Bahrain: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy
Kenneth Katzman
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
September 29, 2010
Congressional Research Service
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www.crs.gov
95-1013
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress

Bahrain: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy

Summary
After experiencing serious unrest during the late 1990s, Bahrain undertook several steps to
enhance the inclusion of the Shiite majority in governance. However, the Sunni-led government’s
efforts to maintain its tight grip on power have stirred new unrest among Bahraini Shiites in
advance of October 23, 2010, parliamentary elections. That election, no matter the outcome,
would not produce a new executive, but achievement of a Shiite majority in the elected lower
house could give the opposition greater authority with which to challenge the ruling Al Khalifa
family. In advance of the elections, the government has launched a wave of arrests intended to try
to discredit some of the hardline Shiite leadership as fomenters of violence and tools of Iran. The
crackdown has perhaps contributed to increasing Shiite popular protests in advance of the
elections.
Underlying the unrest are Bahraini concerns that Iran is supporting Shiite opposition movements,
possibly in an effort to install a Shiite led, pro-Iranian government on the island. These fears are
occasionally reinforced by comments from Iranian editorialists and political leaders that Bahrain
should never have become formally independent of Iran. On the other hand, Bahrain’s Shiite
oppositionists accuse the government of inflating the Iran threat, and the contacts between Iran
and the opposition, to discredit the opposition politically. At the same time, Bahrain’s rulers have
tried to avoid inviting Iranian aggression, in part by signing energy agreements with Iran and by
allowing Iranian banks and businesses to operate there. Bahrain has also sought to dissuade
Bahraini journalists and officials from publicly criticizing Iran.
Bahrain has few external security options other than relying on some degree of U.S. security
guarantee. Bahrain has tried to earn that guarantee by hosting U.S. naval headquarters for the
Gulf for over 60 years and by providing facilities and small numbers of personnel for U.S. war
efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan. The United States has designated Bahrain as a “major non-NATO
ally,” and it provides small amounts of security assistance to Bahrain. On other regional issues
such as the Arab-Israeli dispute, Bahrain has tended to defer to Saudi Arabia or other powers to
take the lead in formulating proposals or representing the position of the Persian Gulf states,
collectively. These areas of strong U.S.-Bahrain cooperation have caused some public criticism of
successive U.S. Administrations, including by some in Congress, for muting criticism of
Bahrain’s human rights record in the interests of ensuring Bahrain’s cooperation on security
issues.
In September 2004, the United States and Bahrain signed a free trade agreement (FTA);
legislation implementing it was signed January 11, 2006 (P.L. 109-169).

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Contents
The Political Structure, Reform, and Human Rights .................................................................... 1
Recent and Upcoming Elections............................................................................................ 2
2006 Assembly Elections ................................................................................................ 2
The 2010 National Assembly and Municipal Election...................................................... 3
General Human Rights Issues................................................................................................ 4
U.S. Efforts to Promote Political Reform......................................................................... 5
U.S.-Bahrain Security and Economic Relations ........................................................................... 6
Cooperation With U.S. Regional Operations.......................................................................... 6
U.S. Arms Transfers .............................................................................................................. 7
Purchases With National Funds ....................................................................................... 8
Other Anti-Terrorism Cooperation......................................................................................... 8
Economic Relations .............................................................................................................. 8
Relations with Iran and Other Regional Issues............................................................................. 9
Bahrain-Iran Gas Deal and Other Economic Ties................................................................. 10
Iraq..................................................................................................................................... 10
Qatar Territorial Disputes .................................................................................................... 11
Arab-Israeli Issues .............................................................................................................. 11

Figures
Figure 1. Bahrain ...................................................................................................................... 13

Tables
Table 1. Some Basic Facts About Bahrain ................................................................................... 4
Table 2. U.S. Assistance to Bahrain ........................................................................................... 12

Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 13

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The Political Structure, Reform, and Human Rights1
The Al Khalifa family, which is Sunni Muslim, has ruled Bahrain since 1783, when the family’s
arrival from the Saudi peninsula ended a century of domination by Persian settlers. The Al
Khalifa subsequently received political protection from Britain, which was the dominant power in
the Gulf until the early 1970s. Bahrain became independent from Britain in August 1971 after a
1970 U.N. survey determined that its inhabitants preferred independence to Iranian control.
Bahrain is led by King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa (about 65 years old), who succeeded his father,
Shaykh Isa bin Sulman Al Khalifa, upon his death in March 1999. Educated at Sandhurst Military
Academy in Britain, King Hamad was previously commander of the Bahraini Defense Forces
(BDF). His son, Salman bin Hamad, about 48 years old, is Crown Prince. He is U.S.-and U.K.-
educated and is, like the King, considered a proponent of reform and accommodation with
Bahrain’s Shiite majority—about 70% of the 490,000-person citizenry.2 (There are also an
estimated 235,000 expatriates in Bahrain, according to the Central Intelligence Agency’s “World
Factbook.”)
The King’s uncle (the brother of the late ruler), Prime Minister Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa,
along with hardliners in the royal court and several ministries, are perceived as skeptical of King
Hamad’s reforms. They believe that the concessions that King Hamad has made to the Shiite
majority have cause the Shiites to increase their political demands and might jeopardize Al
Khalifa rule. Others believe that unrest would be far worse had the King’s reforms not been
enacted.
The minor political reforms under the King’s father—the December 1992 establishment of a 30-
member appointed Consultative Council to comment on proposed laws and its June 1996
expansion to 40 members—did not quiet Shiite (or Sunni) demands for the restoration of an
elected national assembly. An elected assembly was provided for under the 1973 constitution but
abolished in August 1975. There was daily anti-government violence during 1994-1998, although
the unrest gradually took on a Shiite sectarian character. As Hamad’s first reform steps after
taking over, he changed his title to “King,” rather than “Amir” and implying more accountability,
and held a referendum (February 14, 2002) on a new “national action charter (constitution).”
Elections were held in October 2002 for a 40-seat “Council of Representatives” (COR, also
referred to as the Council of Deputies). However, the Al Khalifa family have held onto all
strategic ministry positions and about half of all ministerial slots.
The elected COR and the all-appointed Shura Council—which is of equal size as the COR—
constitute a National Assembly (parliament) that serves as at least a partial check on government
power. The COR can propose (but not actually draft) legislation and both chambers can question
ministers, although not in public session. Nor can they question the Prime Minister. The COR

