Tax Reform: An Overview of Proposals in the
112th Congress
James M. Bickley
Specialist in Public Finance
January 14, 2011
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R41591
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress
Tax Reform: An Overview of Proposals in the 112th Congress
Summary
The President and leading members of Congress have stated that fundamental tax reform is a
major policy objective for the 112th Congress. These policymakers have said that fundamental tax
reform is needed in order to raise a large amount of additional revenue, which is necessary to
reduce high forecast budget deficits and the sharply rising national debt. Congressional interest
has been expressed in both a major overhaul of the U.S. tax system and the feasibility of levying a
consumption tax. Some proponents of reform argue that the tax base should be broadened by
reducing or eliminating many tax expenditures. Tax expenditures are revenue losses resulting
from federal tax provisions that grant special tax relief designed to encourage certain kinds of
behavior by taxpayers or to aid taxpayers in special circumstances. If tax expenditures are
reduced substantially or a consumption tax is levied or both, then the marginal income tax rates
could be reduced. An alternative to increasing tax revenues is cutting spending. Thus, members
are faced with considering the best mix of tax increases and spending cuts in order to reduce
deficits and slow the growth of the national debt.
Proposals for fundamental reform have been made in reports by the National Commission on
Fiscal Responsibility and Reform (the “Commission”) and the Debt Reduction Task Force of the
Bipartisan Policy Center. The proposals in these reports may influence the debate over
fundamental tax reform. Both proposals recommended the elimination of most tax expenditures
and the lowering of marginal corporate and individual income tax rates. In addition, the Debt
Reduction Task Force recommended the levying of a 6.5% value-added tax. An evaluation of
these and other proposals would consider the effects on equity, efficiency, and simplicity.
This report primarily covers fundamental tax reform. CRS reports are available online concerning
the other three categories of tax reform: tax reform based on the elimination of the individual
alternative minimum tax (AMT), proposals for reforming the corporate income tax, and proposals
for reforming the U.S. taxation of international business.
A temporary individual AMT patch for 2010 and 2011 was included in the Tax Relief,
Unemployment Insurance Authorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010, which became P.L. 111-
312 on December 17, 2010. The patch increased the individual AMT exemption amounts. Some
proponents of tax reform argue that the AMT should be repealed or a permanent patch should be
passed. The repeal or passage of a permanent patch of the individual AMT would require a major
increase in taxes to offset the large revenue loss.
Options for reforming the federal business income tax are under consideration. The concept of
lowering the marginal corporate income tax rate and broadening the corporate income tax base
has been advocated by some members of Congress. Other options for reform include corporate
tax integration and the replacement of the income tax system with a consumption tax.
The current system of U.S. taxation of international business is complex and difficult to
administer. Furthermore, critics argue that the current system is not sufficiently neutral, which
results in economic inefficiency. Proposals to reform the system include the replacement of the
current hybrid system with either a territorial tax system or a residence-based system.
This report will be updated in the event of significant legislative activity or policy proposals.
Congressional Research Service
Tax Reform: An Overview of Proposals in the 112th Congress
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Fundamental Tax Reform Options ............................................................................................... 2
Base-Broadening................................................................................................................... 2
New Tax ............................................................................................................................... 2
Broad-Based Consumption Tax ....................................................................................... 2
Environmental Tax.......................................................................................................... 3
Framework of Evaluation............................................................................................................ 3
Equity ................................................................................................................................... 4
Efficiency ............................................................................................................................. 4
Simplicity ............................................................................................................................. 4
Other Tax Reform Issues ............................................................................................................. 5
Alternative Minimum Tax for Individuals.............................................................................. 5
Business Taxation ................................................................................................................. 5
International Taxation ........................................................................................................... 6
Legislative Outlook for the 112th Congress .................................................................................. 6
Representative Paul D. Ryan’s Proposal ................................................................................ 7
Senator Ron Wyden’s Proposal.............................................................................................. 7
Contacts
Author Contact Information ........................................................................................................ 8
Congressional Research Service
Tax Reform: An Overview of Proposals in the 112th Congress
Introduction
The President and leading members of Congress have stated that fundamental tax reform is a
major policy objective for the 112th Congress. These policymakers have said that fundamental tax
reform is needed in order to raise a large amount of additional revenue, which is necessary to
reduce high forecast budget deficits and the sharply rising national debt. Congressional interest
has been expressed in both a major overhaul of the U.S. tax system and the feasibility of levying a
consumption tax over the existing tax system. Some proponents of reform argue that the tax base
should be broadened by reducing or eliminating many tax expenditures. “Tax expenditures are
revenue losses resulting from federal tax provisions that grant special tax relief designed to
encourage certain kinds of behavior by taxpayers or to aid taxpayers in special circumstances.”1 If
tax expenditures are reduced substantially or a consumption tax is levied or both, then the
marginal income tax rates could be reduced. An alternative to increasing tax revenues is cutting
spending. Thus, members are faced with considering the best mix of tax increases and spending
cuts in order to reduce deficits and slow the growth of the national debt.
