielded mixed results.22
Potential “Spillover” Violence in the United States23
The prevalence of drug trafficking-related violence within and between the DTOs in Mexico—
and particularly in those areas of Mexico near the U.S.-Mexico border—has generated concern
among U.S. policy makers that this violence might spill over into the United States. In particular,
an increase in violence in Mexican cities such as Juárez and Nuevo Laredo has sparked fears that
the violence may spill into the neighboring U.S. “sister cities” of El Paso and Laredo. For
instance, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) issued a safety alert to law enforcement
officers in the El Paso area warning that DTOs and associated gangs may target U.S. law
enforcement.24 This alert comes at a time when reports indicate that the Mexican DTOs have
begun to direct more of their violence at Mexican authorities and to use new forms of weaponry,
including grenades and car bombs.25 These expanding techniques have led some scholars and
U.S. officials to liken DTOs’ tactics to insurgents’ tactics.26
Currently, U.S. federal officials deny that the increase in drug trafficking-related violence in
Mexico has resulted in a significant spillover of violence into the United States, but recognize that
incidents of violence have occurred and that the potential for increased violence does exist.27 On

20 Ginger Thompson, “Killings Fuel Concerns Over Mexico’s Drug Offensive,” New York Times, March 16, 2010.
21 Kevin Casas-Zamora, “Mexico’s Forever War,” ForeignPolicy.com, December 22, 2010; Eduardo Guerrero
Gutiérrez, “Como Reducir la Violencia en México,” Nexos en Línea, November 3, 2010.
22 Katherine Corcoran,” Mexico Program to Clean up Violence-Plagued Border City Ciudad Juárez has Long Way to
go,” Associated Press, January 3, 2011.
23 For background, see CRS Report R41075, Southwest Border Violence: Issues in Identifying and Measuring Spillover
Violence
, coordinated by Kristin M. Finklea.
24 “Department of Homeland Security (DHS): Mexican Assassin Teams Targeting U.S. Law Enforcement,” Homeland
Security Newswire
, April 6, 2010.
25 See, for example, “Mexico: Cartels Changing Tactics in Turf War: Official Says After More Than 22,000 Killed in
Gangland Violence, Drug Rivals Now Shifting Attacks to Police,” CBS News, April 26, 2010; William Booth, “Ciudad
Juárez Car Bomb Shows New Sophistication in Mexican Drug Cartels’ Tactics,” Washington Post, July 22, 2010.
26 See, for example, U.S. Department of State, Interview With Denise Maerker of Televisa, Interview, Hillary Rodham
Clinton, Secretary of State, Teatro Juarez, Guanajuato, Mexico, January 24, 2011,
http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2011/01/155254.htm.
27 See for example, testimony of Mariko Silver, Assistant Secretary (Acting), DHS, Office of International Affairs,
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
5

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

May 25, 2010, in response to rising state and local concerns about border security, President
Obama authorized sending up to 1,200 National Guard troops to the U.S.-Mexico border. The
National Guard troops began the deployment process on August 1, 2010, and are scheduled to
serve for a period of one year, during which they will serve in law enforcement support roles in
high-crime areas along the Southwest border.
As a result, Congress faces several policy questions related to potential or actual spillover
violence. The first question involves whether the increasing violence between the drug trafficking
organizations in Mexico affects either the level or nature of drug trafficking-related violence in
the United States. Of note, violent drug trafficking-related crimes have previously existed and
continue to exist throughout the United States. However, data currently available on these crimes
does not allow analysts to determine whether or how these existing levels of drug trafficking-
related violence in the United States have been affected by the surge of violence in Mexico.
If there were evidence of such spillover violence, Congress may be confronted with the issue of
whether altering current drug or crime policies may aid in reducing drug trafficking-related
violence in the United States. If there were not significant spillover violence, policy makers may
debate best practices to prevent the possibility of future spillover violence. As such, another
question involves whether U.S. support to Mexico via the extension of the Mérida Initiative—as
proposed by the State Department—will be effective not only in reducing drug trafficking-related
violence in Mexico but in preventing this violence from reaching the United States.
Development and Implementation of the Mérida
Initiative

Evolution of U.S.- Mexican Counterdrug Cooperation
The United States began providing Mexico with equipment and training to eradicate marijuana
and opium poppy fields in the 1970s, but bilateral cooperation declined dramatically after Enrique
Camarena, a U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agent, was assassinated in Mexico in
1985. From the mid-1980s through the end of the 1990s, bilateral cooperation stalled due to U.S.
mistrust of Mexican counterdrug officials and concerns about the Mexican government’s
tendency to accommodate drug leaders.28 At the same time, the Mexican government was
reluctant to accept large amounts of U.S. assistance due to its opposition to U.S. drug certification
procedures29 and to concerns about sovereignty. The Mexican government also expressed

(...continued)
before a joint House Homeland Security Committee, Subcommittee on Border, Maritime, and Global Terrorism and
House Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation:
Next Steps for the Mérida Initiative
, 111th Cong., 2nd sess., May 27, 2010.
28 Under this system, arrests and eradication took place, but due to the effects of widespread corruption, the system was
“characterized by a working relationship between Mexican authorities and drug lords” through the 1990s. Francisco E.
González, “Mexico’s Drug Wars Get Brutal,” Current History, February 2009.
29 Beginning in 1986, when the U.S. President was required to certify whether drug producing and drug transit
countries were cooperating fully with the United States, Mexico usually was criticized for its efforts, which in turn led
to increased Mexican government criticism of the U.S assessment. Reforms to the U.S. drug certification process
enacted in September 2002 (P.L. 107-228) essentially eliminated the annual drug certification requirement, and instead
required the President to designate and withhold assistance from countries that had “failed demonstrably” to make
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
6

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

opposition to the DEA and other U.S. agencies carrying out operations against drug trafficking
organizations in Mexican territory without authorization. Mexican military officials proved
particularly reticent to cooperate with their U.S. counterparts due to deeply held concerns about
past U.S. interventions in Mexico.30
U.S.-Mexican cooperation began to improve and U.S. assistance to Mexico increased after the
two countries signed a Binational Drug Control Strategy in 1998. U.S. assistance to Mexico,
which totaled some $397 million from FY2000-FY2006, supported programs aimed at
interdicting cocaine; combating production and trafficking of marijuana, opium poppy, and
methamphetamine; strengthening the rule of law; and countering money-laundering. In 2007, the
Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that while U.S. programs had helped improve
Mexico’s counterdrug efforts, seizures in Mexico remained relatively low, and corruption
continued to hinder bilateral efforts.31
As previously stated, upon taking office in December 2006, Mexican President Calderón made
combating drug trafficking and organized crime a top priority of his administration. In response to
the Calderón government’s request for increased U.S. cooperation, in October 2007 the United
States and Mexico announced the Mérida Initiative, a new package of U.S. assistance for Mexico
and Central America that would begin in FY2008 and last through FY2010. The Mérida
Initiative, as it was originally conceived, sought to (1) break the power and impunity of criminal
organizations; (2) strengthen border, air, and maritime controls; (3) improve the capacity of
justice systems in the region; and (4) curtail gang activity and diminish local drug demand.
Congress appropriated roughly $1.3 billion to support the Mérida Initiative in P.L. 110-252, P.L.
111-8, P.L. 111-32, and P.L. 111-117 (see Table 1). Congress has also approved $175 million in
funds for justice sector programs in Mexico in the FY2010 Supplemental Appropriations Act
(P.L. 111-212). Each of these acts contained human rights conditions on 15% of certain law
enforcement and military assistance provided (see “Human Rights Concerns and Conditions on
Mérida Initiative Funding” below). U.S. assistance focused on training and equipping military
and law enforcement officials engaged in counterdrug efforts, improving border security, and, to a
lesser extent, reforming Mexico’s police and judicial institutions. (For overall U.S. assistance to
Mexico, see Table A-1 in Appendix A).
Table 1. FY2008–FY2011 Mérida Funding for Mexico by Aid Account and
Appropriations Measure
($ in millions)
FY2008
FY2009
Supp.
FY2009
Supp.
FY2010
FY2010
Supp.
(P.L.
(P.L.
(P.L.
(P.L. 111-
(P.L. 111-
Account
FY2011
Account 110-252)
111-8)
111-32)
117)
212)
Totals
request
ESF 20.0
15.0
0.0
15.0a 0.0 50.0 10.0

(...continued)
substantial counternarcotics efforts.
30 Craig A. Deare, “U.S.-Mexico Defense Relations: An Incompatible Interface,” Strategic Forum, Institute for
National Strategic Studies, National Defense University, July 2009.
31 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), U.S. Assistance Has Helped Mexican Counternarcotics Efforts, but
the Flow of Illicit Narcotics into the United States Remains High
, 08215T, October 2007.
Congressional Research Service
7

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

FY2008
FY2009
Supp.
FY2009
Supp.
FY2010
FY2010
Supp.
(P.L.
(P.L.
(P.L.
(P.L. 111-
(P.L. 111-
Account
FY2011
Account 110-252)
111-8)
111-32)
117)
212)
Totals
request
INCLE 263.5 246.0 160.0 190.0 175.0
1,034.5 292.0
FMF
116.5 39.0 260.0 5.3 0.0 420.8 8.0
Total
400.0 300.0 420.0 204.3 $175.0
1,505.3 310.0
Sources: U.S. Department of State, FY2008 Supplemental Appropriations Spending Plan; FY2009 Appropriations
Spending Plan, FY2010 Appropriations Spending Plan; and FY2010 Supplemental Appropriations Spending Plan.
Notes: ESF=Economic Support Fund; FMF=Foreign Military Financing; INCLE=International Narcotics Control
and Law Enforcement.
a. $6 million was later reprogrammed for global climate change efforts by the State Department.
While U.S. and Mexican officials have described the Mérida Initiative as a “new paradigm” for
U.S.-Mexican security cooperation, some observers have challenged that description, preferring
to describe the Mérida Initiative as a gradual expansion of existing bilateral efforts.32 Regardless
of whether it has resulted in a paradigm shift in U.S.-Mexican relations, the Mérida Initiative
signaled a major diplomatic step forward for U.S.-Mexican counterdrug cooperation, which in the
1990s had been at a low point. The Mérida Initiative has resulted in increased bilateral
communication and cooperation, from law enforcement officials engaging in joint operations on
the U.S-Mexico border to cabinet-level officials meeting regularly to discuss bilateral security
efforts. Perhaps most importantly for Mexico, as part of the Mérida Initiative, both countries
accepted a shared responsibility to tackle domestic problems contributing to drug trafficking and
crime in the region, including U.S. drug demand. Many Mexican analysts have concurred with
these observations, while some have argued that the United States continues to largely dictate the
bilateral agenda and that the Mérida Initiative is not that different from previous U.S.-funded
counterdrug programs like Plan Colombia.33
Implementation
There has been concern in Congress about the slow delivery of Mérida assistance. On December
3, 2009, the GAO issued a preliminary report for Congress on the status of funding for the Mérida
Initiative. By the end of September 2009, GAO found that $753 million of the $1.1 billion in
Mérida funds appropriated for Mexico as of that time had been obligated by the State
Department, but only $24 million of the funds had actually been spent.34 The GAO report
attributed delays in Mérida implementation to “(1) statutory conditions on the funds, (2)
challenges in fulfilling administrative procedures [required for obligation and expenditure of the

32 U.S. Department of State, “Joint Statement on the Mérida Initiative: A New Paradigm for Security Cooperation,”
October 22, 2007. For debates about whether or not the Mérida Initiative is a “new paradigm” for U.S.-Mexican
security relations, see Laura K. Stephens and José de Arimateia da Cruz, “The Mérida Initiative: Bilateral Cooperation
or U.S. National Security Hegemony, International Journal of Restorative Justice, 2008, vol. 4, no. 2.; Rafael
Velázquez Flores and Juan Pablo Prado Lallande eds. La Iniciativa Mérida: ¿Una Nueva Paradigma de Cooperación
Entre México y Estados Unidos en Seguridad?
Mexico City : National Autonomous University of Mexico, 2009.
33 Ibid; see the chapters by Mario Cruz Cruz, Juan Pablo Prado Lallande, Jorge Rebolledo, and Alberto Lozano.
34 GAO, Status of Funds for the Mérida Initiative, 10-253R, December 3, 2009, available at http://www.gao.gov/
new.items/d10253r.pdf.
Congressional Research Service
8