1 Much of the information in this section is from State Department reports: 2009 Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices (March 11, 2010); the International Religious Freedom Report for 2009 (October 26, 2009); and the
Trafficking in Persons Report for 2010 (June 14, 2010). CRS has no means to independently investigate the human
rights situation in Bahrain or confirm allegations of specific human rights abuses there.
2 The Shiite community in Bahrain consists of the more numerous “Baharna,” who are of Arab ethnicity and descended
from Arab tribes who inhabited the area from pre-Islamic times. Shiites of Persian ethnicity are less numerous, and
arrived in Bahrain over the past 400 years. They speak Persian and generally do not integrate with the Baharna or with
Sunni Arabs.
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can, by a two-thirds majority, vote no-confidence against ministers and the Prime Minister and
override the King’s veto of approved legislation, although none of these actions has occurred
since the COR was formed. The King has the authority to dissolve the COR and amend the
constitution. The Shura Council is formally limited to amending draft legislation and, in concert
with the COR, reviewing the annual budget, but these powers do provide the Shura Council with
the ability to block action by the COR. The government has tended to appoint generally more
educated and pro-Western members to the Shura Council, and it is generally more supportive of
the government than is the elected COR. There is no “quota” for females in the National
Assembly, as has been included in democratic constitutions in post-Saddam Iraq and post-Taliban
Afghanistan.
Recent and Upcoming Elections
In the 2002 election, many Shiite opposition “political societies” (formal parties are banned),
including Al Wifaq, (a large faction, led by Shaykh Ali al-Salman), boycotted the elections on the
grounds that setting the appointed Shura Council at the same size as the elected COR dilutes
popular will. The 2002 boycott lowered turnout (about 52%) and helped Sunnis win two-thirds of
the COR seats. Of the 170 total candidates, 6 were women, but none was elected.
2006 Assembly Elections
Sunni-Shiite tensions escalated again in the run-up to the November 25, 2006, parliamentary and
municipal elections, aggravated by the Shiite perception that a once-repressed Shiite majority
came to power in Iraq through U.S.-backed elections. In the fall of 2006, some Shiites protested,
particularly after allegations—some of which were publicly corroborated by a government
adviser (Salah al-Bandar) in August 2006 in a report to an outside human rights organization—
that the government was adjusting election districts so as to favor Sunni candidates. It was also
alleged that the government issued passports to Sunnis in an attempt to shift the demographic
balance to the Sunnis’ advantage.
In the November 2006 elections, two Shiite opposition blocs, Wifaq and the National Democratic
Action Association, participated, raising voter turnout to 72%. The harder-line Shiite opposition
faction Al Haq boycotted. The opposition, led by Wifaq, won 18 seats (of which 17 were Wifaq
activists and one was a Wifaq ally), virtually all those it contested, becoming the largest single
bloc in the COR but short of a majority. Sunni Muslims won 22 seats, and Sunni Islamists
(Salafists and Muslim Brotherhood candidates) together won 8 seats. Only one woman (Latifa al
Qaoud, who was unopposed in her district) won, out of 18 female candidates (down from 31
female candidates in the 2002 elections). As evidence of continued friction, Wifaq boycotted the
speakership contest, and incumbent COR Speaker Khalifa al-Dhahrani was re-elected speaker.
The King subsequently named a new Shura Council with 20 Shiites, 19 Sunnis, and one Christian
(a female). Ten total women were appointed. However, the Shiites appointed were not all aligned
with opposition factions, and several were considered “pro-government.” Therefore, the Shura
Council was not a bastion of opposition to the government even though Shiites held half of its
seats. In a nod to the increased Shiite strength as a result of the elections, the government
appointed a Shiite (Jawad al-Araidh) as deputy prime minister and another (who is close to
Wifaq) as a minister of state for foreign affairs. In the current cabinet, there are four Shiites (out
of 23 cabinet positions) and two female ministers (Minister of Social Affairs Fatima bint Ahmad
al-Balushi and Minister of Information and Culture Mai bint Muhammad Al Khalifa). A previous
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female minister of health, Nada Haffadh, resigned in October 2007 following allegations of
corruption in her ministry by conservatives who oppose women occupying high-ranking
positions. Two other women, including the president of the University of Bahrain, have
ministerial rank. In April 2008, Huda Azar Nunu, a female attorney and the only Jew in the Shura
Council, is ambassador to the United States.
The 2010 National Assembly and Municipal Election
The resentments over the 2006 election, and the still unfulfilled demand of Bahrain’s Shiites for
greater political power and an end to economic discrimination, carry over to the upcoming
election. The election date is set for October 23, 2010. There are expected to be a limited number
of international observers, primarily from various international human rights organizations. Two
Bahraini human rights watchdog groups—the Bahrain Human Rights Society and the Bahrain
Transparency Society—have again (for the third time) reached agreement to jointly monitor the
2010 elections. Municipal elections are being held concurrently with the parliamentary election.
The electorate is expected to be about 300,000. There are 40 election districts spread throughout
five governorates. As was the case in the 2006 elections, Shiite oppositionists have again accused
the government of drawing district boundaries so as to prevent the election of a Shiite majority.
Registration of candidates took place during September 12-16, 2010. About 200 people registered
to run, of whom seven were women. However, one woman withdrew after registering, leaving a
field of six female candidates. Of the six, only one was formally endorsed by a political society,
the National Democratic Action Society (Waad, which means “promise” in Arabic). She is
Munira Fakhro, a prominent Shiite woman who was exiled prior to the political reform process
under King Hamad. In 2006, she narrowly lost to a Sunni Islamist (Minbar, or “platform,”
faction).
If a candidate in a contested district fails to win more than 50% in the first round, a runoff is held
one week later. At least four candidates in districts where there is no opposition have already been
declared winners, as of September 28, 2010.
Wifaq, the most prominent Shiite political society, has registered candidates for the 2010
elections. Its leader, Shaykh Ali Salman, is not a candidate, preferring to lead the faction from the
background. A least one Wifaq candidate has already been declared a winner in an uncontested
constituency. Al Haq (Movement of Freedom and Democracy) is again boycotting the elections,
as it did in 2006. Observers say that a government crackdown in advance of the election has
driven Bahraini Shiites to support harder-line movements, such as Al Haq, that are boycotting.
For example, on September 4, 2010, 23 Shiite leaders, including the Al Haq leader, wheelchair-
bound Dr. Abduljalil Alsingace, were arrested on charges of attempting a violent overthrow of the
government. They are among about 160 Shiites arrested since August 13, 2010, under a 2006
anti-terrorism law that gives the government broad arrest and prosecution powers. A prominent
Shiite cleric, Ayatollah Hussein Mirza al-Najati, said to be close to the most senior Iraqi cleric
Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, had his Bahrain citizenship revoked on September 20, 2010. Some
observers believe that the arrests may help the government by suppressing the election turnout
among Shiites, who are increasingly adopting the view that elections will not bring political
change. Still, the crackdown has not prompted the more mainstream Wifaq to reconsider its
decision to compete.
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The crackdown might help the government’s election strategy but has also reportedly led to
stepped up demonstrations by Shiite youth in Shiite neighborhoods. The tensions are also widely
blamed for resulting in a bombing that damaged four police cars on September 15.
Heightened election-related political tensions have been evident for nearly two years. In
December 2008, the government made numerous arrests of Shiite demonstrators and accused
some of being part of a foreign-inspired “plot” to destabilize Bahrain. Some were accused of
undergoing guerrilla or terrorist training in Syria. On January 26, 2009, the government arrested
three leading Shiite activists, including Alsingace and Mr. Hassan Mushaima, both leaders of Al
Haq. Alsingace later visited the United States several times to highlight the human rights situation
in Bahrain. They were tried during February-March 2009 but, along with other Shiite activists,
were pardoned and released in April 2009. (As noted above Alsingace has been arrested again in
September 2010.)
Among Sunni political societies, there are two that are considered Islamist. They include Minbar,
mentioned above, which is an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood, and Al Asala, which is a
harder line “Salafist” political society. Currently, Asala is the second-largest parliamentary bloc,
with eight members in the lower house, about half the number of seats held by Wifaq, which is
the largest bloc. Minbar is close behind Asala with seven members.

Table 1. Some Basic Facts About Bahrain
Population
About 1.05 million, of which 530,000 are
citizens
Religions
81% Muslim, 9% Christian, 10% other
GDP (purchasing power parity) $28
billion (2009)
Budget
$5.81 billion revenues, $5.86 billion
expenditures (2009)
External Debt
$11 billion (2009)
Inflation Rate
3% (2009)
GDP Real Growth Rate
2.9% in 2009, down from over 6% in 2008
Size of Bahrain Defense Forces (BDF)
About 13,000, plus about 1,200 National
Guard. Some personnel are expatriates,
including other Arab and Pakistani.
Source: CIA, The World Factbook.