In December 2010, The National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform (the
“Commission”) issued a report titled The Moment of Truth, which proposed extensive broadening
of both the individual income tax base and the corporate income tax base by eliminating all
business tax expenditures and almost all individual tax expenditures.2 Marginal individual and
corporate income tax rates would be reduced, and the individual alternative minimum tax would
be abolished. The taxation of foreign-source income would be changed by moving to a territorial
system.3 On November 17, 2010, the Debt Reduction Task Force of the Bipartisan Policy Center
issued a report titled Restoring America’s Future.4 This report also recommended that individual
and corporate income tax bases be broadened by reducing or eliminating most tax expenditures.
Marginal individual and corporate income tax rates would be lowered, and the individual
alternative minimum tax would be eliminated. In addition, this report recommended that a 6.5%
value-added tax be levied. The recommendations of these two reports may influence the tax
reform debate in the 112th Congress.
In the 112th Congress, members of Congress are expected to introduce numerous bills containing
incremental or marginal adjustments in the tax code in an attempt to redistribute income,
reallocate resources, change individual behavior, etc. Proposed incremental or small tax
adjustments are considered tax changes.5 In contrast, fundamental tax reform concerns a major
proposed overhaul of the U.S. tax system, which affects the entire tax system or a major
component of the system. This report primarily covers fundamental tax reform because CRS
reports are available online concerning the other three categories of tax reform: tax reform based
on the elimination of the individual alternative minimum tax (AMT), proposals for reforming the
corporate income tax, and proposals for reforming the U.S. taxation of international business.6
1 Senate Committee on the Budget, Tax Expenditures: Compendium of Background Material on Individual Provisions,
Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., December 2008, p. 2.
2 The National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform, The Moment of Truth, December 2010, 65 p.
3 Ibid., p. 33.
4 The Debt Reduction Task Force, Bipartisan Policy Center, Restoring America’s Future, November 17, 2010, 138 p.
5 Some of these proposed tax changes are examined in CRS reports.
6 Citations of these CRS reports are shown in footnotes in the sections covering these other categories of tax reform.
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Tax Reform: An Overview of Proposals in the 112th Congress
Fundamental Tax Reform Options
Two broad fundamental tax reform categories for addressing the severe deficit problem are base-
broadening and levying a new tax. Some of the revenue from base-broadening and a new tax
could be used to reduce marginal tax rates.
Base-Broadening
Some members of Congress have expressed concern about the large number and high cost of tax
expenditures.7 Examples of tax expenditures are the deduction for mortgage interest on owner-
occupied residences and the deduction for property taxes on owner-occupied residences. Many of
these tax expenditures are seen as targets to be reduced or eliminated. Congress may want to
consider whether the benefits of a particular tax expenditure exceed the costs of that tax
expenditure. Arguably, the current tax reform debate deals with broadening the individual and
corporate income tax bases and lowering marginal tax rates.
New Tax
Revenue from a new tax would allow the retention of more tax expenditures and lower reductions
in other tax expenditures. Furthermore, revenue from a new tax could finance a larger reduction
in marginal income tax rates and permit a smaller reduction in federal spending. Broad categories
have received the most attention: consumption and environmental taxes.
Broad-Based Consumption Tax
In recent Congresses, three major types of broad-based consumption taxes have been included in
congressional tax proposals: the value-added tax (VAT), the retail sales tax, and the flat tax. These
possible broad-based consumption taxes have the potential of a robust revenue yield.
Value-Added Tax
A value-added tax is a tax on the value that a firm adds to a product at each stage of production.
The value the firm adds is the difference between a firm’s sales and a firm’s purchases of inputs
from other firms. The VAT is collected by each firm at every stage of production.
