Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses
Kenneth Katzman
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
August 20, 2010
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL32048
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress

Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses

Summary
The Obama Administration has adopted the long-standing assessment of Iran as a “profound
threat to U.S. national security interests.” This threat perception is generated not only by Iran’s
nuclear program but also by its military assistance to armed groups in Iraq and Afghanistan, to the
Palestinian group Hamas, and to Lebanese Hezbollah. In its first year, the Obama Administration
altered the previous U.S. approach by expanding direct diplomatic engagement with Iran’s
government and by offering Iran’s leaders an alternative vision of closer integration with and
acceptance by the West. To try to convince Iranian leaders of peaceful U.S. intent, the Obama
Administration downplayed discussion of potential U.S. military action against Iranian nuclear
facilities and repeatedly insisted that it did not seek to change Iran’s regime. It held to this
position even at the height of the protests by the domestic opposition “Green movement” that
emerged following Iran’s June 12, 2009, presidential election.
Iran’s refusal to accept the details of an October 1, 2009, tentative agreement to lessen concerns
about its nuclear intentions—coupled with its crackdown on the Green movement—caused the
Administration, in 2010, to shift toward building multilateral support for strict economic
sanctions against Iran. The Administration efforts bore fruit on June 9, 2009 when a U.N. Security
Council was adopted (Resolution 1929) that required countries to take a number of significant
steps against Iran, including banning major arms sales to Iran, and authorized a number of
additional significant steps. The European Union, in July 2010, subsequently announced
multilateral sanctions against Iran that use much of the authorities of Resolution 1929, and which
also supports elements of U.S. legislations passed in June 2010 (the Comprehensive Iran
Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act, P.L. 11-195). The new sanctions represent a
rejection of a May 17, 2010, agreement brokered by Brazil and Turkey to implement major
features of the October 1, 2009, agreement.
Many observers assess that the U.S., U.N., and EU sanctions enacted in June and July 2010 are
pressing Iran economically. However, because the sanctions have not caused Iran to
fundamentally alter its commitment to its nuclear program and might not ever achieve that
objective, the Administration reportedly has revived deliberations of possible military action to
try to set Iran’s nuclear program back. Other options include methods to contain Iran if it does
become a nuclear armed power. Some believe that only domestic opposition in Iran, which in late
2009 appeared to pose a potentially serious challenge to the regime’s grip on power, may provide
a clear opportunity to reduce the potential threat of a nuclear Iran. Obama Administration officials
appear to believe that the opposition’s prospects are enhanced by a low U.S. public profile on the
unrest. Congressional resolutions and legislation since mid-2009 show growing congressional
support for steps to enhance the opposition’s prospects. Others maintain that the prospects for the
domestic opposition, which has been largely absent from the streets in 2010, are poor, and that
other options are fraught with risks, and that the Administration should return to a focus on
reaching a nuclear agreement with Iran. For further information, see CRS Report RS20871, Iran
Sanctions
; CRS Report R40849, Iran: Regional Perspectives and U.S. Policy; and CRS Report
RL34544, Iran’s Nuclear Program: Status.