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

funds] , and (3) the need to enhance institutional capacity on the part of both recipient countries
and the United States to implement the assistance.”35
Progress has been made in Mérida implementation since the release of the December 2009 GAO
report. According to a follow-up report by the GAO that was released on July 21, 2010,
approximately $790.9 million of the $1.3 billion in Mérida funds appropriated for Mexico as of
that time had been obligated ($669.7 billion) or expended ($121.2 billion) by March 31, 2010.36
That total includes approximately $14 million in new obligations for Mérida programs in Mexico
and $97 million in new expenditures.
Rather than tracking obligations and expenditures, State Department officials have preferred to
report on progress in Mérida implementation by compiling the value of equipment deliveries that
have been made and the value of capacity-building programs that have been provided. According
to a recent State Department report, a total of $276.7 million worth of equipment had been
delivered and $85.1 million worth of training had been provided to Mexico by December 2010.37
The equipment that has been provided thus far has included seven Bell helicopters valued at $88
million for the Mexican Army and three UH-60 helicopters valued at $76.5 million for the
Secretariat for Public Security (SSP or Federal Police). Among Mérida-funded training programs,
police professionalization programs appear to have advanced the furthest, with more than 6,700
Mexican federal police officers having completed U.S.-funded courses. U.S. support for judicial
sector training has been slower to get off the ground. By late 2010, however, more than 3,000
prosecutors and justice sector personnel had received U.S. training.38 Another $500 million worth
of equipment and training are to be provided in 2011.39 Despite this progress, Congress may
retain a particular interest in ensuring that Mérida Initiative equipment and training programs are
delivered in a timely manner.
U.S. Efforts to Complement the Mérida Initiative
In the 2007 U.S.-Mexico joint statement announcing the Mérida Initiative, the U.S. government
pledged to “intensify its efforts to address all aspects of drug trafficking (including demand-
related portions) and continue to combat trafficking of weapons and bulk currency to Mexico.”40
Although not funded through the Mérida Initiative, the U.S. government has made efforts to
address each of these issues, as discussed below. When debating future support for the Mérida
Initiative, Congress may consider whether to simultaneously provide additional funding for these
or other domestic activities that would enhance the United States’ abilities to fulfill its pledges.

35 Ibid.
36 GAO, Mérida Initiative: The United States has Provided Counternarcotics and Anticrime Support but Needs Better
Performance Measures
, 10-837R, July 21, 2010, available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10837.pdf.
37 U.S. Department of State, “Mérida Initiative—Significant Activities,” December 31, 2010; Phone interview with
State Department official, January 31, 2011.
38 “U.S.-Latin American Relations: A Look Ahead,” Remarks by Arturo Valenzuela, Assistant Secretary of State for
Western Hemisphere Affairs, at the Brookings Institution, January 6, 2011.
39 U.S. Department of State, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, “Remarks with Mexican Foreign Secretary
Patricia Espinosa,” January 24, 2011.
40 U.S. Department of State and Government of Mexico, “Joint Statement on the Mérida Initiative: A New Paradigm
for Security Cooperation,” October 22, 2007.
Congressional Research Service
9

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Drug Demand
Drug demand in the United States fuels a multi-billion dollar illicit industry. In 2009, about 21.8
million individuals were current (past month) illegal drug users, representing 9% of individuals
aged 12 and older.41 High-ranking Administration officials and experts alike have acknowledged
that U.S. domestic demand for illegal drugs is a significant factor driving the global drug trade,
including the drug trafficking-related crime and violence that is occurring in Mexico and other
source and transit countries.42 The Obama Administration released its 2010 National Drug
Control Strategy report on May 11, 2010, which includes an increased focus on reducing U.S.
drug demand, particularly among youth.43 Drug policy experts have praised the Administration’s
focus on reducing consumption, but criticized its budget request for including a relatively modest
3.7% increase in funding for treatment programs compared to FY2010.44 They further maintain
that while the request includes a 13.4% increase in funding for prevention efforts, the funds
requested are still less than what was spent in the early 2000s and 5.3% lower than what the Bush
Administration funded in FY2009.45 Some have questioned whether the federal government
allocates enough of the drug budget to adequately address the demand side; the FY2011 drug
budget proposes to continue to spend a majority of funds on supply reduction programs including
drug crop eradication in source countries, interdiction, and domestic law enforcement efforts. It is
important to note, however, that many state, local, and non-profit agencies also channel funds
toward demand reduction.
Gun Trafficking46
Mexican DTOs have reportedly used “military-style” firearms, including assault weapons. The
government of Mexico has estimated that more than 80% of the firearms that have been seized
and traced since President Calderón took office originated in the United States.47 While a
significant number of firearms seized by Mexican authorities, some arguably based on “military”
designs, have been traced back to the United States in the past few years, only a handful of those

41 See the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, an annual survey of approximately 67,500 people, including
residents of households, non-institutionalized group quarters, and civilians living on military bases. The survey is
administered by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services and is available at http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NSDUH/2k9NSDUH/2k9ResultsP.pdf.
42 See, for example, testimony of R. Gil Kerlikowske, Director, Office of National Drug Control Policy, before the U.S.
Congress, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, Subcommittee on National Security and Foreign
Affairs, Transnational Drug Enterprises (Part II): U.S. Government Perspectives on the Threat to Global Stability and
U.S. National Security
, 111th Cong., 2nd sess., March 30, 2010. See also “U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham
Clinton Remarks With Mexican Foreign Secretary Patricia Espinosa After Their Meeting,” March 23, 2010.
43 For more information on the National Drug Control Strategy and the Office of National Drug Control Policy, see
CRS Report R41535, Reauthorizing the Office of National Drug Control Policy: Issues for Consideration, by Kristin
M. Finklea.
44 See, for example, Testimony of John T. Carnevale, President, Carnevale Associates, before the House Oversight and
Government Reform Subcommitee on Domestic Policy, April 14, 2010. For an overview of the proposed FY2011
National Drug Control Budget, see Executive Office of the President of the United States, “National Drug Control
Budget: FY2011 Funding Highlights,” Feb. 2010, http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/policy/11budget/
fy11highlight.pdf.
45 Ibid.
46 For more information on gun trafficking along the Southwest border, see CRS Report R40733, Gun Trafficking and
the Southwest Border
, by Vivian S. Chu and William J. Krouse.
47 See, for example, Mexican President Felipe Calderon, “Joint Meeting to Hear an Address by His Excellence Felipe
Calderon Hinojosa, President of Mexico,” Congressional Record, May 20, 2010, p. H3663
Congressional Research Service
10

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

firearms have been traced back to U.S. military inventories. Mexican DTOs often obtain their
weapons through “straw purchases,” whereby people who are legally qualified to buy the
weapons from licensed gun dealers or at gun shows in U.S. border states sell them to smugglers
who take them across the border. Illicit firearms are used in conflicts between rival DTOs as well
as between the DTOs and the Mexican government, military, and police.
The United States has taken various measures to reduce the illegal flow of weapons into Mexico.
One such initiative is Project Gunrunner, led by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and
Explosives (ATF). It aims to disrupt the illegal flow of guns from the United States to Mexico and
enhance U.S. and Mexican law enforcement coordination. Project Gunrunner has recently been
criticized, in part, for not systematically and consistently sharing information with Mexican and
U.S. partners as well as for focusing investigations on gun dealers and straw purchasers over
high-level traffickers.48 In September, 2010, ATF released a new strategy, “Project Gunrunner – A
Cartel Focused Strategy,” that reportedly addresses these issues. Through another anti-trafficking
initiative, ATF maintains a foreign attaché in Mexico City to administer an Electronic Trace
Submission System (ETSS)—the eTrace program—for Mexican law enforcement authorities.
Additionally, through the Border Enforcement Security Task Force (BEST) Initiative, DHS’
Immigration and Customs Enforcement leads Operation Armas Cruzadas, a multi-agency effort to
disrupt and dismantle weapons smuggling networks.49 In addition to these programs, DHS has
implemented measures to enhance its outbound/southbound screening procedures including 100%
screening of southbound rail shipments.50 Also, the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) scans
license plates along the Southwest border with the use of automated license plate readers.
During his address to the Joint Meeting of Congress on May 20, 2010, Mexican President
Calderón asked for increased U.S. cooperation in reducing the illegal flow of weapons across the
Southwest border. In particular, he asked Congress to ensure the enforcement of current gun laws
as well as to consider a reinstatement of an assault weapons ban.51 Some argue that reinstating a
ban on certain types of weapons may help curb the flow of these weapons into the hands of DTOs
and their affiliated gangs and may subsequently reduce the level or severity of violence currently
seen in Mexico. Others, however, argue that the DTOs will ultimately circumvent any such
measures in order to procure the weapons they desire from U.S. sources or obtain them from
other countries.

Money Laundering/Bulk Cash Smuggling
It is estimated that between $19 billion and $29 billion in illicit proceeds flow from the United
States to drug trafficking organizations and other organized criminal groups in Mexico each

48 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Review of ATF’s Project Gunrunner, I-2011-001,
November 2010, pp. iii-v, http://www.justice.gov/oig/reports/ATF/e1101.pdf.
49 Each of these initiatives are discussed in further detail in Appendix B.
50 Department of Homeland Security, “Fact Sheet: Southwest Border: Next Steps,” press release, June 23, 2010,
http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/gc_1240606351110.shtm.
51 Mexican President Felipe Calderon, “Joint Meeting to Hear an Address by His Excellence Felipe Calderon Hinojosa,
President of Mexico,” Congressional Record, May 20, 2010, p. H3663. For more information on the assault weapons
ban, see archived CRS Report RL32585, Semiautomatic Assault Weapons Ban, by William J. Krouse.
Congressional Research Service
11

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

year.52 Much of the money is generated from the illegal sale of drugs in the United States and is
laundered to Mexico through mechanisms such as bulk cash smuggling (the most common
method), the Black Market Peso Exchange (BMPE), wire transfers, and prepaid stored value
cards. Illicit funds are also placed in financial institutions, cash-intensive front businesses, or
money services businesses. The proceeds may then be used by DTOs and other criminal groups to
acquire weapons in the United States and to corrupt law enforcement and other public officials.
In 2005, ICE and CBP launched a program known as “Operation Firewall,” which increased
operations against bulk cash smuggling in the U.S.-Mexico border region. Since 2005, Operation
Firewall has resulted in 679 arrests and 3,946 seizures totaling more than $302 million. 53
Additionally, in FY2009 alone, CBP seized more than $37.2 million in southbound currency; this
is 270% more than the amount seized in FY2008. Further, in FY2009, over $17 million in
currency was seized as a result of investigatory cooperation between ICE and the Government of
Mexico. 54 U.S. efforts against money laundering and bulk cash smuggling are increasingly
moving beyond the federal level as well, as experts have recommended. 55 In December 2009, for
example, ICE opened a bulk cash smuggling center to assist U.S. federal, state, and local law
enforcement agencies track and disrupt illicit funding flows. Still, the GAO has identified several
ways in which CBP outbound inspections and other U.S. efforts against bulk cash smuggling,
particularly those aimed at combating the use of stored value cards, might be improved.56
The United States and Mexico have created a Bilateral Money Laundering Working Group to
coordinate the investigation and prosecution of money laundering and bulk cash smuggling. A
recent Bi-national Criminal Proceeds Study revealed that some of the major points along the
Southwest border where bulk cash is smuggled include San Ysidro, CA; Nogales, AZ; and
Laredo, McAllen, and Brownsville, TX. 57 Information provided from studies such as these may
help inform policy makers and federal law enforcement personnel and assist in their decisions
regarding where to direct future efforts against money laundering.
Beyond Mérida: the New Bilateral Security Strategy
One of the most prominent criticisms of the Mérida Initiative has been its focus on technology
transfers, as some believe the plan has thus far neglected to provide adequate attention to capacity
building efforts and institutional reforms within Mexico. Experts have argued that a post-Mérida
strategy must seek to better address the weak civilian judicial and law enforcement institutions in
Mexico while also addressing underlying societal problems, such as poverty and widespread
corruption, that have allowed the drug trade to flourish. As such, the development of the new

