The President’s State of the Union Address:
Tradition, Function, and Policy Implications
Colleen J. Shogan
Senior Specialist in Government and Finance
Thomas H. Neale
Specialist in American National Government
November 17, 2010
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R40132
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress
The President’s State of the Union Address: Tradition, Function, and Policy Implications
Summary
The State of the Union (SOTU) address is a communication between the President and Congress
in which the chief executive reports on the current conditions of the United States and provides
policy proposals for the upcoming legislative year. Formerly known as the “Annual Message,”
the State of the Union address originates in the Constitution. As part of the system of checks and
balances, Article II, Section 3, clause 1 mandates that the President “shall from time to time give
to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration
such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.” In recent decades, the President has
expanded his State of the Union audience, addressing the speech to both the nation and Members
of Congress.
Over time, the State of the Union address has evolved considerably. The format and delivery of
the speech has changed, and its length has fluctuated widely. Technology has also influenced the
delivery of the address, with the advent of radio, television, and the Internet playing significant
roles in the transformation.
Although each President uses the State of the Union address to outline his administration’s policy
agenda, most incorporate common rhetorical arguments and ceremonial traditions. Bipartisanship,
attention to both the past and the future, and optimism are recurring themes in State of the Union
addresses.
The legislative success rate of policy proposals mentioned in State of the Union addresses varies
widely. Addresses given after a President’s election or reelection and during periods of unified
party government tend to produce higher rates of legislative success. Presidents can also use the
State of the Union address to increase media attention for a particular issue.
Immediately following the State of the Union address, the political party not occupying the White
House provides an opposition response. The response, usually much shorter than the State of the
Union, outlines the opposition party’s policy agenda and serves as an official rejoinder to the
proposals outlined by the President.
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The President’s State of the Union Address: Tradition, Function, and Policy Implications
Contents
Overview .................................................................................................................................... 1
Historical Perspective.................................................................................................................. 1
Tradition and Ceremony.............................................................................................................. 3
Timing .................................................................................................................................. 3
Location, Seating, and Attendance......................................................................................... 4
Special Guests....................................................................................................................... 4
Common Elements...................................................................................................................... 5
The Sequence of Arguments.................................................................................................. 5
Recurring Themes ................................................................................................................. 6
Past and the Future.......................................................................................................... 6
Bipartisanship .................................................................................................................6
Optimism........................................................................................................................ 7
Policy Impact .............................................................................................................................. 7
Progression of Presidential Term ........................................................................................... 8
First Year Addresses........................................................................................................ 8
Midterm Addresses ......................................................................................................... 8
Election Year Addresses .................................................................................................. 8
Second Term Addresses................................................................................................... 9
Legislative Success and Policy Proposals .............................................................................. 9
Capturing and Holding the Public’s Attention...................................................................... 10
Opposition Response................................................................................................................. 11
Format ................................................................................................................................ 11
Common Rhetorical Arguments .......................................................................................... 12
Call for Bipartisanship .................................................................................................. 12
The Opposition’s Agenda .............................................................................................. 12
Direct Response to President ......................................................................................... 13
Social Media ................................................................................................................. 13
Concluding Thoughts ................................................................................................................ 13
Figures
Figure 1. Length of the State of the Union Addresses................................................................... 3
Figure 2. Legislative Proposal Success Rate ................................................................................ 9
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 14
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The President’s State of the Union Address: Tradition, Function, and Policy Implications
Overview
The State of the Union (SOTU) address is a communication between the President and Congress
in which the chief executive reports on the current conditions of the United States and provides
policy proposals for the upcoming legislative year. Formerly known as the “Annual Message,”
the State of the Union address originates in the Constitution. As part of the system of checks and
balances, Article II, Section 3, clause 1 requires that the President “shall from time to time give to
the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such
Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.” In recent decades, the President has
expanded his State of the Union audience, addressing the speech to both the nation and Members
of Congress.
From Congress’s perspective, the State of the Union address may be considered the most
important presidential speech of the year. It is the one time Presidents venture to the House
chamber to present their programmatic priorities and set the tone for the ensuing year. Although
modern Presidents communicate with Congress and the public consistently and persistently, the
State of the Union provides the President with a unique opportunity to present his entire policy
platform in one speech.