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Contents
Political History .......................................................................................................................... 1
Regime Structure, Stability, and Opposition ................................................................................ 2
The Supreme Leader, His Powers, and Other Ruling Councils ............................................... 2
The Presidency/Mahmoud Ahmadinejad ............................................................................... 7
Ahmadinejad’s Policies and Political Position ................................................................. 8
June 12, 2009, Presidential Elections............................................................................. 10
Domestic Unrest: Election Dispute and Emergence of the “Green Movement” .................... 10
Green Movement Formation ......................................................................................... 11
How Shaken and Divided Is the Regime? ...................................................................... 12
Additional Political Fallout of Economic Sanctions ....................................................... 12
Armed Opposition Factions................................................................................................. 12
People’s Mojahedin Organization of Iran (PMOI)/Camp Ashraf .................................... 13
Pro-Monarchy Radical Groups ...................................................................................... 15
Ethnic or Religiously Based Armed Groups................................................................... 15
Other Human Rights Practices................................................................................................... 15
Iran’s Strategic Capabilities and Weapons of Mass Destruction Programs .................................. 18
Conventional Military/Revolutionary Guard/Qods Force ..................................................... 18
Nuclear Program and Related International Diplomacy ....................................................... 21
Iranian Recent Nuclear Activities .................................................................................. 21
Iran’s Arguments........................................................................................................... 22
The International Response ........................................................................................... 23
The International Response Under the Obama Administration ....................................... 27
Possible Additional International and Multilateral Sanctions to Address Iran’s
Nuclear Program ........................................................................................................ 31
Chemical Weapons, Biological Weapons, and Missiles ........................................................ 33
Ballistic Missiles/Warheads........................................................................................... 33
Foreign Policy and Support for Terrorist Groups ....................................................................... 34
Relations with the Persian Gulf States ................................................................................. 35
Iranian Policy in Iraq........................................................................................................... 38
Supporting Palestinian Militant Groups ............................................................................... 38
Iran and Hamas ............................................................................................................. 38
Lebanese Hezbollah and Syria............................................................................................. 39
Syria ............................................................................................................................. 41
Central Asia and the Caspian............................................................................................... 41
South Asia: Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India ...................................................................... 42
Afghanistan .................................................................................................................. 42
Pakistan ........................................................................................................................ 43
India ............................................................................................................................. 43
Al Qaeda............................................................................................................................. 43
Latin America ..................................................................................................................... 44
Venezuela ..................................................................................................................... 45
Africa ................................................................................................................................. 45
U.S. Policy Approaches and Additional Options ........................................................................ 45
Clinton Administration Policy ....................................................................................... 46
George W. Bush Administration Policy ......................................................................... 46
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Overview of Obama Administration Policy ......................................................................... 48
Implementation of the Engagement Policy .................................................................... 48
Military Action ................................................................................................................... 49
An Israeli Strike? .......................................................................................................... 50
Iranian Retaliatory Scenarios......................................................................................... 51
Containment and the Gulf Security Dialogue....................................................................... 52
Presidential Authorities and Legislation......................................................................... 53
Regime Change................................................................................................................... 53
Democracy Promotion Efforts ....................................................................................... 54
U.S. Sanctions..................................................................................................................... 58
Ban on U.S. Trade With and Investment in Iran ............................................................. 58
U.S. Sanctions Against Foreign Firms that Invest in Iran’s Energy Sector ...................... 58
Targeted Financial Measures by Treasury Department ................................................... 58
Terrorism List Designation Sanctions ............................................................................ 59
Sanctions Against Foreign Firms that Aid Iran’s Weapons of Mass
Destruction Programs................................................................................................. 59
Sanctions Against Foreign Firms that Sell Advanced Arms to Iran................................. 59
Ban on Transactions With Foreign Entities Determined to Be Supporting
International Terrorism............................................................................................... 59
Ban on Transactions With Foreign Entities that Support Proliferation ............................ 60
Divestment.................................................................................................................... 60
Counter-Narcotics ......................................................................................................... 60
U.S.-Iran Assets Disputes .............................................................................................. 60
Travel-Related Guidance............................................................................................... 60
Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 61

Figures
Figure 1. Structure of the Iranian Government ........................................................................... 63
Figure 2. Map of Iran ................................................................................................................ 64

Tables
Table 1. Major Factions and Personalities.................................................................................... 3
Table 2. Factions in the Eighth Majles ......................................................................................... 8
Table 3. Human Rights Practices ............................................................................................... 16
Table 4. Iran’s Conventional Military Arsenal........................................................................... 19
Table 5. The Revolutionary Guard............................................................................................ 20
Table 6.Summary of Provisions of U.N. Resolutions on Iran Nuclear Program (1737,
1747, 1803, and 1929)............................................................................................................ 31
Table 7. Iran’s Ballistic Missile Arsenal..................................................................................... 34
Table 8. Iran Democracy Promotion Funding ............................................................................ 57
Table 9. Selected Economic Indicators ...................................................................................... 61
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Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 64
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uch of the debate over U.S. policy toward Iran has centered on the nature of the current
regime; some believe that Iran, a country of about 70 million people, is a threat to U.S.