52 DHS, United States-Mexico Bi-National Criminal Proceeds Study, June 2010.
53 See testimony by Janice Ayala, Assistant Director, Office of Investigations, U.S. Immigration and Customs
Enforcement before the U.S. Congress, Senate United States Senate Caucus on International Narcotics Control, Drug
Trafficking Violence in Mexico: Implications for the United States
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., May 5, 2010.
54 U.S. Department of State, “United States - Mexico Security Partnership: Progress and Impact,” May 19, 2010.
55 Douglas Farah, Money Laundering and Bulk Cash Smuggling: Challenges for the Merida Initiative, Woodrow
Wilson International Center for Scholars, Working Paper Series on U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation, May 2010.
56 GAO, Moving Illegal Proceeds: Challenges Exist in the Federal Government’s Effort to Stem Cross Border
Smuggling
, GAO-11-73, October 2010.
57 DHS, United States - Mexico Bi-National Criminal Proceeds Study, 2010, p. 4-2.
Congressional Research Service
12

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

U.S.-Mexican security cooperation strategy has focused heavily on judicial reform and
community building efforts.
With the arrival of U.S. Ambassador Carlos Pascual in August 2009 and as part of the FY2011
budget preparation process, U.S. and Mexican officials began to revise the strategic framework
underpinning U.S.-Mexican security cooperation. After several months of consultations, the
Obama and Calderón governments agreed to a new strategy, which has been called “Beyond
Mérida,” that broadens the scope of bilateral security efforts and focuses more on institution-
building than on technology and equipment transfers. The Obama Administration outlined the
strategy in its FY2011 budget request, which included $310 million for Mérida-related programs
in Mexico.58 The Administration did not formally announce the new strategy until the Mérida
High-Level Consultative Group meeting in Mexico City on March 23, 2010. The State
Department has since indicated that it intends to extend Mérida assistance beyond 2012, when
President Calderón leaves office, and to increase U.S. support for Mexican state and local
governments.59 The four pillars of the strategy are discussed below.
Pillar One: Disrupting the Operational Capacity of Organized
Crime

The Calderón government has, until recently, focused most of its efforts on dismantling the power
of drug trafficking organizations. To that end, the government has conducted joint police-military
operations to arrest DTO leaders, investigated and indicted public officials suspected of collusion,
and begun to go after the DTOs’ illicit assets.60 A significant percentage of U.S. assistance
appropriated during the first phase of the Mérida Initiative has been obligated to purchase
equipment to support those efforts, including $590.5 million worth of aircraft and helicopters.
The Mexican government has increasingly begun to conceptualize the DTOs as for-profit
corporations. Consequently, its strategy, and U.S. efforts to support it, has begun to focus more
attention on disrupting the criminal proceeds used to finance DTOs’ operations. These efforts, as
well as increased intelligence-sharing and cross-border law enforcement operations and
investigations (such as those that have occurred in areas around Nogales, Arizona61) have been
suggested as possible areas for increased cooperation.
One question that may arise for policy makers as they review the Administration’s proposal for
continued funding for the Mérida Initiative is whether proposed funding would be used to expand
existing bilateral partnerships or whether it would be used to establish new partnerships. The
answer to this question may depend on the effectiveness of current partnerships, as well as

58 There is a steep decline in “counternarcotics” assistance in the FY2011 budget request. The President’s budget
requests $78 million for counternarcotics programs in Mexico under INCLE in FY2011, which is a $115.5 million
decrease below the FY2010 estimated allocation by the State Department.
59 U.S. Department of State, Report to Congress on Mérida and Post-Mérida, June 11, 2010.
60 The Mexican Congress has recently enacted an asset forfeiture law. The Mexican government has also imposed
limits on the amount of U.S. dollars that individuals can exchange or deposit each month. “Mexico Targets Dirty
Dollars,” BBC News, June 15, 2010.
61 CBP and the Mexican Federal Police within the Secretariat for Public Security (SSP) have been conducting parallel
patrols along the Arizona border since September 2009. On February 18, 2010, DHS Secretary Napolitano signed an
agreement to expand that type of cooperation with the SSP. In addition, ICE, CBP, and the Mexican Attorney General’s
Office (PGR) have had an agreement in place that has enabled the PGR to prosecute drug smuggling cases that the U.S.
Attorney’s Office in Arizona declines to prosecute. That program is now being extended to El Paso.
Congressional Research Service
13

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

whether new partnerships are needed to address emerging law enforcement challenges. For
example, Mexico recently began conducting southbound inspections of commercial and non-
commercial vehicles entering the country, deploying more canine detection teams, and employing
risk analysis techniques to improve its ability to detect and seize illicit goods.62 Under pillar three
of the new strategy (discussed below), the Mexican government may seek increased training from
CBP and ICE, as well as equipment to build a simulated/model port at the new customs training
academy that it is constructing in Querétaro. Should the DTOs begin to employ new weapons,
such as grenades or car bombs (as occurred in Ciudad Juárez on July 15, 2010), specific training
to combat those new threats could be needed.
Also, as the DTOs increasingly evolve into poly-criminal organizations, perhaps as a partial result
of drug interdiction efforts cutting into their profits, some analysts have also urged both
governments to focus more on combating other types of organized crime, such as human
trafficking and alien smuggling.63 Some may therefore question whether the funding provided
under the Mérida Initiative will be used to address all forms of transnational organized crime.
Examples of current U.S.-Mexico law enforcement partnerships are discussed in Appendix B.
Pillar Two: Institutionalizing the Rule of Law in Mexico
Many security experts maintain that the Mexican government needs to focus more on addressing
the country’s weak law enforcement and judicial institutions. Federal police reform is well
underway, but serious questions remain as to when and how the federal police will take over the
anti-drug functions currently being carried out by the Mexican military.64 President Calderón has
indicated that the military will remain engaged in public security functions through the end of his
term in 2012. Another major challenged will be to expand police reform efforts to the state and
municipal level, possibly through the establishment of state level unified police commands. Some
Mérida funding is being used to extend U.S.-funded police training and prison reform efforts to
states and municipalities, beginning with Ciudad Juárez and the state of Chihuahua.
With impunity rates hovering around 98%,65 experts maintain that it is crucial for Mexico to
implement the judicial reforms passed in the summer of 2008 and to focus on fighting corruption
at all levels of government. In order for Mexico to transition its criminal justice system to an
accusatorial system with oral trials by 2016, some argue that U.S.-funded judicial training
programs, some of which are just getting started, may have to be significantly expanded. 66 Others

62 CRS telephone briefing with Mexican Customs Official, June 17, 2010.
63 Edgardo Buscaglia, a Mexican expert in organized crime, has estimated that between 52 and 55% of the illicit profits
earned by Mexican organized criminal groups now come from illicit activities other than drug trafficking. Dolia
Estévez, “Juárez: El Futúro de México?” Poder 360, March 12, 2010.
64 On April 8, 2010, Mexican military forces began to withdraw from Ciudad Juarez, leaving primary security
responsibilities to 5,000 federal police. The Federal Police opened a new Federal Police Command Center in Ciudad
Juárez to coordinate interagency security efforts in the city and share intelligence with the Federal Police Intelligence
Center in Mexico City. If this transition from military to federal police control goes smoothly, it could serve as a model
for other cities and states to replicate. Embassy of Mexico in Washington, DC, “Fact Sheet: Federal Police Takes
Control of Security in Ciudad Juárez,” April 2010.
65 In other words, about 98% of perpetrators have not been brought to justice. This figure is widely cited, see, for
example, Guillermo Zepeda, Índice de Incidencia Delictiva y Violencia 2009, Center of Research for Development
(CIDAC), Mexico City, August 2009, p. 9.
66 Eric L. Olson and Christopher E. Wilson, Beyond Merida: The Evolving Approach to Security Cooperation,
Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Working Paper Series on U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation, May
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
14

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

also maintain that the country’s overcrowded federal and state prisons, whose inmate populations
have grown partially as a result of increasing drug-related arrests and more frequent use of pre-
trial detentions, merit increased attention.67
Reforming the Police
Police corruption has presented additional challenges to the campaign against DTOs in Mexico.
In October 2008, an elite unit within the PGR’s Office for Special Investigations of Organized
Crime (SIEDO) was implicated in a scandal involving payoffs for sensitive information about
antidrug activities, with at least 35 officials fired or arrested.68 In November 2008, the former
head of SIEDO was arrested and accused of accepting bribes from a DTO. The former
investigative agency within the PGR, the Federal Agency of Investigations (AFI), which was
created in 2001, was, by 2005, widely criticized for corruption, and largely disbanded in June
2009.69 Corruption has also plagued federal, state, and municipal police forces.
President Calderón has taken steps to reform Mexico’s federal, state, and municipal police forces
by enhancing police training at the federal level, creating a national database through which
police can share information and intelligence, and accelerating implementation of a national
police registry.70 Calderón initially proposed the creation of one unified federal police force under
the SSP, but two laws passed in 2009 created a Federal Police (FP) force under the SSP and a
Federal Ministerial Police (PFM) force under the PGR to replace the discredited AFI, both with
some investigative functions. 71 It took the Mexican government another year to issue regulations
delineating the roles and responsibilities of these two new police entities.
Whereas initiatives to recruit, train, and equip the FP under the SSP have rapidly advanced (with
support from the Mérida Initiative), efforts to build the PGR’s police forces (the PFM) have
lagged behind. According to the State Department, Mérida funding will support specialized
training courses to improve federal police investigations, intelligence collection and analysis, and
anti-money laundering capacity, as well as the construction of regional command and control
centers.72 The Calderón government has also sought U.S. technical assistance in developing in-
service evaluations and internal investigative units to prevent and punish police corruption and
human rights abuses. Mérida assistance has recently begun to support the PFM as well as the FP,
but the success of U.S.-funded efforts could be hindered without a clear division of labor between

(...continued)
2010.
67 Federal police reform in Mexico began in 2008. Between FY2008 and FY2010, some $14 million in Mérida
assistance has been set aside for providing “technical assistance in prison management.”
68 Tracy Wilkinson, “Mexico Under Siege: Elite Police Tainted by Drug Gang,” Los Angeles Times, October 28, 2008.
69 Robert E. Donnelly and David A. Shirk, eds., Police and Public Security in Mexico, San Diego, CA: University
Readers, 2010, p. 228.
70 A State Department report submitted to congressional appropriators on April 2, 2010, as required by the Joint
Explanatory Statement to P.L. 111-117, described Mexico’s national police registry, which was started in 2001, as now
being “fully functional,” but stated that “not all [Mexican] states and municipalities have permanent, real-time
connectivity to the system.” The State Department plans to devote up to $8.8 million in Mérida funding to enhance the
registry and make it available across the country. U.S. Department of State, Report on the Mexican Federal Registry of
Police Personnel
, April 2, 1010.
71 Daniel Sabet, Police Reform in Mexico: Advances and Persistent Obstacles, Woodrow Wilson International Center
for Scholars, Working Paper Series on U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation, May 2010.
72 U.S. Department of State, FY2010 Mérida Initiative Spending Plan for Mexico, June 10, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
15

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

the two entities and guidance on how they will collaborate in investigating and developing cases
with prosecutors from the PGR.
Thus far, state and local police reform has lagged behind federal police reform efforts. In
September 2009, the Calderón government put forth a proposal to reform article 115 of the
Mexican Constitution in order to have the country’s roughly 2,022 municipal police forces
absorbed by state-level police agencies that would then coordinate their efforts with the SSP.73
Mexico’s National Security Council has approved the proposal and the 2011 budget includes
funding for its implementation, but the proposal has encountered significant opposition in the
Mexican Congress.74 Proponents of the reform maintain that it would improve coordination with
the SSP and bring efficiency, standardization, and better trained and equipped police to
municipalities. Skeptics argue that police corruption has been a major problem at all levels of the
Mexican policing system, including the state and federal police, and argue that there is a role for
municipal police who are trained to deal with local issues. They urge the Mexican government to
implement the vetting and certification procedures for state and local police that were codified in
the January 2009 public security law; strengthening the National System of Public Security,
which is oversees state and local police reform efforts; and continue rewarding state and
municipal units whose officers meet certain standards with federal subsidies.
The outcome of the aforementioned reform effort could have implications for U.S. intensions to
expand Mérida assistance to state and municipal police forces, which is already planned for the
state of Chihuahua.75 Some have urged the U.S. and Mexican governments to consider expanding
the training programs developed for the SSP training institute at San Luis Potosi to support a
number of new regional police academies.76 Training courses offered to state and local police
might have a slightly different emphasis than those given to federal forces, with more emphasis
on, for example, community-oriented policing and dealing with street crime.
In order to complement these efforts, analysts have maintained that it is important to provide
assistance to civil society and human rights-related non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in
Mexico in order to strengthen their ability to monitor police conduct and provide input on
policing policies. Combined with internal control mechanisms and stringent punishments for
police misconduct, some maintain that citizen participation councils can have a positive impact
on police performance and police-community relations.
Reforming the Judicial and Penal Systems
The Mexican judicial system has been widely criticized for being opaque, inefficient, and corrupt.
It is plagued by long case backlogs, a high pre-trial detention rate, and an inability to secure
convictions. Recent press reports citing data provided by the PGR maintain that the vast majority