From the President’s perspective, the State of the Union address has evolved from a constitutional
duty to a welcome source of executive power and authority. Standing before the American public
to deliver the annual address, the President combines several constitutional roles: chief of state,
chief executive, chief diplomat, commander-in-chief, and chief legislator.1 Besides delivering the
State of the Union, there is no other annual opportunity for the President to showcase his entire
arsenal of constitutional powers.
Over time, the State of the Union address has evolved considerably. The format and delivery of
the speech has changed, and its length has fluctuated widely. Technology has also influenced the
delivery of the address, with the advent of radio, television, and the Internet playing significant
roles in the transformation.
Historical Perspective
As a rhetorical tool, the State of the Union Address has changed in several substantial ways since
the origins of the American republic. It is difficult to point to one moment in time when the
address developed into the contemporary speech now commonly recognized as the starting point
of the legislative session.2 Instead, several presidents throughout American history presided over
shifts and variations to the address.
George Washington gave the first State of the Union Address on January 8, 1790. Washington’s
address, which was quite short at 1089 words, was delivered before both houses of Congress.3
1 Clinton Rossiter, The American Presidency (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1956).
2 On this point, for more detail, see Ryan L Teten, “Wee the People: The Modern Rhetorical Popular Address of the
Presidents during the Founding Period,” Political Research Quarterly, vol. 60, no. 4 (December 2007), pp. 669-682.
3 John Woolley and Gerhard Peters, The American Presidency Project, “Length of the State of the Union Addresses and
Messages,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou_words.php, accessed December 14, 2008.
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The President’s State of the Union Address: Tradition, Function, and Policy Implications
After Washington gave his second State of the Union address the following year, he established
the precedent that the President would provide information annually to Congress.4
John Adams followed Washington’s precedent during his tenure. Likening it to a “speech from the
throne” reminiscent of monarchy’s vestiges, Thomas Jefferson changed course and instead
submitted his Annual Message in writing.5 Historians also speculate that Jefferson was a poor
public speaker and did not want to deliver the Annual Address orally since his Inaugural had been
barely audible and was unfavorably received.6 Between 1801 and 1913, Presidents fulfilled their
constitutional duty by sending their yearly report as a formal written letter to Congress. These
written messages contained information about the state of the nation, and also included policy
recommendations. During this time period, the Annual Message swelled in length, with several
exceeding 25,000 words. 7
President Woodrow Wilson altered historical precedent when he delivered the 1913 Annual
Message in the House chamber before a joint session of Congress. Although Wilson’s action
“stunned official Washington,” he had written extensively in Constitutional Government about his
disagreement with Jefferson’s decision to submit the address in writing. Instead, Wilson read the
Constitution as providing the President with the broad authority to serve as a national
spokesman.8 Wilson altered presidential rhetoric, using it as an intermediary tool to draw
widespread public attention to the policies he supported. The public’s endorsement served as
political leverage that could compel Members of Congress to support his legislative agenda.
From 1913 until 1934, the Annual Message entered a hybrid phase in which Presidents
occasionally issued the address orally. Wilson delivered six of his eight Annual Messages in
person, and Warren Harding presented two of his four addresses orally. Calvin Coolidge gave one
address in the House chamber, and became the first President to broadcast the annual speech on
radio.
During his presidential terms, Franklin Roosevelt solidified the oral tradition of the Annual
Message. Roosevelt also inaugurated the term “State of the Union,” which became the popular
nomenclature of the speech from his presidency forward. Given its oral rather than written
delivery, the length of the address decreased to between 5,000 and 7,000 words. Roosevelt also
ushered in the modern tradition of using the collective words “we” and “our” with greater
frequency than his predecessors.
Figure 1 displays the length of State of the Union addresses across American presidential history.
The graph shows the sudden drop in 1913, when Woodrow Wilson resuscitated the oral mode of
delivery. The spikes in Figure 1 after Wilson are instances in which Presidents issued the final
State of the Union of their term in writing, such as Franklin Roosevelt in 1945 and Carter in 1981.
4 Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, “The State of the Union Address and the Rise of Rhetorical Leadership,” in
State of the Union, ed. Deborah Kalb, Gerhard Peters, and John T. Woolley (Washington: CQ Press, 2007), p. 2.
5 Ryan L. Teten, “Evolution of the Modern Rhetorical Presidency: Presidential Presentation and Development of the
State of the Union Address,” Presidential Studies Quarterly, vol. 33, no. 2 (June 2003), p. 337.