M interests because hardliners in Iran’s regime dominate and set a policy direction
intended to challenge U.S. influence and allies in the region. President George W. Bush, in his
January 29, 2002, State of the Union message, labeled Iran part of an “axis of evil” along with
Iraq and North Korea.
Political History
The United States was an ally of the late Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (“the Shah”),
who ruled from 1941 until his ouster in February 1979. The Shah assumed the throne when
Britain and Russia forced his father, Reza Shah Pahlavi (Reza Shah), from power because of his
perceived alignment with Germany in World War II. Reza Shah had assumed power in 1921
when, as an officer in Iran’s only military force, the Cossack Brigade (reflecting Russian
influence in Iran in the early 20th century), he launched a coup against the government of the
Qajar Dynasty. Reza Shah was proclaimed Shah in 1925, founding the Pahlavi dynasty. The
Qajars had been in decline for many years before Reza Shah’s takeover. That dynasty’s perceived
manipulation by Britain and Russia had been one of the causes of the 1906 constitutionalist
movement, which forced the Qajars to form Iran’s first Majles (parliament) in August 1906 and
promulgate a constitution in December 1906. Prior to the Qajars, what is now Iran was the center
of several Persian empires and dynasties, but whose reach shrunk steadily over time. Since the
16th century, Iranian empires lost control of Bahrain (1521), Baghdad (1638), the Caucasus
(1828), western Afghanistan (1857), Baluchistan (1872), and what is now Turkmenistan (1894).
Iran adopted Shiite Islam under the Safavid Dynasty (1500-1722), which brought Iran out from a
series of Turkic and Mongol conquests.
The Shah was anti-Communist, and the United States viewed his government as a bulwark
against the expansion of Soviet influence in the Persian Gulf and a counterweight to pro-Soviet
Arab regimes and movements. Israel maintained a representative office in Iran during the Shah’s
time and the Shah supported a peaceful resolution of the Arab-Israeli dispute. In 1951, under
pressure from nationalists in the Majles (parliament) who gained strength in the 1949 Majles
elections, he appointed a popular nationalist parliamentarian, Dr. Mohammad Mossadeq, as prime
minister. Mossadeq was widely considered left-leaning, and the United States was wary of his
policies, which included his drive for nationalization of the oil industry. Mossadeq’s followers
began an uprising in August 1953 when the Shah tried to dismiss Mossadeq, and the Shah fled.
The Shah was restored in a successful CIA-supported uprising against Mossadeq.
The Shah tried to modernize Iran and orient it toward the West, but in so doing he also sought to
marginalize Iran’s Shiite clergy. He exiled Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in 1964 because of
Khomeini’s active opposition, which was based on the Shah’s anti-clerical policies and what
Khomeini alleged was the Shah’s forfeiture of Iran’s sovereignty to the United States. Khomeini
fled to and taught in Najaf, Iraq, a major Shiite theological center that contains the Shrine of
Imam Ali, Shiism’s foremost figure. There, he was a peer of senior Iraqi Shiite clerics and, with
them, advocated direct clerical rule or velayat-e-faqih (rule by a supreme Islamic jurisprudent). In
1978, three years after the March 6, 1975, Algiers Accords between the Shah and Iraq’s Baathist
leaders, which settled territorial disputes and required each party to stop assisting each other’s
oppositionists, Iraq expelled Khomeini to France, from which he stoked the Islamic revolution.
Mass demonstrations and guerrilla activity by pro-Khomeini forces, allied with a broad array of
anti-Shah activists, caused the Shah’s government to collapse in February 1979. Khomeini
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returned from France and, on February 11, 1979, declared an Islamic Republic of Iran, as
enshrined in the constitution that was adopted in a public referendum in December 1979 (and
amended in 1989). Khomeini was strongly anti-West and particularly anti-U.S., and relations
between the United States and the Islamic Republic turned hostile even before the November 4,
1979, seizure of the U.S. Embassy by pro-Khomeini radicals.