General Human Rights Issues
Beyond the politically motivated discrimination against Shiites, which includes basing Islamic
studies curricula in schools on Sunni jurisprudence and excluding Shiite teachings, State
Department reports, such as the human rights report for 2009 cited earlier, note problems for non-
Muslims and for opponents of the government. Bahrain allows freedom of worship for Christians,
Jews, and Hindus although the constitution declares Islam the official religion.
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The Baha’i faith, declared blasphemous in Iran and Afghanistan, has been discriminated against
in Bahrain as well. A Baha’i congregation was repeatedly denied an official license. However, the
State Department human rights reports for 2008 (February 2009) and for 2009 (March 2010) say
that the Baha’i community now gathers and operates openly. The government requires licenses
for churches to operate, and has in the past threatened to shutter un-licensed churches serving
Indian expatriates.
On labor issues, Bahrain has been credited with significant labor reforms, including a 2002 law
granting workers, including non-citizens, the right to form and join unions. The law holds that the
right to strike is a legitimate means for workers to defend their rights and interests, but their right
is restricted in practice, including a prohibition on strikes in the oil and gas, education, and health
sectors. There are about 50 trade unions in Bahrain.
On human trafficking, Bahrain was elevated in the 2008 Trafficking in Persons report to “Tier 2
Watch List,” from Tier 3 in the 2007 report, because it is “making significant efforts” to comply
with the minimum standards for elimination of trafficking, but has not shown results, to date. The
2009 Trafficking in Persons Report (June 16, 2009) kept Bahrain as Tier 2 Watch List, with
explanatory language similar to that of the 2008 report. The 2010 Trafficking in Persons Report
(June 14, 2010) upgraded Bahrain yet again to Tier 2 (dropping the “watch list” designation) on
the grounds that Bahrain is making significant efforts to comply with minimum standards and has
begun making prosecutions under its anti-trafficking statutes.
Another issue is that of executions. Human Rights Watch and other groups assert that Bahrain is
going against the international trend to end execution. In November 2009, Bahrain’s Court of
Cassation upheld the sentencing to death by firing squad of a citizen of Bangladesh. That
sentenced was imposed for a 2005 murder. From 1977 until 2006, there were no executions in
Bahrain. Allegations of torture against Shiite opposition figures are widespread.3
U.S. Efforts to Promote Political Reform
According to the State Department, the United States seeks to accelerate political reform in
Bahrain and empower its political societies through several programs, including the “Middle East
Partnership Initiative (MEPI).” Some funds have been used to help build an independent judiciary
and strengthen the COR. Other U.S.-funded programs focus on women’s empowerment, media
training, educational opportunities, and civil society legal reform. MEPI funds have been used to
fund AFL-CIO projects with Bahraini labor organizations, and to help Bahrain implement the
U.S.-Bahrain FTA. In May 2006 Bahrain revoked the visa for the resident program director of the
National Democratic Institute (NDI), and has not allowed the office to reopen. Still, NDI is
conducting programs to enhance parliamentary capabilities through a local NGO. In February
2010, the MEPI office of State Department signed a memorandum of understanding with Bahrain
to promote entrepreneurship there and promote opportunities for trade with U.S. small businesses.
According to the State Department’s International Religious Freedom report for 2009 (October
26, 2009), “Regular meetings with human rights activists reaffirmed the U.S. government’s
commitment to religious freedom and other human rights-related matters.” The report says that,
in 2009, the United States again sponsored a visit to Bahrain during the Ramadan period of a
prominent American Muslim cleric.