73 In order to take effect, the measure would have to be approved by the Mexican Congress and then a majority of the
state legislatures, a process which could take several months to a year or more.
74 Melissa Pitts, Mexico Update: Addressing Police Reform and Climate Changes, Council of the Americas, December
2, 2010.
75 The U.S. government plans to help Mexico develop a standard curriculum for state and municipal police officers; to
provide equipment, training, and advisors to state and municipal forces; and to help create a major crimes task force
comprised of federal and state police.
76 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Common Enemy, Common Struggle: Progress in U.S.-
Mexican Efforts to Defeat Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking
, 111th Cong., 2nd sess., May 18, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
16

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

of drug trafficking-related deaths that have occurred since President Calderón took office have
not been prosecuted.77 At the same time, increasing arrests have caused the prison population to
expand by approximately 8% in the past three years, with inmates housed in facilities that are, on
average, 30% over capacity.78 Many inmates (perhaps 40%79) are awaiting their trials. Those
suspected of involvement in organized criminal activity can be held by the authorities for 40 days
without access to legal council, with a possible extension of another 40 days.80
In June 2008, President Calderón signed a judicial reform decree after securing the approval of
Congress and Mexico’s states for an amendment to Mexico’s Constitution. Under the reform,
Mexico has until 2016 to replace its trial procedures at the federal and state level, moving from a
closed-door process based on written arguments to a public trial system with oral arguments and
the presumption of innocence until proven guilty. In addition to oral trials, judicial systems are
expected to adopt additional means of alternative dispute resolution, which should help make it
more flexible and efficient thereby relieving some of the pressure on the country’s prison system.
Implementing these judicial reforms has brought with it major challenges, including the need to
revise federal and state criminal procedure codes (CPCs), build new courtrooms, retrain current
legal professionals, update law school curricula, and improve forensic technology.
Two and a half years into the reform process, implementation has advanced further in many states
than at the federal level. The Mexican Congress has yet to approve a new federal CPC, a key
element needed to guide both federal and state reform efforts. Prior to 2008, six states had already
adopted judicial reforms, many with assistance from USAID, while three others had approved but
not yet implemented state-level reforms. 81 In January 2011, the federal commission tasked with
monitoring implementation of judicial reforms at the state and federal level reported that eight
states have implemented the reforms and three more states are scheduled to do so in 2011. The
commission’s goal is for all 32 states to have approved the minimum legal changes necessary to
comply with the reforms before President Calderón leaves office. Its ability to spur reform efforts
have reportedly been hindered, however, by budget constraints and a limited ability to exert
pressure on other government entities such as the courts and the PGR. 82
From the beginning, many analysts had predicted that progress in advancing judicial reform in
Mexico was “likely to be very slow as capacity constraints and entrenched interests in the judicial
system delay any changes.”83 Others expressed concerns that the Calderón government appeared
to be devoting more funding and political will towards modernizing the police than strengthening

77 “Cárteles Perturban al Sistema Carcelario,” El Universal, June 18, 2010.
78 Silvia Otero, “No Investigan 95% de Muertes en ‘Guerra,’” El Universal, June 21, 2010.
79 Human Rights Watch, World Report, 2010.
80 This practice, known as “arraigo” (pre-charge detention) first came into existence in the 1980s, and was formally
incorporated into the Mexican Constitution through a constitutional amendment passed in 2008 as a legal instrument to
fight organized crime. Its use has been criticized by several United Nations bodies, the Inter-American Commission for
Human Rights of the Organization of American States, and international and Mexican human rights organizations. For
more, see Janice Deaton, Arraigo and Legal Reform in Mexico, University of San Diego, June 2010.
81 Chihuahua, Mexico State, Morelos, Oaxaca, Nuevo León, and Zacatecas adopted reforms prior to 2008. As of that
time, Baja California, Durango, and Hidalgo had adopted but not yet implemented state-level reforms. Matthew
Ingraham, State-Level Judicial Reform in Mexico: The Local Progress of Criminal Justice Reforms, TBI Working
Paper, May 2010.
82 David Shirk, Justice Reform in Mexico: Changes and Challenges in the Judicial Sector, Woodrow Wilson Center,
Working Paper Series on U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation, April 2010.
83 “Mexico Risk: Legal and Regulatory Risk,” Economist Intelligence Unit-Risk Briefing, January 8, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
17

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

the justice system (including the courts and the PGR).84 Some analysts questioned whether it
would be feasible to revamp the judicial system at a time when the government was under
pressure to get tough on organized crime since accountability and due process within the judicial
system are sometimes portrayed as impediments to law enforcement efforts.
Despite these challenges, many analysts are hopeful that Mexico will be able to follow the
examples of countries like Chile and Colombia that have successfully transformed their judicial
systems. In order for that transformation to take place, Mexico would likely benefit from
increased training and technical assistance from the United States and other Latin American
countries. USAID has been supporting code reform, judicial exchanges, alternative dispute
resolution, and Citizen’s Participation Councils, as well as training justice sector operators in five
Mexican states since 2004. Using roughly $19 million of the Economic Support Funds (ESF)
appropriated thus far for the Mérida Initiative, USAID is now working comprehensively in seven
of Mexico’s 32 states. With $11.5 million in FY2010 supplemental funds, USAID will continue
and expand its justice sector reform at the state level.85 However, at a time when Mexico is
supporting the reforms through significant in-kind financial investments, demand appears to be
outpacing USAID resources. Additional funding would enable USAID to deepen assistance to
target states and further expand into others committed to advancing the reforms. 86 For its part,
DOJ is administering at least $19 million in State Department and USAID funding in the areas of
(1) prosecutorial capacity building; (2) strengthening the internal control systems of the SSP and
the PGR; (3) extradition training; (4) asset forfeiture; (5) forensics; and (6) witness protection.87
Since no one, including the Mexican government, has published an estimate of how much it is
likely to cost to implement the 2008 reforms, the adequacy of Mexican and U.S. investments is
difficult to measure.
Pillar Three: Creating a “21st Century Border”
Policy makers have questioned not only what it means to have a 21st century border, but
specifically how this will enhance law enforcement’s abilities to combat the drug trafficking
organizations and reduce the related violence. In an increasingly globalized world, the notion of a
border is necessarily more complex than a physical line between two sovereign nations.
Consequently, the proposed 21st century border is based on (1) enhancing public safety via
increased information sharing, screenings, and prosecutions; (2) securing the cross-border flow of
goods and people; (3) expediting legitimate commerce and travel through investments in
personnel, technology, and infrastructure; (4) engaging border communities in cross-border trade;
and (5) setting bilateral policies for collaborative border management.88

84 Eric L. Olson, Police Reform and Modernization in Mexico, 2009. Woodrow Wilson Center, September 2009.
85 U.S. Department of State, FY2010 Supplemental Appropriations Spending Plan: Mérida Initiative/Mexico,
November 9, 2010.
86 USAID officials estimate that it would require $21 million in additional funding to establish a permanent presence in
the seven states where it has already been working and $35 million to deal with the pending requests it has received.
USAID will receive $11.5 million in FY2010 supplemental funding to support judicial sector programs, including
prosecutorial training at the state level. Email from USAID official, December 16, 2010.
87 U.S. Department of Justice, Criminal Division, Office of Overseas Prosecutorial Development, Assistance, and
Training (OPDAT), “OPDAT Mexico Mérida Initiative Resident Legal Advisor Program,” press release, April 2010.
That figure does not include funds from the FY2010 supplemental appropriations measure.
88 U.S. Department of State, “United States - Mexico Partnership: A New Border Vision,” press release, March 23,
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2010/03/138926.htm.
Congressional Research Service
18

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Policy makers may question whether this combination of efforts aimed at creating a 21st century
border will simultaneously enhance law enforcement’s abilities to combat organized crime and
prevent drug trafficking-related violence from spilling over into the United States.
On May 19, 2010, the United States and Mexico declared their intent to collaborate on enhancing
the U.S.-Mexican border.89 To head this initiative, they have established a Twenty-First Century
Border Bilateral Executive Steering Committee (ESC). On December 15, 2010, the ESC held its
inaugural meeting in Mexico City during which it adopted a bi-national action plan. The plan is
focused on: coordinating infrastructure development, expanding trusted traveler and shipment
programs, establishing pilot projects for cargo pre-clearance, and improving information sharing
among law enforcement agencies.90 The ESC also issued a joint declaration on preventing border
violence, including the use of lethal force by either U.S. or Mexican law enforcement officers.91
Both the United States and Mexico spend significant funds—outside of Mérida—related to border
security. Because border policies and practices have been different along the U.S. side of the
Southwest border and the Mexican side, each country’s goals in further developing the border
may necessarily differ as well. A related issue is whether funds appropriated under the revised
Mérida Initiative should be divided equally or equitably between border initiatives on the U.S.
and Mexican sides of the border.
While policy makers may generally question what constitutes a “21st century border,” they may
more specifically question which aspects of this border will be mutually beneficial to both U.S.
and Mexican efforts to combat the DTOs. Although a key goal of the Mérida Initiative is to
combat the DTOs and their criminal activities, the U.S. border strategy does not discriminate
between combating drug trafficking-related illicit activities and other illegal behaviors along the
border. The current U.S. border strategy strives to secure and manage the U.S. border through
obtaining effective control of the borders, safeguarding lawful trade and travel, and identifying
and disrupting transnational criminal organizations.92 As such, it remains to be seen whether
enhancements to the border will specifically support the Mérida Initiative’s goal of combating the
DTOs or whether the funds put toward border development will result in a general strengthening
of the security of the border—and, as a byproduct, aid in disrupting drug trafficking-related
activities.

89 The White House, “Declaration by The Government Of The United States Of America and The Government Of The
United Mexican States Concerning Twenty-First Century Border Management,” press release, May 19, 2010,
http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/declaration-government-united-states-america-and-government-united-
mexican-states-c. As mentioned, U.S. - Mexican security cooperation along the border did not begin with the Mérida
Initiative. This ESC is one of the most recent developments in the bilateral cooperation.
90 A draft version of the binational plan is available at: http://www.usembassy-mexico.gov/pdf/plan-eng.pdf.
91 “Mexico-US Joint Statement on the Prevention of Violence in the Border Region,” press release,
http://www.usembassy-mexico.gov/pdf/fronteriza-eng.pdf.
92 For more information on the U.S. border strategy, see CRS Report R41237, People Crossing Borders: An Analysis of
U.S. Border Protection Policies
, by Chad C. Haddal. CRS was unable to locate an official Mexican border strategy for
comparison with the U.S. border strategy. For information on the roles of various U.S. agencies in border security, see
CRS Report RS21899, Border Security: Key Agencies and Their Missions, by Chad C. Haddal. For information on the
U.S. Border Patrol, see CRS Report RL32562, Border Security: The Role of the U.S. Border Patrol, by Chad C.
Haddal.
Congressional Research Service
19