There are three alternative methods of calculating VAT: the credit method, the subtraction
method, and the addition method. Under the credit method, the firm calculates the VAT to be
remitted to the government by a two-step process. First, the firm multiplies its taxable sales by the
tax rate to calculate VAT collected on sales. Second, the firm credits VAT paid on inputs against
VAT collected on sales and remits this difference to the government. The firm calculates its VAT
liability before setting its prices to fully shift the VAT to the buyer. Under the credit-invoice
method, a type of credit method, the firm is required to show VAT separately on all sales invoices
and to calculate the VAT credit on inputs by adding all VAT shown on purchase invoices.
7 For an analysis of tax expenditures, see CRS Report RL34622, Tax Expenditures and the Federal Budget, by Thomas
L. Hungerford.
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Under the subtraction method, the firm calculates its value added by subtracting its cost of taxed
inputs from its sales. Next, the firm determines its VAT liability by multiplying its value added by
the VAT rate. Under the addition method, the firm calculates its value added by adding all
payments for untaxed inputs (e.g., wages and profits). Next, the firm multiplies its value added by
the VAT rate to calculate VAT to be remitted to the government.
All developed nations, except Japan, use the credit-invoice method. Japan uses the subtraction
method.
Retail Sales Tax
A retail sales tax is a consumption tax levied only at a single stage of production, the retail stage.
The retailer collects a specific percentage markup in the retail price of a good or service, which is
then remitted to the government.8 As of February 1, 2010, the Tax Foundation reports that 45
states had retail sales taxes.9
Flat Tax
A flat tax could be levied based on the proposal formulated by Robert E. Hall and Alvin
Rabushka of the Hoover Institution.10 Their proposal would have two components: a wage tax
and a cash-flow tax on businesses. (A wage tax is a tax only on salaries and wages: a cash-flow
tax is generally a tax on gross receipts minus all outlays.) It is essentially a modified VAT, with
wages and pensions subtracted from the VAT base and taxed at the individual level. Under a
standard VAT, a firm would not subtract its wage and pension contributions when calculating its
tax base. Under the flat tax, some wage income would not be included in the tax base because of
exemptions. Under a standard VAT, all wage income would be included in the tax base.
Environmental Tax
Environmental taxes have been proposed to reduce pollution and raise revenue. The most
frequently discussed energy tax is a carbon tax that would be levied on the volume of carbon
emitted. This tax is frequently recommended by economists, but the Obama Administration is
attempting to implement a cap and trade system. Another alternative energy tax would be higher
gasoline taxes.
Framework of Evaluation
In evaluating any change in tax policy, the prevailing framework is to analyze the tax policy for
equity, efficiency, and simplicity. Tradeoffs may exist between these three objectives. For
8 For a contrast between the VAT and the national sales tax, see CRS Report RL33438, A Value-Added Tax Contrasted
With a National Sales Tax, by James M. Bickley.
9 State Sales, Gasoline, Cigarette, and Alcohol Tax Rates by State, 2000-2010, Tax Foundation. Available at
http://www.taxfoundation.org, visited January 12, 2011.
10 For a comprehensive analysis of the flat tax, see CRS Report 98-529, Flat Tax: An Overview of the Hall-Rabushka
Proposal, by James M. Bickley.
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example, if greater income equality is desired, this may conflict with the goal of economic
efficiency.
Equity
Economic theory maintains that it is not possible to make interpersonal comparisons of utility.
Hence, whether a change in the distribution of income, with gainers and losers, is an
improvement in the national welfare is a value judgment. The effects on different groups,
however, can be measured and debated. Thus, the following questions can be examined.
How will different income groups be affected annually and over their lifetimes? Will taxpayers in
similar circumstances pay approximately the same amount of taxes? What will be the effect on
taxpayers in different age groups? Will there be distributional effects by region of the country?
How will minority groups be affected? What will be the tax incidence on families versus single
taxpayers?
Efficiency
Tax policy should promote economic efficiency; that is, a tax change should be as neutral as
possible by minimizing economic distortions.11 Low marginal tax rates tend to lessen distortions.
Many efficiency questions concern household decisions. What will be the effect of a tax change
on households decisions to save versus consume? Will households’ choices of leisure versus work
be affected? Will household decisions about the composition of goods and services consumed be
affected?
Other efficiency questions concern firms’ decisions. What will be the effect on firms’ decisions
concerning the method of financing (debt or equity), choice among inputs, type of business
organization (corporation, partnership, of sole proprietorship), and composition of output?
Simplicity
The greater the simplicity of the tax system, the lower will be the administrative and compliance
costs. Thus, tax policy should eliminate any unnecessary complexity and promote transparency.