6 Gerhard Casper, “Executive-Congressional Separation of Power during the Presidency of Thomas Jefferson,”
Stanford Law Review, vol. 47, no. 3 (February 1995), p. 480.
7 Chad Murphy, “The Evolution of the Modern Rhetorical Presidency: A Critical Response,” Presidential Studies
Quarterly, vol. 38, no. 2 (June 2008), pp. 303-306.
8 Robert Alexander Kraig, Woodrow Wilson and the Lost World of the Oratorical Statesman (College Station, TX:
Texas A&M University Press, 2004), p. 131.
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After winning reelection in 1972, Richard Nixon issued a series of written messages in 1973
instead of giving an overview speech. Barack Obama’s 2010 speech contained 7,304 words.
Figure 1. Length of the State of the Union Addresses
Number of Words, 1790-2010
35000
30000
s 25000
rd
o
20000
f W
r o
e 15000
b
m 10000
Nu
5000
0
90
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00
10
17
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Year of Address
Source: Data provided by John Woolley and Gerhard Peters, The American Presidency Project.
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou_words.php, accessed December 23, 2009.
Harry Truman’s 1947 State of the Union address was the first televised. Until 1965, Presidents
issued the State of the Union during the day. To attract a larger viewing audience, Lyndon
Johnson changed the time of the speech to the evening. This practice has been followed since
Johnson, and Presidents now explicitly direct the address to the citizens of the United States as
well as Congress.9
Tradition and Ceremony
The State of the Union address is a speech steeped in tradition and ceremony. It is known for its
display of pomp and circumstance, perhaps corroborating Thomas Jefferson’s objection that the
custom retains monarchical elements. In presenting the address, the President acts as both the
head of government and the head of state. The combination of both roles makes the annual speech
a uniquely powerful ritual.
Timing
Until the 20th amendment changed the timing for the new terms of Senators and Representatives
to January 3, the annual message was routinely delivered in December. Since 1934, the
President’s annual message has been delivered on a range of dates, from January 3 to February 2.
9 Teten, Evolution of the Modern Rhetorical Presidency, p. 338.
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The President’s State of the Union Address: Tradition, Function, and Policy Implications
To attract television viewers across the United States, the address is normally presented at 9:00 in
the evening, Eastern Standard Time.
Location, Seating, and Attendance
The State of the Union address is now customarily delivered in the House chamber of the Capitol,
before a joint session of Congress. A concurrent resolution, agreed to by both chambers, sets aside
an appointed time for a joint session of the House and Senate “for the purpose of receiving such
communication as the President of the United States shall be pleased to make to them.”10
Aside from reserved places for leadership, seats in the chamber are not assigned to Members.
Anytime during the day, House Members may claim a seat for the evening’s address. However,
they must remain physically in the seat to retain their place for the speech.11
At the designated time, Senators cross the Capitol to the House chamber, where seats are reserved
for them as a group at the front of the chamber. The Speaker and the Vice President (in his
capacity as President of the Senate) occupy seats on the dais, and the Speaker presides. Seats in
the well of the House chamber are reserved for the President’s Cabinet, Justices of the Supreme
Court who choose to attend, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, former Members of Congress, and members
of the diplomatic corps.12
In accord with longstanding custom and to ensure the continuity of government, one cabinet
secretary does not attend the speech. After September 11, 2001, congressional leadership began
designating two Members from each house of Congress, representing both parties, to remain
absent from the Capitol during the President’s speech.
Special Guests
Seating in the gallery is restricted to ticket holders and is coordinated by the House Sergeant at
Arms. Each Member of Congress receives one chamber ticket, with a specific reserved seat, for
the address. Congressional leadership and the White House receive multiple tickets.13
Since 1982, in a new tradition established by Ronald Reagan, Presidents frequently ask guests to
join the First Lady in the gallery. These individuals usually have performed an act of heroism or
achieved an impressive milestone that illustrates an important theme in the President’s speech. At
the appropriate time, the President acknowledges the guests seated adjacent to the First Lady and
identifies their particular contribution. Presidential speechwriters now refer to these guests as
“Lenny Skutniks” in reference to the first guest highlighted by Reagan in 1982.14 Recent guests
have included Sammy Sosa, Julie Aigner-Clark (CEO of Baby Einstein), Rosa Parks, Hamid
10 H.Con.Res. 282, 110th Cong., 2nd sess.
11 Interview with William Sims, Director of Chamber Security, House Sergeant at Arms, December 22, 2008.
12 “State of the Union Address,” available at http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house_history/stateunion.html, accessed
on December 23, 2008.