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Northbound and Southbound Inspections93
One element of concern regarding enhanced bilateral border security efforts is that of southbound
inspections of people, goods, vehicles, and cargo. In particular, both countries have
acknowledged a shared responsibility in fueling and combating the illicit drug trade. Policy
makers may question who is responsible for performing northbound and southbound inspections
in order to prevent illegal drugs from leaving Mexico and entering the United States and to
prevent dangerous weapons and the monetary proceeds of drug sales from leaving the United
States and entering Mexico. Further, if this is a joint responsibility, it is still unclear how U.S. and
Mexican border officials will divide the responsibility of inspections to maximize the possibility
of stopping the illegal flow of goods while simultaneously minimizing the burden on the
legitimate flow of goods and preventing the duplication of efforts.
In addition to its inbound/northbound inspections, the United States has undertaken steps to
enhance its outbound/southbound screening procedures. Currently, DHS is screening 100% of
southbound rail shipments for illegal weapons, cash, and drugs. Also, as previously mentioned,
CBP scans license plates along the Southwest border with the use of automated license plate
readers (LPRs). As of April 2010, CBP operated 52 outbound LPR lanes at 16 Southwest border
crossings, and DHS officials indicate that this number will continue to increase.94 In FY2010,
Congress provided $20 million for CBP to acquire Non-Intrusive Inspection Equipment (NIIE) to
aid in southbound inspection and processing of travelers and shipments. As of April 2010, CBP
had 117 large-scale NIIE systems at Southwest border ports of entry.95
Historically, Mexican Customs had not served the role of performing southbound (or inbound)
inspections. As part of the revised Mérida Initiative, CBP is helping to establish a Mexican
Customs training academy to support professionalization and promote the Mexican Customs’ new
role of performing inbound inspections. Additionally, CBP is assisting Mexican Customs in
developing an investigator training program and, as of September 2010, had established 42 new
canine teams to assist with the inspections.96
Preventing Border Enforcement Corruption
Another point that policy makers may question regarding the strengthening of the Southwest
border is how to prevent the corruption of U.S. and Mexican border officials who are charged
with securing the border. On March 11, 2010, the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and
Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on State, Local, and Private Sector Preparedness and
Integration held a hearing on the corruption of U.S. border officials by Mexican DTOs. According
to testimony from the hearing, in FY2009, the DHS Inspector General opened 839 investigations

93 There is a dearth of open-source data that currently measures the extent of inbound and outbound inspections
performed by both the United States and Mexico along the Southwest border. Rather, existing data tends to address
seizures of drugs, guns, and money as well as apprehensions of suspects. Therefore, this section addresses current U.S.
and additional initiatives to bolster cross-border inspections.
94 Department of Homeland Security, “Testimony by Secretary Janet Napolitano, before the United States Senate
Committee on the Judiciary, on Oversight of the Department of Homeland Security,” press release, April 27, 2010,
http://www.dhs.gov/ynews/testimony/testimony_1272383936754.shtm.
95 Ibid.
96 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, CBP Canine Program Aids Government of Mexico, September 8, 2010,
http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/newsroom/highlights/canine_graduation.xml.
Congressional Research Service
20

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

of DHS employees. Of the 839 investigations, 576 were of CBP employees, 164 were of ICE
employees, 64 were of Citizen and Immigration Services (CIS) employees, and 35 were of
Transportation Security Administration (TSA) employees.97 It is unknown, however, how many
of these cases involve alleged corruption by Mexican DTOs or how many involve suspected
corruption of DHS employees working along the Southwest border.
To date, the Administration’s proposal for a 21st century border has not directly addressed this
issue of corruption. Congress may consider whether preventing, detecting, and prosecuting public
corruption of border enforcement personnel should be a component of the border initiatives
funded by the Mérida Initiative. If the corruption is as pervasive as officials say,98 resources
provided for new technologies and initiatives along the border may be diminished or negated by
corrupt border personnel. For instance, at the end of 2009, CBP was able to polygraph between 10
and 15% of applicants applying for border patrol positions, and of those who were polygraphed,
about 60% were found unsuitable for service.99 If this pattern holds true and 85-90% of current
new hires were not subjected to a polygraph, anywhere between 51% and 54% of all CBP new-
hires may not be found suitable for service. Congress may decide to increase funding—as part of
or separately from Mérida funding—for the vetting of new and current border enforcement
personnel.
Pillar Four: Building Strong and Resilient Communities
This pillar is a new focus for U.S.-Mexican cooperation, the overall goal of which is to build
strong and resilient communities that can withstand the pressures of crime and violence.
Programs will consist primarily of targeted efforts to 1) improve strategic planning and
communication to reduce risk factors to reduce risk factors that lead to crime/violence; 2)
improve the ability of subnational governments to collaboratively address community needs; and
3) prepare youth to be responsible members of their communities. Funding and implementation of
pillar four is primarily the responsibility of the Mexican government, with some support from
multilateral institutions like the World Bank. The Mexican government began its efforts under
pillar four in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, but has started to expand some social programs to other
cities. U.S.- Mexican efforts are focusing on pilot projects in Ciudad Juárez, but, with additional
funds, could potentially be expanded to other cities.
For the past few years, Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, a city across the border from El Paso, Texas,
has been at the epicenter of Mexico’s drug trafficking-related violence and is now among the
world’s most violent cities. Violence has escalated as the Juárez and Sinaloa DTOs have battled
for control over the El Paso drug smuggling route or “plaza,” youth gangs have fought over local

97 See testimony by Thomas M. Frost, Assistant Inspector General for Investigations, U.S. Department of Homeland
Security before the U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Ad Hoc
Subcommittee on State, Local, and Private Sector Preparedness and Integration, New Border War: Corruption of U.S.
Officials by Drug Cartels
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., March 11, 2010.
98 See testimony by Kevin L. Perkins, Assistant Director, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of
Investigation before the U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Ad Hoc
Subcommittee on State, Local, and Private Sector Preparedness and Integration, New Border War: Corruption of U.S.
Officials by Drug Cartels
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., March 11, 2010.
99 See testimony by James F. Tomsheck, Assistant Commissioner, Office of Internal Affairs, Customs and Border
Protection before the U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Ad Hoc
Subcommittee on State, Local, and Private Sector Preparedness and Integration, New Border War: Corruption of U.S.
Officials by Drug Cartels
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., March 11, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
21

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

drug distribution networks, and criminal groups have struggled against Mexican law enforcement
and military forces. The violence captured international attention after the massacre of 15
civilians, many of them teenagers, by armed gunmen at a private home in late January 2010, an
event which also sparked strong criticism in Mexico of President Calderón’s military-led drug
strategy. Mistrust between the citizens of Ciudad Juárez and government officials, as well as
amongst officials from different agencies and levels of the Mexican government had reportedly
reached an untenable level that was hindering law enforcement efforts.100
In an attempt to heal those rifts and counter the escalating violence, President Calderón and his
top advisers began consulting with state and local officials to revise the government’s military-led
strategy for Ciudad Juárez. After those consultations, the Calderón government launched a new
“We Are All Juárez” strategy in mid-February, 2010, that includes significant federal government
investments in education, job training, and community development programs to help address
some of the underlying factors that have contributed to the violence.101 Critics argued that the
hastily conceived strategy concentrated too much on amplifying existing programs rather than
developing new ones to meet the particular needs of the Juárez community. More broadly, some
observers maintain that any social programs are likely to fail in Ciudad Juárez unless the security
situation and rampant corruption now plaguing the city are brought under control.102 Possibly in
response to those concerns, efforts are being made to concentrate federal efforts in certain “safe
zones” that will enable the Juárez government to demonstrate to citizens the benefits that come
with successful government control over neighborhoods.
U.S. efforts in Ciudad Juárez have involved the expansion of some existing Mérida-funded
initiatives, such as school-based "culture of lawfulness" programs and demand reduction and
treatment services, as well as supporting some new initiatives. USAID has reprogrammed
existing funding, both Mérida and bilateral, to support an urban mapping project (Mérida) and an
at-risk youth program (non-Mérida) administered by international organizations with experience
working in the city. Some of USAID’s Mérida funding has also been dedicated to supporting
social development projects in Ciudad Juárez. In April 2010, USAID launched a program by
which civic organizations in Ciudad Juárez could submit proposals to receive grants of up to
$100,000 to support community development projects. By October 2010, roughly 17 grants worth
roughly close to $1 million had been approved.103
USAID will also receive some $14 million in FY2010 supplemental funding to implement
activities in Ciudad Juárez. Those activities may include: grant funding for crime prevention
programs; support for human rights NGOs; assistance to help civic organizations influence local
and state politics; municipal exchanges to share best practices in reducing violence; and, support
for the development of community crime prevention strategies.104

100 Eric L. Olson, Shattered Dreams and Restoring Hope: Organized Crime and Violence on the U.S.-Mexico Border,
Woodrow Wilson Center, February 22, 2010.
101 The Mexican government plans to implement 160 concrete policy actions that will involve government investments
of more than $3.4 billion pesos (roughly $274.0 million dollars). A progress report on how implementation of the
strategy is advancing is available in Spanish at: http://www.todossomosjuarez.gob.mx/estrategia/avances.html.
102 Katherine Corcoran,” Mexico Program to Clean up Violence-Plagued Border City Ciudad Juárez has Long Way to
go,” Associated Press, January 3, 2011.
103 Email from USAID official, January 18, 2011.
104 U.S. Department of State, FY2010 Supplemental Appropriations Spending Plan: Mérida Initiative/Mexico,
November 9, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
22

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Issues
Measuring the Success of the Mérida Initiative
Policy makers and analysts have debated how to measure the success of the Mérida Initiative.105
One basic measure by which Congress has evaluated the Mérida Initiative has been the pace at
which equipment has been delivered and trainings have been carried out. As previously
mentioned, a December 2009 GAO report identified several factors that had slowed the pace of
Mérida implementation.106 It is unclear whether more expeditious equipment deliveries to Mexico
may result in a more positive evaluation of Mérida because this is one of many metrics that may
be used for measuring success. Another means by which Mérida success may be measured is
through the impact of training programs—such as the number of individuals completing each
course. If, for example, the speed of equipment deliveries or the number of Mexican officials
trained are used as benchmarks for success, it is unclear whether the Mérida Initiative may still be
considered a success if equipment is delivered and training programs are carried out, but the
Mexican government is still unable to make significant inroads against drug trafficking
organizations and organized criminal groups.
U.S.-funded antidrug programs in source and transit countries (of which Mexico is both) have
also traditionally been evaluated by examining the number of DTO leaders arrested and the
amount of drugs and other illicit items seized, along with the price and purity of drugs in the
United States. The State Department included a list of similar performance measures for each
portion of the Mérida Initiative in its FY2008 supplemental spending plan.107 As noted in the July
2010 GAO report that was previously discussed, the State Department has yet to update those
measures to reflect the new four-pillar strategy for Mérida.108 In the Joint Explanatory Statement
to the FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117), Congress directed the State
Department to submit a report to congressional appropriators on progress that has been made thus
far in implementing the Mérida Initiative. The report, which was submitted on June 11, 2010,
continues to document progress in terms of the amount of equipment that has been delivered and
training courses that have been carried out, but does not include information on any other
performance indicators.
Nevertheless, State Department fact sheets and remarks have shown that, with respect to arrests
and seizures of some drugs (i.e., cocaine and methamphetamine), the Mérida Initiative may have
had some success. Arrests and seizures on both sides of the border have increased.109 U.S.
officials have also highlighted the fact that cocaine availability and purity in United States has

105 See, for example, Andrew Selee, Success or Failure? Evaluating U.S.-Mexico Efforts to Address Organized Crime
and Violence
, Center for Hemispheric Policy- Perspectives on the Americas Series, December 20, 2010.
106 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Status of Funds for the Mérida Initiative, 10-253R, December 3, 2009.
107 For a complete list of those indicators, see U.S. Department of State, FY2008 Supplemental Appropriations
Spending Plan, Mexico, Central America, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic
, September 9, 2008, pp. 16-39.
108 GAO 10-837.
109 U.S. Department of State, “United States-Mexico Security Partnership: Progress and Impact,” press release, May 19,
2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2010/05/142019.htm.
Congressional Research Service
23

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

been on a downward trend since 2006 as evidence of the success of Mérida and other U.S.-funded
antidrug efforts.110
However, a principal challenge in assessing the success of Mérida is separating the results of
those efforts funded via Mérida from those efforts funded through other border security and
bilateral cooperation initiatives. The data available does not allow U.S. officials or analysts to
determine the success that can be directly attributed to Mérida. It is also important to note that
changes in seizure data and drug prices may not be directly related to U.S.-Mexican efforts to
combat the DTOs. For instance, a decrease in drug seizures may be linked to a decrease in drug
production and transshipment across the Southwest border, a decrease in the number of border
enforcement officers available to search vehicles and people crossing the border, a shift in the
smuggling routes used by the DTOs, a diversification of DTO activities to rely upon other illegal
activities to generate income, or a success by the United States and Mexico in combating the drug
smuggling activities of the DTOs. It is equally difficult to parcel out the reasons for periodic
fluctuations in drug prices and purity in the United States.
Many experts have argued that Mexican President Calderón needs to reduce drug trafficking-
related violence in order to recover popular support for his anti-drug efforts. Should a decrease in
drug trafficking-related deaths be used as an indicator of success for the Mérida Initiative, or is an
imminent decline in the violence unrealistic given other countries’ experiences combating
entrenched organized criminal groups? Studies have shown that violence tends to escalate after a
government launches a major law enforcement initiative against a DTO or other organized
criminal group.111 In addition to a decline in drug trafficking-related violence, others have
suggested that success would be evidenced by, among other things, increases in popular trust in
the police and courts and the return of a free press, particularly in parts of Mexico where attacks
on journalists have led to virtual self-censorship.112
Still others, including U.S. officials, have maintained that the success of the Mérida Initiative may
be measured by a general increase in bilateral cooperation. Some officials have stated that the
increasing ability of U.S. and Mexican law enforcement to work collaboratively may be a
byproduct of enhanced cooperation fostered in part by Mérida.113 For instance, the State
Department has cited the arrests and killings of nearly two-dozen high-profile DTO leaders that
have been made since late 2009 as examples of the results of increased bilateral law enforcement
cooperation.114 Another example of Mérida success—in the form of bilateral cooperation—cited
by the State Department is the high number of extraditions from Mexico to the United States: 107
in 2009 and 94 in 2010. As illustrated in Figure 2, however, these extraditions may be more a
reflection of President Calderón’s commitment to combating the DTOs than of Mérida successes.