Regime Structure, Stability, and Opposition
About a decade after founding the Islamic republic, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini died on June 3,
1989. Iran’s regime has always been considered authoritarian, but with a degree of popular input
and checks and balances among power centers. The regime Khomeini established—enshrined in
an Islamic republican constitution adopted in October 1979 and amended in a national
referendum of April 1989—consists of some elected and some appointed positions.
Until the serious popular and intra-regime unrest that followed the June 12, 2009, presidential
election, the regime had faced only episodic unrest from minorities, intellectuals, students, labor
groups, and women. Since the elections, the regime has struggled to contain popular
dissatisfaction, which some believe will be satisfied only with the outright replacement of the
regime. In late 2009, several Iran experts believed this opposition movement—calling itself “The
Green Path of Hope” or “Green movement” (Rah-e-Sabz)—posed a serious challenge to the
current regime. However, the success of the regime in preventing the Green movement from
holding a large counter-demonstration on the 2010 anniversary of “Revolution Day” (February
11)—and the movement’s subsequent public quiescence—has led some to conclude the Green
movement has withered. Others believe that the fundamental popular anger at the government has
not subsided and that the movement, after re-evaluating its strategy and perhaps gaining adherents
from other segments of society, will eventually regain momentum.
The Supreme Leader, His Powers, and Other Ruling Councils
Upon Khomeini’s death, one of his disciples, Ayatollah Ali Khamene’i, was selected Supreme
Leader by an elected 86-seat “Assembly of Experts.”1 Although he has never had Khomeini’s
undisputed authority, Khamene’i has vast formal powers as Supreme Leader that help him
maintain his grip on power. Some of his peers criticized his handling of the protest movement,
and Secretary of State Clinton said in February 2010 that the Supreme Leader’s authority is being
progressively usurped by regime security forces, most notably the Islamic Revolutionary Guard
Corps (IRGC). However, Khamene’i is said to believe that the virtual disappearance of street
protests in 2010 has validated his strategy of forceful repression of the Green movement.
Formally, the Supreme Leader is commander in chief of the armed forces, giving him the power
to appoint commanders and to be represented on the highest national security body, the Supreme
National Security Council, composed of top military and civilian security officials. He appoints
half of the 12-member Council of Guardians;2 and the head of Iran’s judiciary (currently

1 The Assembly also has the power to amend Iran’s constitution and to remove a Supreme Leader. At the time of his
elevation to Supreme Leader, Khamene’i was generally referred to at the rank of Hojjat ol-Eslam, one rank below
Ayatollah, suggesting his religious “promotion” was political rather than through traditional mechanisms.
2 The Council of Guardians consists of six Islamic jurists and six secular lawyers. The six Islamic jurists are appointed
by the Supreme Leader. The six lawyers on the Council are selected by the judiciary but confirmed by the Majles.
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Ayatollah Sadeq Larijani). Headed by Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati, the conservative-controlled
Council of Guardians reviews legislation to ensure it conforms to Islamic law, and it screens
election candidates and certifies elections results. The Supreme Leader also has the power, under
the constitution, to remove the elected president if either the judiciary or the elected Majles
(parliament) say the president should be removed, with cause. The Supreme Leader appoints
members of the 42-member Expediency Council, set up in 1988 to resolve legislative
disagreements between the Majles and the Council of Guardians but its powers were expanded in
2006 to include oversight of the executive branch (cabinet) performance. Expediency Council
members serve five-year terms. The Council, appointed most recently in February 2007, is still
headed by Rafsanjani; its executive officer is former Revolutionary Guard commander-in-chief
Mohsen Reza’i.
The Assembly of Experts is empowered to oversee the work of the Supreme Leader and replace
him if necessary, as well as to amend the constitution. The Assembly serves a six-year term; the
fourth election for that Assembly was held on December 15, 2006. After that election, Akbar
Hashemi-Rafsanjani, still a major figure having served two terms as president himself (1989-
1997), was named deputy leader of the Assembly. After the death of the leader of the Assembly,
Rafsanjani was selected its head in September 2007. See Figure 1 for a chart of the Iranian
regime.)