13 Interview with William Sims, December 22, 2008.
14 Peters and Woolley, State of the Union, p. 11. Lenny Skutnik was a government employee who dived into the
Potomac River to rescue a survivor after a plane departing from Washington’s National Airport crashed into the 14th
Street Bridge. Reagan stated that Skutnik embodied “the spirit of American heroism at its finest.”
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Karzai, Dikembe Mutombo, former Treasury Secretary and Senator Lloyd Bentsen, Hank Aaron,
Wesley Autrey (who rescued a man on the New York City subway tracks), and numerous active
military service members and veterans.
Common Elements
The State of the Union address is a unique genre of presidential speech. Charles Beard
commented, “Whatever may be its purport, the message is the one great public document of the
United States which is widely read and discussed.”15 Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall
Jamieson have identified three repetitive, sequential rhetorical arguments in State of the Union
addresses:
• public meditations on values,
• assessments of information and issues, and
• policy recommendations.16
The Sequence of Arguments
These three rhetorical arguments typically occur in a predictable sequential order. The President
offers his opinion concerning important values or national character. Such an assessment leads
him to identify targeted issues that will constitute his legislative agenda. Finally, he offers specific
policy recommendations. The iteration of values, issue identification, and policy
recommendations typically repeats itself numerous times in a State of the Union speech.
For example, in his 1962 address, President John F. Kennedy identified the values he deemed
critically important to the nation:
But a stronger nation and economy require more than a balanced Budget. They require
progress in those programs that spur our growth and fortify our strength.
He then recognized the policy problem that arose from the values he emphasized:
A strong America also depends on its farms and natural resources ... Our task is to master
and turn to fully fruitful ends the magnificent productivity of our farms and farmers. The
revolution on our own countryside stands in the sharpest contrast to the repeated farm
failures of the Communist nations and is a source of pride to us all.
Finally, Kennedy provided his specific policy recommendation:
I will, therefore, submit to the Congress a new comprehensive farm program—tailored to fit
the use of our land and the supplies of each crop to the long-range needs of the sixties—and
designed to prevent chaos in the sixties with a program of commonsense.17
15 Charles A. Beard, American Government and Politics, 7th ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1935), p. 185.
16 Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Presidents Creating the Presidency: Deeds Done in Words
(Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2008), p. 139.
17 John F. Kennedy, “Address to Congress on the State of the Union: January 11, 1962,” in State of the Union:
(continued...)
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Presidents use this three-part rhetorical sequence when discussing both domestic and foreign
policy in the State of the Union.
Recurring Themes
In addition to a common sequence of rhetorical arguments, State of the Union addresses also
exhibit recurring thematic elements. Most include rhetoric about the past and future,
bipartisanship, and optimism.
Past and the Future
Typically, the speech focuses on both past accomplishments and future goals. State of the Union
addresses pay homage to the historical achievements of the nation and its recurring national
values. In his 1983 address, Ronald Reagan stated the following:
The very key to our success has been our ability, foremost among nations, to preserve our
lasting values by making change work for us rather than against us.18
Through attention to both past and future, Presidents can use the State of the Union address to
develop their own definition of the national identity. For example, Bill Clinton used his 1995
speech to introduce the concept of a “New Covenant” that blended the traditional themes of
“opportunity and responsibility” with the current policy challenges his administration faced.
Moving back and forth between historical themes and contemporary issues is a common
rhetorical practice in State of the Union addresses. Using the past to explain legislative proposals
and decisions is a method aimed at legitimizing the President’s policy program.
Bipartisanship
The State of the Union address is not primarily a partisan speech or document. Speaking before a
joint session of Congress, Presidents often try to frame their arguments in such a way to build
consensus. In his 2002 speech, George W. Bush stated the following:
September the 11th brought out the best in America and the best in this Congress. And I join
the American people in applauding your unity and resolve. Now Americans deserve to have
this same spirit directed toward addressing problems here at home. I'm a proud member of
my party. Yet as we act to win the war, protect our people, and create jobs in America, we
must act, first and foremost, not as Republicans, not as Democrats but as Americans.19
A rhetorical emphasis on bipartisanship can be politically empowering. By claiming a willingness
to reach across the aisle, Presidents can remind listeners that their constitutional authority
(...continued)
Presidential Rhetoric from Woodrow Wilson to George W. Bush, p. 577.