110 NDIC, 2010 National Drug Threat Assessment, February 2010.
111 International Centre for Science in Drug Policy, Effect of Drug Law Enforcement on Drug-Related Violence:
Evidence from a Scientific Review
, 2010.
112 Diana Villers Negroponte, Measuring Success in the Drug War: Criteria to Determine Progress in Mexico’s Efforts
to Defeat Narco-traffickers
, The Brookings Institution, May 25, 2010.
113 Testimony by Roberta S. Jacobson, Deputy Assistant Secretary, Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, U.S.
Department of State, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Homeland Security, Subcommittee on Border,
Maritime, and Global Counterterrorism, and House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Western
Hemisphere, U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation: Next Steps for the Merida Initiative, 111th Cong., 1st sess., May 27,
2010.
114 U.S. Department of State, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, “Remarks with Mexican Foreign Secretary
Patricia Espinosa,” January 24, 2011.
Congressional Research Service
24


U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Extraditions began to increase before the Mérida Initiative was authorized in October 2007 and
before the first funds obligated for equipment and training were realized in Mexico.
Figure 2. Individuals Extradited from Mexico to the United States
1995–2010

Source: 1995—2006 data from U.S. Embassy of Mexico, U.S. - Mexico at a Glance: Law Enforcement at a Glance,
http://www.usembassy-mexico.gov/eng/eataglance_law.html. Data for 2007—2008 from the Trans-Border
Institute, Justice in Mexico, News Report January 2009, January 2009, http://www.justiceinmexico.org/news/pdf/
justiceinmexico-january2009news-report021709.pdf. Data for 2009 from the U.S. Department of State, “United
States - Mexico Security Partnership: Progress and Impact,” press release, May 19, 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/
pa/prs/ps/2010/05/142019.htm. 2010 figures from electronic communication with U.S. Department of Justice.
Dealing with Increasing Drug Production in Mexico
Mexico is not only a transit country for Andean cocaine bound for the United States, but also a
major producer of cannabis (marijuana), opium poppy—used to produce heroin, and
methamphetamine. In recent years, U.S. government estimates indicate that marijuana and opium
poppy cultivation in rural Mexico has expanded significantly. In 2009, estimated marijuana
production in Mexico rose to 12,000 hectares, a 35% increase over 2008 and the highest level
recorded since 1992. Similarly, as of September 2009, opium production had risen to 15,000
hectares, a 50% increase over 2008. At the same time, despite Mexican government import
restrictions on precursor chemicals, the production of methamphetamine in clandestine labs also
appears to have increased significantly.115 Despite these trends, neither drug eradication nor
alternative development programs have been a focus of Mérida Initiative programs to date.

115 U.S. Department of State, INCSR, March 2010. Press reports maintain that NDIC’s 2010 National
Methamphetamine Threat Assessment
, which has yet to be released, contains evidence that methamphetamine is
increasingly available in the United States because of expanding production in Mexico. Charlie Savage and Michael R.
Gordon, “Administration Puts Off Release of a Drug Report,” New York Times, June 9, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
25

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

The Mexican government has engaged its military in drug crop eradication efforts since the
1930s, but personnel constraints have inhibited recent eradication efforts. Indeed, increases in
drug production have occurred as President Calderón has assigned more military forces to public
security functions, including anti-DTO operations, than to drug crop eradication efforts.116 As
Mexicans become increasingly wary of President Calderón’s strategy of using the military to
perform police functions, there may be calls for the troops to return to more traditional antidrug
functions. Similarly, if drug production in Mexico continues to expand, particularly production of
the potent and dangerous “black tar” variety of heroin, U.S. policy makers may decide to direct
some Mérida assistance to support eradication efforts in Mexico.
The Mexican government has not traditionally provided support for alternative development even
though many drug-producing regions of the country are impoverished rural areas where few licit
employment opportunities exist. Alternative development programs have traditionally sought to
provide positive incentives for farmers to abandon drug crop cultivation in lieu of farming other
crops, but may be designed more broadly to assist any individuals who collaborate with DTOs out
of economic necessity. In Colombia, recent studies have found that the combination of jointly
implemented eradication, alternative development, and interdiction is more effective than the
independent application of any one of these three strategies.117 Despite those findings, alternative
development often takes years to show results and requires a long-term government and donor
commitment to promoting rural development, two factors which may lessen its appeal as a policy
tool for Mexico.
Human Rights Concerns and Conditions on Mérida Initiative
Funding

Both the Mexican police and military have poor human rights records. According to the State
Department’s human rights report covering 2009, there have been credible reports of police
involvement in extrajudicial killings, kidnappings for ransom, and torture.118 There has also been
increasing concern that the Mexican military, which has had less human rights training and is less
accountable to civilian authorities than the police, is committing human rights abuses as it is
increasingly tasked with carrying out public security functions.119 According to Mexico’s Human
Rights Commission (CNDH), complaints of human rights abuses by the Mexico’s Department of
Defense increased from 182 in 2006 to 1,791 in 2009 before falling to 1,415 in 2010. The CNDH
also reported that 111 civilians were killed during federal police or army operations in 2010. 120
In addition to expressing concerns about current human rights abuses, Mexican and international
human rights groups have criticized the Mexican government for failing to hold military and

116 INCSR, March 2010.
117 Vanda Felbab-Brown, Joel M. Jutkowitz, Sergio Rivas, et al. Assessment of the Implementation of the United States
Government’s Support for Plan Colombia’s Illicit Crop Reduction Components
, report produced for review by the U.S.
Agency for International Development (USAID), April 17, 2009.
118 U.S. Department of State, 2009 Country Report on Human Rights Practices, March 11, 2010.
119 See, for example, Jorge Rocha Quintero, “Public Security and Human Rights,” in Police and Public Security in
Mexico
, edited by Robert A. Donnelly and David A. Shirk. San Diego, CA: University Readers, 2010; Maureen Meyer,
Abused and Afraid in Ciudad Juarez, Washington Office of Latin America/Centro Prodh, September 2010.
120 Statistics are available in annual reports of Mexico’s Human Rights Commission (CNDH), available at
http://www.cndh.org.mx; “Ciento Once Civiles Ajenos a Guerra Contra Crimen Murieron en 2010 en México,” EFE,
January 27, 2011.
Congressional Research Service
26

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

police officials accountable for past abuses. On July 13, 2009, Human Rights Watch issued a
statement asserting that “Mexican military courts ... have not convicted a single member of the
military accused of committing a serious human rights violation.”121 In November 2009, Mexican
Interior Minister Fernando Gomez Mont reported that, as of that time, one soldier had been
convicted of abuses during the Calderón Administration.122 The Mexican army has since created a
unit to handle citizen complaints about human rights abuses and announced that, as of late July
2010, a chief, an officer, and five soldiers have been convicted of abuse in military courts.123
Given these concerns, in 2008, Congress debated what type of human rights conditions should be
placed on Mérida assistance beyond the requirements in Section 620J of the Foreign Assistance
Act (FAA) of 1961. Section 620J of the FAA states that units of a foreign country’s security
forces are prohibited from receiving assistance if the Secretary of State receives “credible
evidence” that such units have committed “gross violations of human rights.” In the end, the
FY2008 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 110-252), which provided the first tranche of
Mérida funding, had softer human rights conditions than earlier House and Senate versions, in
large part because of Mexico’s objections that some of the conditions would violate its national
sovereignty. The conditions required that 15% of INCLE and Foreign Military Financing (FMF)
assistance be withheld until the Secretary of State reports in writing that Mexico is taking action
in four human rights areas:
1. improving transparency and accountability of federal police forces;
2. establishing a mechanism for regular consultations among relevant Mexican
government authorities, Mexican human rights organizations, and other relevant
Mexican civil society organizations, to make consultations concerning
implementation of the Mérida Initiative in accordance with Mexican and
international law;
3. ensuring that civilian prosecutors and judicial authorities are investigating and
prosecuting, in accordance with Mexican and international law, members of the
federal police and military forces who have been credibly alleged to have
committed violations of human rights, and the federal police and military forces
are fully cooperating with the investigations; and
4. enforcing the prohibition, in accordance with Mexican and international law, on
the use of testimony obtained through torture or other ill-treatment.
Similar human rights conditions have been included in subsequent appropriations measures that
have funded the Mérida Initiative. In P.L. 110-252, the human rights conditions applied to 15% of
the funding for INCLE and FMF, or approximately $57 million dollars. In the FY2009 Omnibus
Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-8), the 15% conditions applied to all of the funding accounts but
excluded amounts for judicial reform, institution building, anti-corruption and rule of law
activities, which were earmarked at not less than $75 million, or roughly $33.75 million. In the
FY2009 Supplemental (P.L. 111-32), the conditions effectively only applied to the $160 million
in the INCLE account, or $24 million, because the $260 million in FMF funds designated for
aircraft for the Mexican navy was excluded from the scope of the 15% withholding requirement.

121 Human Rights Watch, “Mexico: U.S. Should Withhold Military Aid: Rights Conditions in Merida Initiative Remain
Unmet,” July 13, 1009, available at http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/07/13/mexico-us-should-withhold-military-aid.
122 U.S. Department of State, 2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, March 11, 2010.
123 Ignacio Alzaga. “Sedena se Abre al Escrutinio Público; Sube Quejas a Web.” Milenio. July 28, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
27

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

In the FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117), the 15% withholding applies to
all of the accounts but it excludes assistance for judicial reform, institution building, anti-
corruption and rule of law activities.124 Finally, in the FY2010 Supplemental Appropriations Act
(P.L. 111-212), the conditions applied to 15% of the INCLE appropriated or roughly $26 million.
Human rights organizations generally lauded the inclusion of these human rights conditions in
Mérida Initiative appropriations legislation, although some thought they could have been more
tightly worded.
On August 13, 2009, the State Department submitted its human rights progress report for Mexico
to Congress, thereby meeting the statutory requirements for FY2008 supplemental and FY2009
regular funds that had been on hold to be released. While acknowledging that serious problems
remained, the report outlined steps that the Mexican government had taken to comply with the
human rights conditions. It acknowledged, however, that human rights complaints against the
Mexican military had “increased almost six-fold” since the beginning of the Calderón
government. It also stated that “the opaqueness of the [Mexican] military court system makes it
difficult to analyze the nature and type of complaints filed, the status of cases against members of
the military alleged to have violated human rights, or the results of the military prosecution.”125
Human rights groups criticized the State Department report and the release of Mérida funds that
were on hold. They have urged the State Department not to issue another favorable human rights
progress report to Congress until measurable improvements have been made.126
On September 2, 2010, the State Department submitted a second human rights progress report on
Mexico to Congress.127 According to that report, the Mexican government had demonstrated
enough progress since the August 2009 report was issued to enable $36 million in FY2009 and
FY2010 regular funds that had been on hold to be released. The report credited the Calderón
government with initiating legislation to strengthen the authority of the CNDH, carrying out
human rights training for military and police officials, and formalizing a bilateral dialogue on
human rights issues with the United States. It said that further progress had to be made in the
areas of transparency and impunity, however, in order for roughly $26 million in FY2010
supplemental funds that are on hold to be released. The State Department specifically urged the
Mexican Chamber of Deputies to approve human rights legislation that had passed the Senate in
April 2010 and the Calderón government to submit legislation that would reform the Military
Justice Code to have military officials accused of human rights crimes against civilians tried in
civilian courts. In October 2010, President Calderón submitted legislation to the Mexican
Congress that would establish civilian jurisdiction in cases where soldiers are accused of forced
disappearance, rape, and torture. Both the aforementioned human rights legislation and
Calderón’s proposed reform of the Military Justice Code are still being debated.