3 Human Rights Watch. “Bahrain: Torture Redux. “ February 2010.
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U.S.-Bahrain Security and Economic Relations4
A U.S. Embassy in Manama, Bahrain’s capital, opened in September 1971, but defense issues
remain a central feature of U.S.-Bahrain relations. Although Iraq is no longer a strategic threat to
the region because it cannot project power outside its borders, Iran’s nuclear program is
considered a growing threat to the Persian Gulf states, including Bahrain. There is also the issue
of terrorism and piracy in the Gulf, as exemplified by a July 28, 2010, explosion on a Japanese oil
tanker in that waterway. The explosion is widely suspected to have been a terrorist attack, and a
faction linked to Al Qaeda (Abdullah Azzam Brigades) claimed responsibility.
In large part to keep powerful neighbors in check, Bahrain has long linked its security to the
United States, and U.S. efforts to address threats in Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan have benefitted
from access to Bahraini facilities. In recognition of the relationship, in March 2002, President
Bush (Presidential Determination 2002-10) designated Bahrain a “major non-NATO ally
(MNNA),” a designation that facilitates U.S. arms sales.
February 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of a U.S. naval command presence in Bahrain;
MIDEASTFOR (U.S. Middle East Force), its successor, NAVCENT (naval component of U.S.
Central Command), and the Fifth Fleet (reconstituted in June 1995) have been headquartered
there. The Fifth Fleet headquarters is a command facility that now covers over 100 acres, and
about 2,300 U.S. personnel, mostly Navy, are assigned there.5 Some smaller U.S. ships
(minesweepers) are docked there, but the Fifth Fleet also consists of a Carrier Battle Group, an
Amphibious Ready Group, and various other ships that are afloat or which dock elsewhere in the
region. To further develop the naval command facility (referred to as “Bahrain Island”), recent
appropriations and requests include $54 million for FY2008 (including $19 million for a Special
Operations Forces facility);6 no funds for FY2009; $41.5 million for FY2010 (P.L. 111-117); and
a requested $258 million for FY 2011 for several facilities in Bahrain, including Bahrain Island.
Of that request, $45 million is to expand an apron at Shaykh Isa Air Base.
Cooperation With U.S. Regional Operations
Bahrain and the United States signed a 10-year defense pact signed on October 28, 1991, seven
months after the war to liberate Kuwait from Iraq, and renewed in October 2001. The pact not
only provides the United States access to Bahrain’s air bases and to pre-position strategic materiel
(mostly U.S. Air Force munitions), but also requires consultations with Bahrain if its security is
threatened, and it expanded exercises and U.S. training of Bahraini forces.7
The naval headquarters, the U.S. use of which predated the defense pact, has been used to
coordinate the operations of over 20 U.S. warships performing support missions for U.S. and
allied naval operations related to the U.S. military operations ongoing in Iraq and Afghanistan.