Numerous questions concerning simplicity arise; among them are the following: How will a tax
change affect federal administrative costs? Will the administrative costs of state and local
governments change? How will compliance costs of households be affected? Will business
compliance costs change?
11 The loss in economic efficiency due to a tax is referred to by economists as the deadweight loss or excess burden of
the tax.
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Other Tax Reform Issues
Alternative Minimum Tax for Individuals
In 1969, Congress enacted the individual alternative minimum tax (AMT) to make sure that
everyone paid at least a minimum of income taxes and still preserve the economic and social
incentives in the tax code. The combined effects of inflation and the legislative reductions in the
regular income tax have expanded the number of taxpayers subject to the AMT. Consequently,
Congress has passed temporary increases in the basic exemption for the AMT to limit the number
of taxpayers subject to the AMT. Most recently, an AMT patch for 2010 and 2011 was included in
the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Authorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010, which
became P.L. 111-312 on December 17, 2010. Some proponents of tax reform argue that the AMT
should be repealed or a permanent patch should be passed, but either reform would require a
major increase in taxes to offset the large revenue loss.12
Business Taxation
Federal taxes on business income have differential effects.13 For example, non-corporate income
is taxed less than corporate income, debt financing is an expense but equity financing is not, and
depreciation rules favor machines and equipment over structures and inventory. These differential
effects distort investment decisions, lessen economic efficiency, and lower economic welfare.
Several options have been proposed to reform federal business taxation.14
First, comprehensive taxation of corporate income and lower tax rates would eliminate or reduce
most major distortions. In the 112th Congress, the concept of lowering the marginal corporate
income tax rate and broadening the corporate income tax base has been advocated by some
members of Congress.
Second, corporate tax integration would eliminate the double taxation of corporate income by
altering the general system of taxing corporate-source income. Integration could apply to both
retained earnings and dividends and thus all corporate profits (“full integration”), or the treatment
only of earnings that are distributed (“partial integration”).
Third, a broad-based consumption tax could be levied that would replace individual and corporate
income taxes.
12 For an examination of the alternative minimum tax for individuals, see CRS Report RL30149, The Alternative
Minimum Tax for Individuals, by Steven Maguire.
13 For an overview of the reform of federal business taxation, see CRS Report RL33171, Federal Business Taxation:
The Current System, Its Effects, and Options for Reform, by Donald J. Marples. For an overview of corporate tax
reform issues, see CRS Report RL34229, Corporate Tax Reform: Issues for Congress, by Jane G. Gravelle and Thomas
L. Hungerford.
14 For a comprehensive analysis of these options, see CRS Report RL33171, Federal Business Taxation: The Current
System, Its Effects, and Options for Reform, by Donald J. Marples.
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International Taxation
The rapid growth of the foreign trade sector in the U.S. economy and the expansion of
international flows of capital have increased the importance of appropriate U.S. international tax
practices.15 The two alternative principles on which countries can base their international tax
systems are residence and territory.
Under a residence system, a country taxes its own residents (or domestically chartered “resident”
corporations) on their worldwide income, regardless of its geographic source. Under a territorial
system, a country taxes only income that is earned within its own borders. Currently, the United
States has a hybrid system with elements of both a residence system and a territorial system. The
United States taxes both income of foreign firms earned within its borders as well as the
worldwide income of its U.S.-chartered firms. U.S. taxes, however, do not apply to the foreign
income of U.S.-owned corporations chartered abroad. A U.S. firm can indefinitely defer U.S. tax
on its foreign income if it conducts its foreign operations through a foreign-chartered subsidiary
corporation; U.S. taxes do not apply as long as the foreign subsidiary’s income is reinvested
overseas. With some exceptions, U.S. taxes apply only when the income is remitted to the U.S.-
resident parent as dividends or other intra-firm payments. While the United States taxes
worldwide income on either a current or deferred basis, it also allows a foreign tax credit for
foreign taxes paid on a dollar-for-dollar basis against U.S. taxes in order to avoid the double-
taxation of income.16
The current system is complex and difficult to administer. Furthermore, critics argue that the
current system is not sufficiently neutral, which results in economic inefficiency. The system
provides a tax incentive to invest in countries with low tax rates and a disincentive to invest in
countries with high tax rates. Proposals to reform the U.S. international tax system include the
replacement of the current hybrid system with either a territorial tax system or a residence-based
system.17
Legislative Outlook for the 112th Congress
In the 111th Congress, numerous bills were introduced to reform the tax system. Two of those bills
may be particularly relevant to the debate over tax reform in the 112th Congress. Representative
Paul D. Ryan’s proposal has received widespread interest because it is seen as a comprehensive
plan to address America’s long-term fiscal issues. Representative Ryan is chair of the House
Budget Committee for the 112th Congress and served as a member of the National Commission
on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform.