18 Ronald Reagan, “Address before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union,” in State of the Union:
Presidential Rhetoric from Woodrow Wilson to George W. Bush, p. 882.
19 George W. Bush, “Address before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union,” in State of the Union, p.
1083.
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includes a mandate to protect the welfare of all citizens. Such a claim is unique to the presidency,
and can serve as a powerful component of the chief executive’s national leadership.
Optimism
The final recurring theme is optimism. No matter how terrible the crisis facing the country,
Presidents always adopt a can-do “Horatio Alger” tone in their annual speech.20 Only a month
after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Franklin Roosevelt began his 1942 State of the Union address
with the following statement:
In fulfilling my duty to report on the State of the Union, I am proud to say to you that the
spirit of the American people was never higher than it is today—the Union was never more
closely knit together—this country was never more deeply determined to face the solemn
tasks before it. The response of the American people has been instantaneous, and it will be
sustained until our security is assured.21
Presidents often acknowledge the difficult nature of the goals they set, but such acknowledgement
is qualified by a strong statement that Americans will always fulfill their destiny, solve intractable
problems, and ultimately “establish a more perfect Union.” No President has ever reported that
the crisis facing the nation was insurmountable.22
Policy Impact
The State of the Union address is uniquely situated to strengthen the President’s role as chief
legislator. The President routinely uses the address to convey his policy priorities and advertise
his past legislative successes. In the course of the speech, Presidents can advocate for policies
already being considered by Congress, introduce innovative ideas, or threaten vetoes.23
In previous centuries, Presidents directed their annual address mainly to Congress, although
major newspapers and magazines analyzed the contents of the speech. Now that the State of the
Union is broadcast on television, radio, and the Internet, Presidents can speak directly to
Congress and the American public. By speaking directly to citizens, Presidents attempt to
convince the public to pressure their elected Representatives and Senators to support particular
policy proposals mentioned in the speech. From 1965 through 2002, the median level of policy
requests in a State of the Union address was 31.24
20 Campbell and Jamieson, Presidents Creating the Presidency, p. 140.
21 Franklin D. Roosevelt, “State of the Union Address,” in State of the Union, p. 306.
22 Campbell and Jamieson, Presidents Creating the Presidency, p. 141.
23 Donna R. Hoffman and Alison D. Howard, Addressing the State of the Union: The Evolution and Impact of the
President’s Big Speech (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006), p. 96.
24 Ibid., p. 111. The median is used instead of the arithmetic mean (average) due to the presence of outliers in the data.
The median is the middle value of a dataset. With outliers, such as Clinton in 2000 (87 policy requests) and Carter in
1980 (9 policy requests) the median more accurately represents the central tendency of the data.
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Progression of Presidential Term
Presidents often change the emphasis of their State of the Union addresses as their term in office
progresses. Electoral pressures, his relationship with Congress, and the President’s past legislative
record influence such a development.
First Year Addresses
A newly inaugurated President typically addresses a joint session of Congress several weeks after
entering office. Presidents Eisenhower (1953) and Kennedy (1961) did not formally label these
initial speeches as State of the Union addresses.25 However, scholars and political observers
generally treat these policy speeches as serving the same function as the annual address. In an
“inaugural” State of the Union address, Presidents attempt to set the tone for a new
administration.26 Most of the rhetoric contained in early term speeches is forward-looking. In
their first address, Presidents take positions on numerous policy issues in an attempt to direct the
legislative agenda for the next four years. Since 1965, the median number of policy requests in a
first year State of the Union address is 36.27
Midterm Addresses
State of the Union addresses in a President’s second and third year of his term in office usually
adopt a different tone. Presidents use a greater portion of their time in the address highlighting
their policy achievements; approximately 10% of the sentences in mid-term addresses are credit-
claiming statements. The number of policy requests typically decreases in a midterm speech,
falling to a median of 30.28 President Barack Obama’s 2011 State of the Union will be considered
a “midterm” address.