Table 1. Major Factions and Personalities
Conservatives
Supreme Leader Ali Khamene’i
Born in July 1939 to an Azeri (Turkic) family from Mashhad. Lost use of
right arm in assassination attempt in June 1981. Helped organize
Revolutionary Guard and other post-revolution security organs. Served as
elected president during 1981-1989 and was selected Khomeini’s successor
in June 1989 upon his death. Upon that selection, Khamene’i religious
ranking was advanced in official organs to “Ayatollah” from the lower
ranking “Hojjat ol-Islam.” Although with Khomeini’s undisputed authority,
Khamene’I, like Khomeini, generally stays out of day-to-day governmental
business and saves his prestige to resolve factional disputes or to quiet
popular criticism of regime performance. Took more direct role to calm
internal infighting in wake of June 2009 election dispute, but perceived as
increasingly reliant on Revolutionary Guard to keep regime grip on power.
Considered moderate-conservative on domestic policy but hardline on
foreign policy and particularly toward Israel. Seeks to challenge U.S.
hegemony and wants Israel defeated but respects U.S. military power and
fears military confrontation with United States. Has generally supported
the business community (bazaaris), and opposed state control of the
economy. Senior aides in his office include second son, Mojtaba, who is said
to be acquiring increasing influence. Has made public reference to
purported letters to him from President Obama asking for renewed U.S.-
Iran relations.
Expediency Council and Assembly
Long a key strategist of the regime, and longtime advocate of “grand
of Experts Chair Ali Akbar
bargain” to resolve all outstanding issues with United States, although on
Hashemi-Rafsanjani
Iran’s terms. A mid-ranking cleric, leads both Expediency Council and
Assembly of Experts, although now perceived as a tacit al y of the Green
movement because of his criticism of Khamene’i and Ahmadinejad’s
handling of the June 2009 election and aftermath. Was offended by
Ahmadinejad’s 2009 campaign allegations of Rafsanjani corruption, and
purportedly financed much of Musavi’s election campaign. The arrest of five
Rafsanjani family members in June 2009 (and another briefly detained in
March 2010), and a May 2010 threat to arrest his son, Mehdi, if Mehdi
returns from exile in Britain—may regime reflect pressure on him.
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Opposition activists say his sister and brother-in-law have relocated to
New York. Daughter Faizah has participated in several opposition
protests. During 2010, has battled Ahmadinejad for control of Islamic Azad
University, which Rafsanjani helped found and is said to be a major source
of funds for Rafsanjani’s activities. Ahmadinejad not successful in this to
date. Was Majles speaker during 1981-89 and President 1989-1997. One of
Iran’s richest men, family owns large share of Iran’s total pistachio
production.
President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Declared reelected on June 12, 2009, and inaugurated August 5, but results
still not accepted by most Green protesters. See box below.
Majles Speaker Ali Larijani
Overwhelming winner for Majles seat from Qom on March 14, 2008, and
selected Majles Speaker on May 25 (237 out of 290 votes). Former state
broadcasting head (1994-2004) and minister of culture and Islamic guidance
(1993), was head of Supreme National Security Council and chief nuclear
negotiator from August 2005 until October 2007 resignation. Sought to
avoid U.N. Security Council isolation. Politically close to Khamene’i but
criticized election officials for the flawed June 12, 2009, election and
subsequent crackdown. Increasingly backed arrests of protesters as Green
movement gained strength. Brother of judiciary head.
Tehran Mayor Mohammad Baqer
Former Revolutionary Guard Air Force commander and police chief, but a
Qalibaf
moderate-conservative and ally of Larijani. Encourages comparisons of
himself to Reza Shah, invoking an era of stability and strong leadership. Lost
in the 2005 presidential elections, but supporters won nine out of 15 seats
on Tehran city council in December 2006 elections, propelling him to
current post as mayor of Tehran. Recruited moderate-conservatives for
March 2008 Majles election.