Senator Ron Wyden’s proposal has also been widely discussed. His proposal would broaden the
tax base and lower marginal tax rates. The co-chairs of the Commission (Erskine Bowles and
former Senator Alan Simpson) issued a draft document in November 2010. Their comprehensive
15 This section of this report summarizes some basic concepts in CRS Report RL34115, Reform of U.S. International
Taxation: Alternatives, by Jane G. Gravelle. Some excerpts are stated from this report.
16 Ibid., p. 2.
17 Ibid., pp. 12-16.
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tax reform option 2 was a “Wyden-Gregg Style Reform.”18 This option was not included in the
final Commission report.
Representative Paul D. Ryan’s Proposal
H.R. 4529 (111th Congress). The Roadmap for America’s Future Act of 2010 was introduced
January 1, 2010, and referred to the House Committee on Ways and Means, House Budget
Committee, and four other committees. This bill is a comprehensive plan to address America’s
long-term economic and fiscal issues. Major components of the plan include health care reform,
Medicare/Medicaid reform, Social Security reform, tax reform, job training reforms, and budget
process reforms. Tax reform includes the elimination of the alternative minimum tax, a choice
between the current income tax and a simplified income tax, the elimination of the estate and gift
taxes, and the replacement of the corporate income tax with a value-added tax.19
The simplified income tax would have a broad base and two marginal tax rates (10% and 25%). A
tax rate of 10% would apply to adjusted gross income up to $100,000 for joint filers, and $50,000
for single filers. A tax rate of 25% would apply to taxable income above $100,000 for joint filers
and $50,000 for single filers. Under the simplified income tax system, the standard deduction
would be $25,000 for joint filers and $12,500 for single filers, and the personal exemption would
be $3,500. Thus, for a family of four, the first $39,000 of income would not be taxable.20 Interest,
dividends, and capital gains would not be taxed.
The current corporate income tax would be replaced with a subtraction-method value-added tax
referred to as a Business Consumption Tax (BCT). The BCT would be levied at a rate of 8.5%
and have a broad base. Temporary “transition relief” provisions would be included in order to
facilitate the change from the corporate income tax.
Senator Ron Wyden’s Proposal
S. 3018 (111th Congress). The Bipartisan Tax Fairness and Simplification Act of 2010 was
introduced on February 23, 2010, and referred to the Senate Finance Committee. This proposal
would reform the current income tax base rather than changing to a consumption base. This bill
has three stated purposes: (1) to make the federal individual income tax system simpler, fairer,
and more transparent; (2) to make the federal corporate income tax rate a flat 24%, repeal the
corporate alternative minimum tax, and eliminate special tax preferences that favor particular
types of businesses or activities; and (3) to partially offset the federal budget deficit through the
increased fiscal responsibility resulting from these reforms.
The progressive individual income tax would have three rates: 15%, 25%, and 35%. The
individual alternative minimum tax would be eliminated. The standard deduction would almost
triple. While most deductions would be eliminated, the bill would include deductions for
mortgage interest and charitable contributions. The bill would permanently extend the
enhancements of the child tax credit, the earned income tax credit, and the dependent care credit.
18 Co-Chairs’ Proposal, Draft Document, November 2010, p. 27.
19 For a comprehensive explanation of this proposed legislation, see A Roadmap for America’s Future, available at
http://www.roadmap.republicans.budget.house.gov/.
20 A family of four assumes a married couple plus two dependent children.
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The bill would consolidate the three existing types of IRAs into a new retirement savings account,
and a new lifetime savings account. A married couple would be able to contribute up to $14,000
per year to tax-favored retirement and savings accounts. The corporate tax rate would be 24% of
taxable income. The corporate tax base would be broadened by the elimination of numerous tax
credits, deductions, and exclusions from income. The growth of small businesses would be
encouraged by allowing businesses with gross annual receipts of up to $1 million to permanently
expense all equipment and inventory costs in a single year. The bill includes numerous provisions
to improve tax compliance.
Author Contact Information
James M. Bickley
Specialist in Public Finance
jbickley@crs.loc.gov, 7-7794
Congressional Research Service
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