Election Year Addresses
An impending election can influence the types of arguments Presidents make in their annual
address. Claims of past achievements rise to 13% of the sentences. Policy proposals also rise to a
median of 36 requests, perhaps in an attempt to demonstrate an active agenda if elected to a
second term. Despite electoral considerations, Presidents do not use the State of the Union
address to stump for office, according to scholars. If the election is mentioned at all, it is
discussed indirectly and with a bipartisan tone.29
25 Ibid., p. 114.
26 Ibid.
27 The calculation is based upon data provided by Hoffman and Howard on p. 111. It does not include addresses given
by Presidents Nixon, Ford, or Carter. These three Presidents declined to give a policy address to a joint session of
Congress during their first year in office.
28 Hoffman and Howard, Addressing the State of the Union, p. 115.
29 Ibid., p. 116.
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Second Term Addresses
The second term addresses of Presidents have disparate qualities. For example, President Reagan
decreased both his credit claiming and policy proposals in his second-term addresses. On the
other hand, President Clinton increased his policy proposals, while maintaining the same level of
credit claiming. One characteristic, however, is common in second term addresses. In their second
terms, Presidents concentrate more of their legislative requests on defense and foreign policy.30 It
might be that Presidents turn towards building their legacy in their second terms of office and
decide to focus more of their resources, political capital, and time on issues concerning defense
and foreign policy.
Legislative Success and Policy Proposals
Given the powerful spotlight the State of the Union address provides for the President in his
legislative role, a good question to ask is whether the proposals mentioned in the speech actually
get enacted in the subsequent year. According to data from 1965 to 2002, on average, 43.3% of all
policy proposals contained in a State of the Union address are enacted by Congress in the
legislative session in which the President gave his speech.31 However, the rate of legislative
success varies widely throughout this time period.
Figure 2. Legislative Proposal Success Rate
State of the Union Addresses, 1965-2002
80
70
60
t 50
n
e 40
rc
Pe 30
20
10
0
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
Year of Address
Source: Legislative Proposal Success Rate data provided by Hoffman and Howard, Addressing the State of the
Union, p. 144.
Note: Data points with a marker indicate postelection addresses.
30 Ibid., p. 119.
31 Ibid, p. 143.
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One pattern that can be discerned from Figure 2 is that Presidents typically experience increased
legislative success in the year immediately following an election. Of the five Presidents since
196532 who gave State of the Union postelection addresses, the average State of the Union
legislative success rate was 51.4%, approximately eight percentage points higher than the overall
average. The success rate falls for second-term addresses to 38.6%.33
Another comparison can be drawn between the legislative success rate during years of unified
party government versus divided party government. The average legislative success rate during
years of divided government is 40.9%. During years of unified government, the average
legislative success rate rises to 49.3%.34
Capturing and Holding the Public’s Attention
Evidence also suggests that Presidents can successfully capture the public’s attention by
mentioning a policy proposal in the State of the Union. Increased emphasis in a State of the
Union speech translates into a higher level of public interest in that particular policy area. Both
substantive arguments (in which the President took a position on an issue) and symbolic rhetoric
(in which the President spoke generally about an issue but did not offer a specific
recommendation) can increase public attention. Merely mentioning an issue in the State of the
Union has the power to heighten the public’s awareness of it. In a recent analysis of State of the
Union addresses from 1946 to 2003, every 50 words a President devoted to an issue resulted in a
2% increase in the public identifying that problem as the most important in the nation.35
However, the President’s ability to maintain the public’s interest varies according to issue area.
Increased public attention to economic policies mentioned by the President in his State of the
Union address tends to evaporate by the end of the year. However, the American public appears to
retain its interest in foreign policy. Attention to foreign policy issues mentioned by the President
in his annual speech remains steady at the year’s conclusion. It seems reasonable to conclude that
the President can use the State of the Union address to reshape and reconstitute public opinion
about foreign policy.36
Given that Presidents now must compete with cable television channels not airing the State of the
Union address, the threat of a declining viewership might depress the speech’s potential
salience.37 However, smaller viewing audiences does not necessarily mean the annual speech is
less influential. Many citizens rely upon media coverage of the State of the Union address to learn
32 The seven addresses analyzed are Johnson (1965), Reagan (1981), Reagan (1985), George H.W. Bush (1989),
Clinton (1993), Clinton (1997), George W. Bush (2001).
33 Hoffman and Howard, Addressing the State of the Union, pp. 145-146.
34 Data provided by Hoffman and Howard, Addressing the State of the Union, pp. 144. Calculations provided by the
authors. The number of SOTU addresses analyzed for divided government was 24; the number of SOTU addresses
analyzed for unified government was 11.