4 Information in this section obtained from a variety of press reports, and the Defense Security Cooperation Agency
(DSCA).
5 Unclassified information provided to CRS by the Department of Defense. Figures are as of June 30, 2010.
6 Appropriated in Division 1 of P.L. 110-161.
7 Details of the U.S.-Bahrain defense agreement are classified. Some provisions are discussed in Sami Hajjar, U.S.
Military Presence in the Gulf: Challenges and Prospects
(U.S. Army War College: Strategic Studies Institute), March
2002, p. 27.
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These ships are also part of Combined Task Force (CTF) 152 that seeks to interdict the movement
of terrorists, arms, or weapons of mass destruction (WMD)-related technology and narcotics
across the Arabian Sea. Bahrain has taken a turn in a rotation to command CTF-152. Some of
these operations are part of or offshoots of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in Afghanistan,
which ousted the Taliban after the September 11 attacks. Bahrain allowed the United States to fly
combat missions from its bases (Shaykh Isa Air Base) in both OEF and the war to oust Saddam
Hussein in March-April 2003 (Operation Iraqi Freedom, OIF). During both OEF and OIF,
Bahrain publicly deployed its U.S.-supplied frigate warship (the Subha) to help protect U.S.
ships, and it sent ground and air assets to Kuwait in support of OIF. Bahrain hosted about 4,000
U.S. military personnel during major combat of OEF (October 2001-May 2003).
Bahrain and UAE have been the only Gulf states to deploy their own forces to provide aid to
Afghanistan. In 2009, Bahrain sent 100 police officers to Afghanistan on a two-year tour to help
U.S./NATO-led stabilization operations there.
U.S. forces were in Bahrain well before the September 11 attacks occurred. There were about
1,300 U.S. military personnel in Bahrain during the 1990s to contain Iraq, and Bahrain was part
of the allied coalition that ousted Iraq from Kuwait in 1991, hosting 17,500 troops and 250
combat aircraft at Shaykh Isa Air Base (mentioned above). Bahraini pilots flew strikes over Iraq
during the war, and Iraq fired nine Scud missiles at Bahrain during the war, of which three hit
facilities there. Bahrain hosted the regional headquarters for U.N. weapons inspections in Iraq
during 1991-1998, and the U.S.-led Multinational Interdiction Force (MIF) that enforced a U.N.
embargo on Iraq during 1991-2003.
U.S. Arms Transfers
Congress and successive Administrations, citing Bahrain’s limited income, have supported
military assistance to Bahrain’s small BDF of about 13,000 personnel (plus about 1,200 National
Guard). It is eligible to receive grant “excess defense articles” (EDA). The United States
transferred the FFG-7 “Perry class” frigate Subha (see above) as EDA in July 1997. In 1996, the
United States gave Bahrain a no-cost five-year lease on 60 M60A3 tanks; title subsequently
passed to Bahrain. Foreign Military Financing (FMF) was suspended for Bahrain in FY1994 but
restarted in appreciation of Bahrain’s support in OEF and OIF. Recent FMF has been provided to
help Bahrain maintain U.S.-origin weapons, to enhance inter-operability with U.S. forces, to
augment Bahrain’s air defenses, to support its F-16 fleet, and to improve counter-terrorism
capabilities.
Some of the U.S. assistance provided to Bahrain, noted in Table 2 below, is to help Bahrain keep
the F-16s sufficiently updated to operate alongside U.S. warplanes. Funds provided under
“Section 1206” of the National Defense Authorization Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-163) have been used
to improve Bahrain’s coastal surveillance capabilities and to build up its Special Operations
forces. The Defense Department estimates that, in part due to U.S. assistance, as of FY2008,
about 45% of Bahrain’s forces are fully capable of integrating into a U.S.-led coalition. Making
Bahrain’s forces interoperable with U.S. forces, and helping Bahrain upgrade its U.S.-made F-16s
with improved avionics, and maintain the frigate Subha, are the primary justifications for the
substantial increase in requested assistance to Bahrain for FY2010. The requested funding levels
for FY2011 are roughly the same as FY2010 levels.
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Purchases With National Funds
Despite its limited funds (Bahrain’s total government budget was about $5.6 billion in 2008),
Bahrain has purchased some U.S. systems. In 1998, Bahrain purchased 10 U.S.-made F-16Cs
from new production, worth about $390 million. In 1999, the United States sold Bahrain 26
Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missiles (AMRAAM) to arm the F-16s, although some
Members were concerned that the AMRAAM sale could promote an arms race in the Gulf.
Section 581 of the FY1990 foreign operations appropriation act (P.L. 101-167) made Bahrain the
only Gulf state eligible to receive the STINGER shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missile, and the
United States has sold Bahrain about 70 Stingers since 1990. (This authorization has been
repeated in subsequent legislation.) To allay congressional concerns about possible U.S.
promotion of missile proliferation in the region, an August 2000 sale of 30 Army Tactical Missile
Systems (ATACMs, a system of short-range ballistic missiles fired from a multiple rocket
launcher) included an agreement for joint U.S.-Bahraini control of the weapon. Among recent
sales notified to Congress by the Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) are a sale, worth
up to $42 million, of 180 “Javelin” anti-armor missiles and 60 launch units; a sale, worth up to
$252 million, of nine UH-60M Blackhawk helicopters; a sale, notified August 3, 2007, of six Bell
search and recovery helicopters, valued at about $160 million; and a sale, notified on July 28,
2009, of up to 25 AMRAAMs (Raytheon Missile Systems Corp.) and associated equipment,
valued at about $74 million.
Some of the most recent sales are in accordance with the State Department’s “Gulf Security
Dialogue,” begun in 2006 to counter Iran, and under which a total of about $20 billion worth of
U.S. weapons might be sold to the Gulf monarchy states. Only a small portion of that total sales
volume is reportedly slated for Bahrain.
Other Anti-Terrorism Cooperation
The State Department’s report on international terrorism for 2009 (released August 5, 2010)
credits Bahrain for having “actively monitored terrorism suspects” and for achieving convictions
of five men accused of membership of a terrorist organization—the first use of a 2006
counterterrorism law. The report, however, as did the same report of the previous year, notes that
Bahrain has not overcome legal constraints that have sometimes hampered its ability to detain and
prosecute suspected terrorists.
Bahrain also continues to host the Middle East and North Africa Financial Action Task Force
(MENA/FATF) secretariat and its Central Bank, Financial Information Unit (within the Central
Bank), and local banks cooperate with U.S. efforts against terrorism financing and money
laundering. As noted by the State Department in the FY2011 budget justification, some of the
U.S. assistance to Bahrain is to facilitate Bahrain’s ability to contribute to U.S.-led counter-piracy
operations in regional waterways, and to provide training to its counter-terrorism institutions.
Economic Relations
Like the other Gulf states, Bahrain was affected by the international financial crisis of 2008-2009,
but perhaps to a lesser extent than the wealthier states of Kuwait, UAE, and Saudi Arabia.
Bahrain did not experience the construction and real estate “bubble” to the degree that this
occurred in, for example, UAE.
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Bahrain has the lowest oil and gas reserves of the Gulf monarchy states, estimated respectively at
210 million barrels of oil and 5.3 trillion cubic feet of gas. Some economic statistics are presented
in Table 1. Without the ample oil or gas resources of its neighbors, Bahrain has diversified its
economy by emphasizing banking and financial services (about 25.5% of GDP). At current rates
of production (35,000 barrels per day of crude oil), Bahrain’s onshore oil reserves will be
exhausted in 15 years, but Saudi Arabia shares equally with Bahrain the 300,000 barrels per day
produced from the offshore Abu Safa field. The United States buys virtually no oil from Bahrain;
the major U.S. import from it is aluminum. Aluminum and other manufacturing sectors in
Bahrain account for the existence in Bahrain of a vibrant middle and working class among its
citizens. However, these classes are largely composed of majority Shiite Muslims who are
envious of the “ownership class” mostly of Sunni Muslims.
To encourage further reform and signal U.S. appreciation, the United States and Bahrain signed
an FTA on September 14, 2004. Implementing legislation was signed January 11, 2006 (P.L. 109-
169). In 2009, the United States exported $668 million worth of goods to Bahrain, and imported
$463 million in goods from that country. In 2005, total bilateral trade was about $780 million,
suggesting that trade has expanded significantly following the FTA.
Relations with Iran and Other Regional Issues
As noted previously, Bahrain focuses its foreign policy intently on Iran, which has purportedly
demonstrated an ability to aggravate Bahrain’s domestic turmoil to a greater degree than has any
other regional power. Bahrain perceives Iran as willing and able to support Shiite groups against
Bahrain’s Sunni-dominated government, a concern that was heightened by the Shiite-Sunni
sectarian violence in Iraq during 2006-2008. In December 1981, and then again in June 1996,
Bahrain publicly accused Iran of trying to organize a coup by pro-Iranian Bahraini Shiites (the
Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain, IFLB).
Bahrain’s fears are amplified by lingering suspicions, sometimes fed by Iranian actions, that Iran
never accepted the results of the 1970 U.N. survey giving Bahrain independence rather than
integration with Iran. Those findings were endorsed by U.N. Security Council Resolution 278,
which was ratified by Iran’s parliament. After these official determinations, Bahrain had
considered the issue closed, after over a century of Persian contestation of Bahraini sovereignty.
Those contests included an effort by Reza Shah Pahlavi of Iran in the 1930s to deny Bahrain the
right to grant oil concessions to the United States and Britain.
In recent years, Bahrain’s leadership—and other countries in the region—have reacted strongly
against statements by Iranian editorialists and advisers to Iranian leaders appearing to reassert
Iran’s claim. One such example was a July 2007 Iranian newspaper article reasserting the Iranian
claim to Bahrain. However, that article, along with the Bahraini Crown Prince’s November 3,
2007, comment that Iran is developing a nuclear weapon (Iran claims it is developing only
civilian nuclear power), did not mar the visit of Iranian President Ahmadinejad on November 17,
2007. At the same time, so as not to provide Iran a pretext to pressure Bahrain, Bahrain’s leaders
have sometimes tried to silence voices in Bahrain that publicly attack Iran. An example is the
one-day suspension in 2009 of the newspaper Akhbar al Khaleej (Gulf News) for running an
editorial by a Bahrain Shura Council member who criticized Iranian leaders.
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Bahrain-Iran Gas Deal and Other Economic Ties
Although Bahrain criticizes Iran when it feels Iran might be trying to impinge on Bahrain’s
sovereignty or meddle in its politics, Bahrain does not seek to antagonize Iran. This is shown by
Bahrain’s willingness to explore major energy projects with Iran and conduct normal trade and
banking ties with it. The 2007 Ahmadinejad visit resulted in a preliminary agreement for Bahrain
to buy 1.2 billion cubic feet per day (for 25 years) of Iranian gas via an undersea pipeline to be
built. The deal would have involved a $4 billion investment by Bahrain to develop Phases 15 and
16 of Iran’s South Pars gas field, which presumably would be the source of the gas that Bahrain
would import.
This deal was suspended after comments in March 2009 by former Iranian parliament speaker Ali
Akbar Nateq Nuri, now an advisor to Iran’s Supreme Leader, referring to Bahrain as Iran’s 14th
province. Iran’s Foreign Ministry immediately tried to limit any diplomatic damage by asserting
respect for Bahrain’s sovereignty and independence, but some Arab governments sharply
criticized the Nateq Nuri comments. Morocco broke relations with Iran as a response. On October
21, 2009, Bahrain’s Minister of Oil and Gas Abd al-Husayn Mirza said talks on the deal would
“resume soon.”
Bahrain conducts relatively normal trade with Iran and hosts Iranian economic investments. In
March 2008, the U.S. Department of Justice sanctioned Future Bank, headquartered in Bahrain,
because it is controlled and partially owned by Iran’s Bank Melli. The sanctions, under Executive
Order 13382 (anti-proliferation), prevent U.S. citizens from participating in transactions with
Future Bank and require the freezing of any U.S.-based bank assets.
Energy market observers say that Bahrain energy firms might also be supplying gasoline to Iran.
No U.N. Security Council Resolution bars such sales, but a U.S. law signed on July 1, 2010—the
Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010 (CISADA, P.L. 111-
195)—provides for sanctions against foreign firms that sell more than $1 million worth of
gasoline to Iran. Some energy firms in the Gulf, including in Kuwait, reportedly have become
reticent to continue supplying gasoline to Iran because of the U.S. action, but Bahrain is not
known to have publicly disavowed further gasoline sales to Iran.8
Iraq
Bahrain’s participation in OIF came despite domestic opposition in Bahrain to that war. Because
of its limited income, Bahrain has not contributed funds to Iraq reconstruction, but it attended the
“Expanded Neighbors of Iraq” regional conference process which last met in Kuwait on April 22,
2008. On October 16, 2008, Bahrain’s first post-Saddam ambassador to Iraq (Saleh Ali al-Maliki)
presented his credentials in Baghdad, in line with King Hamad’s pledge to President Bush in
March 2008.