124 Congress did not specify a certain amount for these areas, so the total amount that is subject to the condition will
depend on how the State Department allocates funds to particular programs.
125 U.S. Department of State, Mexico- Mérida Initiative Report, August 2009.
126 Fundar et al., “Obama Administration’s Alleged Release of Mérida Funds: A Violation of U.S. Law That Will
Encourage Serious Human Rights Violations in Mexico,” August 2009; Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA)
et al., “Joint Letter to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton: Human Rights Concerns to Inform the U.S. Department of
State’s Merida Initiative Reporting on Mexico,” May 27, 2010.
127 U.S. Department of State, Mexico-Mérida Initiative Report, September 2, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
28

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Role of the U.S. Department Of Defense in Mexico
In contrast to Plan Colombia, the Mérida Initiative does not include an active U.S. military
presence in Mexico, largely due to Mexican concerns about national sovereignty stemming from
past conflicts with the United States.128 The Department of Defense (DOD) did not play a primary
role in designing the Mérida Initiative and is not providing assistance through Mérida aid
accounts. However, DOD is administering assistance provided through the FMF account. As an
implementing agency, DOD’s role has largely involved overseeing the procurement and delivery
of Mérida-funded equipment for Mexican security forces.
Despite its limited role in the Mérida Initiative, DOD assistance to Mexico has been increasing,
as has military cooperation between the two countries and Mexican participation in DOD training
programs in the United States.129 Apart from the Mérida Initiative, DOD has its own legislative
authorities to provide certain counterdrug assistance. DOD programs in Mexico are overseen by
the U.S. Northern Command (NORTHCOM), which is located at Peterson Air Force Base in
Colorado. DOD can provide counterdrug assistance under guidelines outlined in Sec. 1004 of
P.L. 101-510, as amended through FY2011, and can provide additional assistance to certain
countries as provided for in Sec. 1033 of P.L. 105-85, as amended through FY2011. DOD
counternarcotics support to Mexico totaled roughly $12.1 million in FY2008, $34.2 million in
FY2009, and $86.1 million in FY2010.130 DOD is developing a plan to use some $50 million in
FY2011 per Sec.1033 of P.L. 105-85 funds to improve security along the Mexico-Guatemala-
Belize border. Total DOD support to Mexico in FY2011 may exceed $69.6 million.131
Defense Secretary Robert Gates and Joint Chiefs Chairman Admiral Mike Mullen traveled to
Mexico along with Secretary Clinton in March 2010 to offer increased military assistance and
collaboration to their Mexican counterparts. Admiral James Winnefeld, the new NORTHCOM
Commander, recently said that he sees a “tremendous opportunity” to strengthen ties between the
U.S. and Mexican militaries through training and intelligence-sharing. As an example, he said
that the Mexican government has asked NORTHCOM to help it establish a joint intelligence
center. 132 DOD officials in Mexico City have predicted that while DOD is unlikely to provide
Mexico with the same amount of funds it has provided to Colombia, the same variety of programs
may be funded. Future training programs may focus on how to work with police forces, conduct
anti-drug operations and investigations, and pursue DTO leaders.133

128 See testimony of Roderic Ai Camp before the Congressional Policy Forum, “Role of Military to Military
Cooperation and the Implications and Potentials Risks to Civil-Military Relations,” May 9, 2008.
129 These trends preceded the Mérida Initiative. Roderic Ai Camp, Armed Forces and Drugs: Public Perceptions and
Institutional Challenges
, Woodrow Wilson Center, Working Paper Series on U.S.-Mexico Security Collaboration, May
2010.
130 DOD response to CRS request, September 9, 2010. This data reflects non-budget quality estimates of DOD
counternarcotics support provided or efforts in these nations/regions; DOD does not budget counternarcotics programs
by regions/countries, but by program. These figures reflect both “direct” support to those countries (e.g., training,
equipment, information sharing, infrastructure and other categories) and “indirect” support via DOD and other U.S.
Government counterdrug operations with regard to those countries (e.g., transportation, communications, intelligence
analysis, radar, air and maritime patrol, liaison personnel, and other categories).
131 Ibid.
132 “NORTHCOM Chief Cites Mexico Partnership as Top Priority,” U.S. Fed. News, June 2, 2010; Bill Gertz,
“NORTHCOM’s New Leader Boosts Focus on Mexico,” Washington Times, July 5, 2010.
133 CRS Interview with DOD official from the Office of Defense Coordination at the U.S. Embassy in Mexico City,
December 8, 2009.
Congressional Research Service
29

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Since DOD counterdrug assistance is obligated out of global accounts and the agency is not
required to submit country-specific requests to Congress for its programs, obtaining recent data
on DOD programs and plans for Mexico may be difficult. Regardless, policy makers may want to
receive periodic briefings on those efforts in order to guarantee that current and future DOD
programs are being adequately coordinated with Mérida Initiative efforts. They may also want to
ensure that DOD-funded programs are not inadvertently reinforcing the militarization of public
security in Mexico. Experts have urged the United States “not to focus too much on military
assistance and neglect other, more effective forms of aid…[such as assistance for] the
development, training, and professionalization of Mexico’s law enforcement officers.”134
Balancing Assistance to Mexico with Support for Southwest Border
Initiatives135

The Mérida Initiative was designed to complement domestic efforts to combat drug demand, drug
trafficking, weapons smuggling, and money laundering. These domestic counter-drug initiatives
are funded through regular and supplemental appropriations for a variety of U.S. domestic
agencies. As the strategy underpinning the Mérida Initiative expands to include efforts to build a
more modern border (pillar three) and to strengthen border communities (pillar four), policy
makers may consider how best to balance the amount of funding provided to Mexico with support
for related domestic initiatives, particularly those focused on the U.S. side of the Southwest
border.
Regarding support for law enforcement efforts, some would argue that there needs to be more
federal support for states and localities on the U.S. side of the border that are dealing with crime
and violence originating in Mexico. Of those who endorse that point of view, some are
encouraged by President Obama’s decision to send about 1,200 National Guard troops to the
border, whereas others maintain that those steps are insufficient to secure the border. In contrast,
some maintain that it is impossible to combat transnational criminal enterprises by adopting a
“fortress-like” mentality solely focused on the U.S. side of the border, and that domestic
programs must be accompanied by continued efforts to build the capacity of Mexican law
enforcement officials. They warn that if recent U.S. efforts are perceived as an attempt to
“militarize” the border, they may damage U.S.-Mexican relations and hinder bilateral security
cooperation efforts. Further, Mexican officials from across the political spectrum have been
critical of Arizona’s recently enacted state law against illegal immigration (S.B. 1070) and have
expressed concerns about the treatment of Mexican migrants in the United States. The Mexican
government was particularly incensed after two Mexican youth were killed by U.S. Border Patrol
agents within a ten-day span, including one youth shot on June 7, 2010, at the El Paso-Ciudad
Juárez border crossing.136
With respect to pillar four of the updated strategy, Mexico and the United States have discussed
the possibility of launching pilot programs to strengthen communities in the Ciudad Juárez-El
Paso and possibly Tijuana-San Diego areas. In targeting those cities most affected by the

134 Robert C. Bonner, “The New Cocaine Cowboys: How to Defeat Mexico’s Drug Cartels,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 89,
no. 4 (July/August 2010).
135 CRS Report R41237, People Crossing Borders: An Analysis of U.S. Border Protection Policies, by Chad C. Haddal.
136 Christopher Sherman and Alexandra Olson, “Mexico Condemns Border Patrol Shooting of Teen; Some Demand
Agent’s Extradition to Mexico,” AP Newswire, June 10, 2010.
Congressional Research Service
30

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

violence, greater efforts will necessarily be placed on community building in Ciudad Juárez and
Tijuana than on their sister cities in the United States. However, if the U.S. government provides
aid to these communities in Mexico, some may argue that there should also be federal support for
the adjacent U.S. border cities. Take, for example, initiatives directed at providing youth with
education, employment, and social outlets such that the allure of joining a DTO or local gang is
reduced. Some may contend that providing these services on the U.S. side of the border as well as
the Mexican side could prevent youth in the U.S. from becoming involved in a local gang with
ties to drug trafficking.
In August 2010, the 111th Congress passed legislation (P.L. 111-230) that provides $600 million in
supplemental funding to strengthen U.S. border security efforts. That total includes $394 million
for DHS: $244 million to hire new CBP officers and Border Patrol agents, $84 million to hire new
ICE agents, $32 million for two unmanned aerial detection systems, $6 million for bases for
Border Patrol agents, $14 million for communications equipment, and $8 million to train new law
enforcement personnel. The supplemental funds also include $196 million to support DOJ efforts
on the Southwest border. Those funds will enable the creation of seven new ATF Gunrunner units
and five FBI Hybrid Task Forces, as well as support additional DEA agents, federal attorneys,
prosecutors, and immigration judges. The supplemental funds will also enable the U.S.
government to provide increased technical assistance and training for Mexican law
enforcement.137
Integrating Counterdrug Programs in the Western Hemisphere138
U.S. State Department-funded drug control assistance programs in the Western Hemisphere are
currently undergoing a period of transition. Counterdrug assistance to Colombia and the Andean
region is in decline after record assistance levels that began with U.S. support for Plan Colombia
in FY2000. Conversely, antidrug funding for Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean has
increased as a result of the Mérida Initiative, which began in FY2008, and two related programs
that received initial funding in FY2010, the Central American Regional Security Initiative
(CARSI) and the Caribbean Basin Security Initiative (CBSI). The strategy undergirding the
Mérida Initiative has broadened from primarily providing equipment and training to Mexican
officials engaged in combating DTOs to place more of an emphasis on building democratic
institutions. It also includes a new focus on facilitating "secure flows" of people and goods
through the U.S.-Mexico border and promoting social and economic development in violence-

137 Other bills were introduced in the 111th Congress that would have provided additional funds for law enforcement
and related efforts along the Southwest border. For example, the Southern Border Security Assistance Act (S. 3273),
which cited the need for domestic law enforcement initiatives to complement the funding provided to Mexican law
enforcement, would have authorized $300 million for DHS to provide grants to law enforcement agencies along the
Southwest border for activities combating drug trafficking, smuggling, and violence. It would also have directed the
President to appoint more district judges for the region. The Southwest Border Violence Reduction Act of 2009 (H.R.
495, S. 205) would have authorized funding for the ATF to provide agents, equipment, and training to Mexican law
enforcement to combat firearms trafficking and criminal organizations; it would also have authorized additional
domestic funding for ATF to expand Project Gunrunner. Other bills such as the Southern Border Security Task Force
Act of 2009 (H.R. 1437), the Border Reinforcement and Violence Reduction Act of 2009 (H.R. 1448), and the Border
Violence Prevention Act of 2009 (H.R. 1867) would have provided support for various domestic law enforcement
activities. These activities would have included enhancing infrastructure used by CBP agents, hiring additional law
enforcement agents, expanding resources for operations such as Project Gunrunner and Operation Armas Cruzadas, and
establishing border- specific task forces.
138 This section is drawn from CRS Report R41215, Latin America and the Caribbean: Illicit Drug Trafficking and
U.S. Counterdrug Programs
, coordinated by Clare Ribando Seelke.
Congressional Research Service
31

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

prone communities. Similarly, CARSI and CBSI include some anti-drug components as part of
broader regional security packages that are also aimed at institutional strengthening and
community development.
Some policy makers have raised questions regarding whether there is the need for a more
integrated approach to counternarcotics policies in the region. For instance, some have expressed
concern that the overall effectiveness of hemispheric counterdrug efforts has been hindered by
“fragmented management, unclear reporting chains, and duplicative and overlapping agendas”
among the many agencies charged with implementing aspects of antidrug programs in the
region.139 Some have also argued that a more integrated effort might include having the State
Department develop a multi-year drug strategy for the region that would seek to avoid the so-
called “balloon effect” in which successful efforts in one area drive drug-related activities to
another area. Others have urged the Administration to establish a coordinator within the State
Department to oversee the planning and implementation of the various counterdrug assistance
programs in Latin America.140 Some observers have praised these proposals, while others feel
they would be unnecessary given that there are already mechanisms in place by which the State
Department develops and coordinates its regional counterdrug programs and policies.
Regardless of whether the State Department develops a multi-year hemispheric drug policy or
designates a hemispheric drug policy coordinator, many analysts maintain that it is crucial for
U.S.-funded efforts in Mexico to complement other U.S. counterdrug efforts in the region. They
are encouraged by the fact that Colombian law enforcement and judicial officials who received
U.S. training through Plan Colombia are now sharing their expertise with counterparts in Mexico
and Central America.141 They are also supportive of efforts to coordinate hemispheric antidrug
initiatives through the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission of the Organization of
American States and other, less formal mechanisms, like the Tuxtla dialogue involving leaders
from Mexico, Colombia, and the Central American nations.