35 Adam B. Lawrence, “Does It Matter What Presidents Say? The Influence of Presidential Rhetoric on the Public
Agenda, 1946-2003”, (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 2004).
36 Jeffrey E. Cohen, “Presidential Rhetoric and the Public Agenda,” American Journal of Political Science, vol. 39, no.
1 (February 1995), pp. 95-100.
37 Reed L. Welch, “Is Anybody Watching? The Audience for Televised Presidential Addresses,” Congress and the
Presidency, vol. 27 (2000), pp. 41-58. According to media reports, President George W. Bush’s final State of the Union
address in 2008 drew 25 million viewers. This number was considerably less than 2007, when his speech drew 31
million viewers.
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about the President’s policy priorities. Research shows that media coverage of the State of the
Union address leads to increased public knowledge about the highlighted issues, regardless of a
person’s educational background, age, or partisan affiliation.38 Even if an individual does not
watch the address on television or the Internet, the State of the Union presents a significant
opportunity for the President to communicate his ideological preferences, ideals, and policy
agenda to the public writ large.
Opposition Response
An opposition response is a speech given by select members of the political party not currently
occupying the White House. The opposition response is usually broadcast immediately after the
completion of the President’s State of the Union address. It is a much shorter speech than the
State of the Union; recent opposition responses have been approximately 1500 words in length
and lasted about ten minutes. The practice of an opposition response to the State of the Union
address began in 1966 when Senator Everett Dirksen (R-IL) and Representative Gerald Ford (R-
MI) provided the Republican reply to President Lyndon Johnson.
Format
From 1967 to 1986, the opposition response adopted a variety of formats. Several times, the
opposition response included comments from one or more Members of Congress. For example, in
1970, seven Democratic Members participated in a 45-minute televised response to President
Richard Nixon’s State of the Union speech. In 1984, twelve Democratic Members recorded a
reply to President Ronald Reagan’s speech that was aired on most networks. In other instances,
only one or two Members delivered their party’s official reply.39
By 1987, the opposition response adopted a format in which either one or two individuals
provided a reply to the President’s address. Parties often select rising stars, new congressional
leaders, or possible presidential candidates to give the opposing view. For example, Senator
Robert Dole (R-KS) gave the opposition response in 1996. The new Senate Minority leader,
Harry Reid (D-NV), used the opposition response to introduce himself to the American people in
2005. In 2006, in an attempt to highlight Virginia’s status as America’s “best managed state,” the
Democrats chose Governor Tim Kaine to give the reply.40
In 1995, Republican Governor Christine Todd Whitman of New Jersey became the first non-
Congressional elected official to deliver the opposition response.41 In 2007, Senator Jim Webb
(D-VA) was the first freshman Member of Congress to provide the opposition response to the
State of the Union address.
38 Jason Barabas, “Presidential Policy Initiatives: How the Public Learns about State of the Union Proposals from the
Mass Media,” Presidential Studies Quarterly, vol. 38, no. 2 (June 2008), p. 215.
39 “State of the Union Address,” available at http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house_history/stateunion.html, accessed
on December 23, 2008.
40 The ranking is issued by the Government Performance Project of the Pew Center’s on the States. See “Virginia Gets
Top Grade in Management,” available at http://www.vaexcels.governor.virginia.gov/TempContent/
Best_Managed_State.cfm, accessed on December 29, 2008.
41 Other governors, such as Bob Graham from Florida (1985), Bill Clinton from Arkansas (1985), and Charles Robb
from Virginia (1986) participated in opposition responses, but were accompanied by several Members of Congress.
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The President’s State of the Union Address: Tradition, Function, and Policy Implications
Common Rhetorical Arguments
No matter which party is giving the speech, opposition responses to the State of the Union
address typically contain similar themes or arguments. The opposition’s response routinely
contains the following three rhetorical elements:
Call for Bipartisanship
Like the President in the State of the Union address, the opposition often calls for bipartisanship.
Cooperation and consensus are common themes. Providing commentary from outside of the
nation’s capital, bipartisanship can play a more prominent role if a governor gives the address
rather than a Member of Congress. For example, Democratic Governor Kathleen Sebelius of
Kansas emphasized bipartisanship in her 2008 response. She stated:
I’m a Democrat, but tonight, it doesn’t really matter whether you think of yourself as a
Democrat or a Republican or an Independent. Or none of the above ... And, so, I want to take
a slight detour from tradition on this State of the Union night. In this time, normally reserved
for the partisan response, I hope to offer you something more: An American Response.42
In other instances, the opposition response may ask the President directly to work in a bipartisan
fashion to accomplish a particular task.