8 CRS conversations with foreign diplomats, including some from the Gulf. July – September 2010.
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Qatar Territorial Disputes9
Qatar, like Bahrain, is a GCC monarchy; however, their relations have been sometimes
acrimonious because of territorial disputes with roots in the 18th century, when the ruling families
of both countries controlled parts of the Arabian peninsula. Qatar-Bahrain relations have
improved since an International Court of Justice ruled on March 16, 2001, on the disputes. The
ICJ ruled in favor of Qatar on some of the issues, and in favor of Bahrain on others, but the
central dispute—over the Hawar Islands—was decided in favor of Bahrain. Qatar expressed
disappointment over the ruling but said it accepted it as binding, and the two have since muted
mutual criticism and cooperated on major regional issues. The territorial disputes were referred to
the ICJ by Qatar in 1991 after clashes in 1986 in which Qatar landed military personnel on a man-
made reef (Fasht al-Dibal) that was in dispute, and took some Bahrainis prisoner. Saudi mediation
in the 1986-1991 period proved fruitless. That reef was awarded to Qatar in the ICJ ruling.
However, the ICJ ruled against Bahrain’s claim to the town of Zubara on the Qatari mainland,
where some members of the Al Khalifa family were long buried. Two smaller islands, Janan and
Hadd Janan, were ruled not part of the Hawar Islands group and were awarded to Qatar.
Arab-Israeli Issues
On the Arab-Israeli dispute, Bahrain has not been as significant a mediator or broker as have its
larger neighbors in the Gulf or broader Middle East. Bahrain has not taken a leading role in recent
efforts to reconcile Hamas and Fatah to rebuild Palestinian unity, for example. On the other hand,
Bahrain is not inactive on the issue; on October 1, 2009, the foreign minister called for direct
talks with Israel.
Bahrain participated in the 1990-1996 multilateral Arab-Israeli talks, and it hosted a session on
the environment (October 1994). Bahrain did not follow Oman and Qatar in exchanging trade
offices with Israel. In September 1994, all GCC states ceased enforcing secondary and tertiary
boycotts of Israel while retaining the ban on direct trade (primary boycott). In conjunction with
the U.S.-Bahrain FTA, Bahrain dropped the primary boycott and closed boycott-related offices in
Bahrain.
Still, the Arab-Israeli dispute is a political issue within Bahrain. Islamist hardliners in Bahrain
have accused the government of trying to “normalize” relations with Israel, citing the
government’s sending a delegate to the November 27, 2007, summit on Middle East peace in
Annapolis, the foreign minister’s meeting with Israeli officials at U.N. meetings in September
2007, and by proposing (in October 2008) a “regional organization” that would group Iran,
Turkey, Israel, and the Arab states. That proposal has not been implemented to date. In late
October 2009, the elected COR passed a bill making it a crime (punishable by up to five years in
jail) for Bahrainis to travel to Israel or hold talks with Israelis. The bill, which has not proceeded
to become law (concurrence by the upper house, and acceptance by the King), apparently was a
reaction to a visit by Bahraini officials to Israel in July 2009. The visit was to obtain the release of
five Bahrainis taken prisoner by Israel when it seized a ship bound with goods for Gaza, which is
controlled by Hamas. In June 2010, Sunni and Shiite Islamists in Bahrain held a demonstration to