139 Office of Senator Robert Menendez, “Press Release: Menendez-Kerry Bill to Strengthen Counternarcotics
Cooperation in the Americas,” March 26, 2010.
140 See, for example, the Opening Statement of Chairmen Eliot L. Engel at a Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere
hearing on “Assessing U.S. Drug Policy in the Americas,” October 15, 2009; “Rep. Connie Mack: We Must Examine
U.S. Drug Policy in Latin America From All Angles,” U.S. Fed News, October 19, 2009.
141 Juan Forero, “Colombia Shares its Cartel-Fighting Expertise with Mexican Forces,” Washington Post, January 22,
2011.
Congressional Research Service
32

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Appendix A. U.S. Assistance to Mexico

Table A-1. U.S. Assistance to Mexico by Account, FY2007-FY2011
U.S. $ millions
FY2010
FY2011
Account FY2007 FY2008a FY2009ab
(est.)
req.
INCLE
36.7 242.1 454.0e 365.0f 292.0
ESF
11.4 34.7 15.0 15.0 10.0
FMF
0.0 116.5 299.0d 5.3 8.0
IMET
0.1 0.4 0.8
1.1 1.1
NADR
1.3 1.4 3.9
5.7 5.7
CSHc
3.7 2.7 2.9
3.5 0.0
DA
12.3 8.2 11.2 10.0 26.3
TOTAL 65.4 405.9 786.8
405.6 346.6
Sources: U.S. Department of State, Congressional Budget Justification for Foreign Operations FY2008-FY2011,
FY2009 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-32).
Notes: CSH= Child Survival and Health; DA=Development Assistance; ESF=Economic Support Fund;
FMF=Foreign Military Financing; IMET=International Military Education and Training; INCLE=International
Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement; NADR=Non-proliferation, Anti-terrorism and Related Programs.
a. FY2008 assistance includes funding from the Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2008 (P.L. 110-252). FY2009
assistance includes FY2009 bridge funding from the Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2008 (P.L. 110-252).
b. FY2009 assistance includes funding from the Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2009 (P.L. 11-32).
c. Beginning with the FY2010 request, the Child Survival and Health Account became known as Global Health
and Child Survival—USAID.
d. $260 million provided under the FY2009 supplemental (P.L. 111-32) and counted here as FY2009 funding
was considered by appropriators “forward funding” intended to address in advance a portion of the FY2010
request.
e. $94 million provided under P.L. 111-32 and counted here as part of FY2009 funding was considered by
appropriators “forward funding” intended to address in advance a portion of the FY2010 request.
f.
$175 million of this funding was provided in the FY2010 supplemental (P.L. 111-212).
Congressional Research Service
33

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Appendix B. Selected U.S.—Mexican Law
Enforcement Partnerships

Border Enforcement Security Task Forces (BEST)
The BEST Initiative is a multi-agency initiative, led by Immigration and Customs Enforcement
(ICE) within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), wherein task forces seek to identify,
disrupt, and dismantle criminal organizations posing significant threats to border security—both
along the Southwest border with Mexico as well as along the Northern border with Canada.142
Through the BEST Initiative, ICE partners with the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP),
the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and
Explosives (ATF), the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), U.S. Coast Guard, and U.S.
Attorneys’ Offices, as well as local, state, and international law enforcement agencies. In
particular, the Mexican Secretariat for Public Security (SSP) or federal police is a partner along
the Southwest border. There are currently 17 BEST teams around the country, 10 of which are
along the Southwest border and one in Mexico City. For FY2011, the Administration’s budget
request includes an additional $10 million for the BEST Initiative.143
BEST teams provide the platform for Operation Armas Cruzadas, an ICE-led operation to disrupt
and dismantle weapons smuggling networks.144 Operation Armas Cruzadas involves several
components such as training stakeholders in database management, laws, resources, and methods
to combat organized crime. It also is the umbrella for the Vetted Arms Trafficking Group, the
Weapons Virtual Task Force, and the ICE Border Liaison Program.
Operation Against Smugglers (and Traffickers) Initiative on Safety
and Security (OASISS)

CBP and the Mexican government have partnered through OASISS, a bi-lateral program aimed at
enhancing both countries’ abilities to prosecute alien smugglers and human traffickers along the
Southwest border.145 Through OASISS, the Mexican government is able to prosecute alien
smugglers apprehended in the United States. From the time of its inception in August 2005
through May 2010, OASISS generated 2,031 cases.146 This program is supported by the Border

142 Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Border Enforcement Security Task
Forces
, November 3, 2009, http://www.ice.gov/pi/news/factsheets/080226best_fact_sheet.htm.
143 Department of Homeland Security, Departmental Management and Operations, Fiscal Year 2011 Congressional
Justification
, http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/dhs_congressional_budget_justification_fy2011.pdf.
144 U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Armas Cruzadas, November 2, 2009, http://www.ice.gov/pi/news/
factsheets/armas_cruzadas.htm.
145 See testimony by Audrey Adams, Deputy Assistant Commissioner, Office of International Affairs, U.S. Customs
and Border Protection, U.S. Department of Homeland Security before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on
International Relations, Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, U.S. - Mexico Relations, 109th Cong., April 26,
2006.
146 Testimony by Allen Gina, Assistant Commissioner, Office of Intelligence and Operations Coordination, U.S.
Customs and Border Protection, Department of Homeland Security before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on
Homeland Security, Subcommittee on Border, Maritime, and Global Counterterrorism, and House Committee on
Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation: Next Steps for the Merida
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
34

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

Patrol International Liaison Unit, which is responsible for establishing and maintaining working
relationships with foreign counterparts in order to enhance border security.
Illegal Drug Program (IDP)
The Illegal Drug Program (IDP) is an agreement between ICE and the Mexican Attorney
General’s Office (PGR) wherein ICE can transfer cases of Mexican nationals smuggling drugs
into the United States to the PGR for prosecution.147 The program was initiated in Nogales, TX, in
October 2009 and subsequently adopted in El Paso, TX. Under the IDP, the U.S. Attorneys’
Offices review the cases and then transfer them to the PGR rather than to local law enforcement
agencies, as was previously done. The PGR has agreed to accept any drug smuggling case
referred by the U.S. Attorneys, regardless of quality, quantity, or type of illegal drug seized.
Project Gunrunner148
Project Gunrunner is an initiative led by ATF in DOJ. Its goal is to disrupt the illegal flow of guns
from the United States to Mexico. In addition to its domestic objectives, Project Gunrunner also
aims to bolster U.S. and Mexican law enforcement coordination along the border in firearms and
violent crime cases as well as to train U.S. and Mexican law enforcement officials to identify
firearms traffickers. As of March 2010, Project Gunrunner had led to the arrest of 1,397
defendants—850 of which had been convicted—and the seizure of over 6,688 firearms.149 Project
Gunrunner has recently been criticized, in part, for not systematically and consistently sharing
information with Mexican and U.S. partners as well as for focusing investigations on gun dealers
and straw purchasers over high-level traffickers.150 In September, 2010, ATF released a new
strategy, “Project Gunrunner – A Cartel Focused Strategy,” that reportedly addresses these
issues.151
Electronic Trace Submission System152
ATF maintains a foreign attaché in Mexico City to administer an Electronic Trace Submission
System (ETSS), also known as the eTrace program, for Mexican law enforcement authorities. In

(...continued)
Initiative, 111th Cong., 1st sess., May 27, 2010.
147 For more information on the IDP, see U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, “ICE, Mexican authorities meet
and agree to prosecution plan for drug smugglers captured at the border: DHS, Government of Mexico announce new
agreement to help curb narcotics smuggling,” press release, April 15, 2010, http://www.ice.gov/pi/nr/1004/
100415elpaso.htm.
148 For more information on Project Gunrunner, see CRS Report R41206, The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms
and Explosives (ATF): Budget and Operations for FY2011
, by William J. Krouse.
149 Statement of Kenneth E. Melson, Deputy Director, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, before
the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related
Agencies, Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Appropriations, 111th Cong., 1st sess., March 4, 2010.
150 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, Review of ATF’s Project Gunrunner, I-2011-001,
November 2010, pp. iii-v, http://www.justice.gov/oig/reports/ATF/e1101.pdf.
151 Ibid., p. ix.
152 For more information on the Electronic Trace Submission System, see CRS Report R41206, The Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Budget and Operations for FY2011
, by William J. Krouse.
Congressional Research Service
35

U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: the Mérida Initiative and Beyond

January 2008, ATF announced that e-Trace technology would be deployed to an additional nine
U.S. consulates in Mexico (Mérida, Juarez, Monterrey, Nogales, Hermosillo, Guadalajara,
Tijuana, Matamoros, and Nueva Laredo).153 From calendar years 2007-2009, ATF traced more
than 69,800 firearms for Mexican authorities, the majority of which appear to have a nexus to the
United States.154 By late 2009, ATF had deployed a Spanish language version of the eTrace
software to Mexico, a move which may eventually result in increased tracing requests.
Mexican American Liaison and Law Enforcement Training
(MALLET)

The FBI created Mexican American Liaison and Law Enforcement Training (MALLET) seminars
in 1988.155 These week-long seminars, hosted at least four times annually in the United States
throughout the four Southwest border states, train Mexican law enforcement officers on various
topics including law enforcement management and investigative techniques. The Mexican law
enforcement officials participating in these trainings come from all levels of government—
federal, state, and municipal. These seminars provide not only training, but opportunities for
building trusted partnerships on both sides of the border. The MALLET seminars are funded
through the FBI’s Office of International Operations.156
Policia Internacional Sonora Arizona (PISA)
The Policia Internacional Sonora Arizona (PISA) is a non-profit organization that was established
in 1978 and has continued to enhance international law enforcement communication and train
officers in laws and procedures across borders.157 With nearly 500 representatives from various
levels of Mexican and U.S. government, PISA promotes training and mutual assistance to
extradite fugitives and solve crimes from auto thefts to homicides. For example, state and local
law enforcement from Arizona have been involved in providing tactical, SWAT, and money
laundering training to Mexican police.

Author Contact Information

Clare Ribando Seelke
Kristin M. Finklea
Specialist in Latin American Affairs
Analyst in Domestic Security
cseelke@crs.loc.gov, 7-5229
kfinklea@crs.loc.gov, 7-6259


153 Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), Office of Public Affairs, “ATF Expands Efforts to
Combat Illegal Flow of Firearms to Mexico,” January 16, 2008.
154 Data is from ATF’s Violent Crime Analysis Branch (VCAB), which is housed in its National Tracing Center.
155 For more information, see Federal Bureau of Investigation, On the Border: Training Our Mexican Colleagues, May
11, 2009, http://elpaso.fbi.gov/boader051109.htm.
156 From CRS communication with FBI representative, April 27, 2010.
157 For more information on PISA, see the website at http://www.azpisa.org/.
Congressional Research Service
36