The Opposition’s Agenda
The political party not occupying the White House uses the opposition response to outline its
policy agenda. While the President’s State of the Union address can include a long list of
proposals, the opposition response usually focuses on two or three major issues. The brevity of
the opposition response limits the range of discussion. In 2007, Senator Jim Webb (D-VA)
remarked, “It would not be possible in this short amount of time to actually rebut the President’s
message, nor would it be useful.”43 Opposition responses have always included a discussion of
domestic issues. From time to time, the response also discusses foreign policy.
The response usually explains what the policy agenda would be if the opposition party controlled
the White House. It may also include a discussion of issues that the President did not address in
his State of the Union speech. A clear distinction is drawn between the President’s priorities and
the priorities of the opposing political party. For example, in his 2006 speech, Virginia Governor
Tim Kaine repeated the phrase “There’s a better way” six times during his televised address.44
42 “Transcript: Democratic Response,” available at http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/01/28/politics/
main3762263.shtml, accessed on December 29, 2008.
43 “Transcript: Democratic Response,” available at http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/01/23/politics/
main2391890.shtml, accessed on December 30, 2008.
44 “Virginia Governor Tim Kaine’s Response,” available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/
2006/01/31/AR2006013101246_pf.html, accessed on December 30, 2008.
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Direct Response to President
The opposition often responds directly to specific proposals contained in the President’s State of
the Union address. Excerpts of the State of the Union address are usually leaked hours prior to
delivery. This enables the opposing party to change its response by adding specific ripostes to the
President’s proposals. Other details are added as the President delivers his speech. For example,
in 2000, Senator Bill Frist (R-TN) criticized the health care proposals offered by President
Clinton:
Earlier tonight we heard the President talk about his latest health care proposals. The last
time he proposed a health plan was seven years ago ... Now tonight, 84 months later, the
President has unveiled a similar plan just as bad as the first. It makes government even
bigger and more bloated because each new program we heard about tonight – and there were
about 11 of them in health care alone – comes with its own massive bureaucracy.45
Arguments directly responding to specific State of the Union policy proposals are usually
criticisms of the President’s approach or priorities. After such criticism, the opposition response
usually offers counterproposals for the public’s consideration.
Social Media
In his 2010 opposition response, Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell included an invitation for
listeners to contribute ideas on social networking websites. He stated,
In fact, many of our proposals are available online at solutions.gop.gov, and we welcome
your ideas on Facebook and Twitter.46
This remark is the first request for listeners of a State of the Union Address or opposition
response to use social media to communicate thoughts, ideas, or reactions.
Concluding Thoughts
The State of the Union address is an important weapon in the President’s arsenal as a legislative
leader. Although recent State of the Union addresses utilize common structure and often include
similar types of arguments, the speech provides the President with the opportunity to outline his
own policy agenda for the upcoming Congressional session.
Presidents have two audiences in mind: Congress and the American public. Presidents must
receive the support of a majority in the House, and oftentimes a supermajority in the Senate, to
enact their legislative proposals. Presidents have realized that the American people can help
accomplish this frequently difficult task. By appealing directly to the public, a President can use
popular leverage to convince Congress to adopt his policy agenda. A campaign of such sustained
45 “Sen. Bill Frist,” available at http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/jan-june00/frist_1-27.html, accessed on
December 30, 2008.
46 “Bob McDonnell’s GOP Response: Full Text,” available at http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/01/27/politics/
stateofunion/main6148483.shtml, accessed on October 28, 2010.
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The President’s State of the Union Address: Tradition, Function, and Policy Implications
public pressure must go beyond the State of the Union address, but Presidents often use the State
of the Union as an initial vehicle to introduce policy priorities to a large viewing audience.
While the State of the Union address highlights the President’s legislative role, it also serves as an
annual reminder that the chief executive exists within a separated powers system. Legislative
powers are shared between Congress and the presidency, evidenced by the constitutional
requirement that the President “shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the
State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge
necessary and expedient.”
Author Contact Information
Colleen J. Shogan
Thomas H. Neale
Senior Specialist in Government and Finance
Specialist in American National Government
cshogan@crs.loc.gov, 7-8231
tneale@crs.loc.gov, 7-7883
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