9 See The Estimate. Dossier: The Bahrain-Qatar Border Dispute: The World Court Decision, Part 1 and Part 2. March
23, 2001 and April 6, 2001.
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denounced the Israeli seizure of a ship in a flotilla intended to run the Israeli blockade of the
Hamas-run Gaza Strip.

Table 2. U.S. Assistance to Bahrain
($ in millions)
FY2010
FY2011

FY03
FY04
FY05
FY06
FY07
FY08
FY09
Estimate
Request
FMF
90.0 24.6 18.847
15.593
14.998
3.968 8.0
19.0
19.5
IMET
0.448 0.600

0.649 0.651 0.616 0.622 .661
.700
.700
NADR
1.489
2.761
.776
0.744
.500 1.10 1.5
“Section
1206”
5.3
24.54
4.3
16.2

Notes: IMET = International Military Education and Training Funds, used mainly to enhance BDF military
professionalism and promote U.S. values. NADR = Non-Proliferation, Anti-Terrorism, De-Mining and Related
Programs, used to sustain Bahrain’s counterterrorism capabilities and interdict terrorists. Section 1206 are DOD
funds used to train and equip Bahrain’s special forces, its coastal surveillance and patrol capabilities, and to
develop its counter terrorism assessment capabilities. (Named for a section of the FY2006 Defense
Authorization Act, P.L. 109-163.) FY2008 funds derived from FY2008 supplemental (P.L. 110-252), and the
Consolidated appropriation (P.L. 110-329). FY2009 funds included funding from FY2008 supplemental (P.L. 110-
252) as wel as regular appropriation (P.L. 111-8). FY2010 funds from Consolidated Appropriation (P.L. 111-117).
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Bahrain: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy

Figure 1. Bahrain

Source:
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ba.html.

Author Contact Information

Kenneth Katzman

Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
kkatzman@crs.loc.gov, 7-7612


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