Senior Clerics
The most senior clerics, most of whom are in Qom, including several
Grand Ayatollahs, are generally “quietist”—they believe that the senior
clergy should refrain from direct involvement in politics. These include
Grand Ayatollah Nasser Makarem Shirazi, Grand Ayatollah (former
judiciary chief) Abdol Karim Musavi-Ardabili, and Grand Ayatollah Yusuf
Sanei, all of whom have criticized regime crackdown against opposition
protests. Others believe in political involvement, including Ayatollah
Mohammad Taqi Mesbah Yazdi. He is founder of the hardline Haqqani
school, and spiritual mentor of Ahmadinejad. Yazdi, an assertive defender
of the powers of the Supreme Leader and a proponent of an “Islamic state”
rather than the current “Islamic republic,” fared poorly in December 2006
elections for Assembly of Experts. Another political y active hardline senior
cleric is Ayatollah Kazem Haeri, mentor of radical Iraqi cleric Moqtada Al
Sadr.
Judiciary Chief/Ayatollah Sadeq
Larijani named in late August 2009 as Judiciary head, replacing Ayatollah
Larijani
Mahmoud Shahrudi, who had headed the Judiciary since 1999. Brother is
Majles Speaker Ali Larijani; both are close to the Supreme Leader. Was
appointed primarily to curb Ahmadinejad’s aggressive prosecutions of
reformist leaders following June 2009 election dispute, although
subsequently shifted to harder, anti-protester line. Another Larijani
brother, Mohammad Javad, was deputy foreign minister (1980s.)
Militant Clerics Association
Longtime organization of hardline clerics headed by Ayatollah Mohammad
Mahdavi-Kani. Did not back Ahmadinejad in June 12 presidential elections.
Bazaar Merchants (“Bazaaris”)
The core interests of the urban bazaar merchants are their livelihoods, and
therefore they have general y supported the regime as a source of political
stability and economic stability. Have conducted only a few strikes or other
organized action since the 1979 revolution. In July 2010, many Tehran
bazaaris—and bazaaris in several other major cities—closed their shops for
two weeks to protest a 70% tax increase, ultimately compelling the
government to reduce the increase to 15%. Some interpreted the strikes as
an indication that the bazaaris may be shifting against the regime. The
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bazaaris are also not a monolithic group; each city’s bazaars are organized
by industry (ex. Carpets, gold, jewelry, clothing) and bazaari positions tend
to be reached by consensus among elders representing each industry
represented at the bazaar.
Opposition/”Green Movement” (Rah-e-Sabz)
All of the blocs and personalities below can be considered, to varying degrees, as part of the Green movement.
However, overall leadership of the movement and decision-making on protest activities is unclear, with several
components competing for preeminence. Some Green supporters have left for Europe, Asia, or the United States.
Titular Green Movement Leaders:
Khatemi—reformist president during 1997-2005 and declared he would
Mir Hossein Musavi/
run again for President in June 2009 elections, but withdrew when allied
Mohammad Khatemi/Mehdi Karrubi
reformist Mir Hossein Musavi entered the race in late March 2009.
Khatemi elected May 1997, with 69% of the vote; reelected June 2001 with
77%. Rode wave of sentiment for easing social and political restrictions
among students, intellectuals, youths, and women. These groups later
became disillusioned with Khatemi’s failure to stand up to hardliners on
reform issues. Now heads International Center for Dialogue Among
Civilizations. Visited U.S. in September 2006 to speak at Harvard and the
Washington National Cathedral on “dialogue of civilizations.” Has hewed
to staunch anti-Israel line of most Iranian officials, but perceived as open to
accepting a Palestinian-Israeli compromise. Perceived as open to a political
compromise that stops short of replacement of the regime but guarantees
social and political freedoms.
Musavi is a non-cleric. About 67. An architect by training, and a disciple of
Ayatollah Khomeini, he served as foreign minister (1980), then prime
minister (1981-89), at which time he successfully managed the state
rationing program during the privations of the Iran-Iraq war but often
feuded with Khamene’i, who was then President. At that time, he was an
advocate of state control of the economy. His post was abolished in the
1989 revision of the constitution.
Musavi later adopted views similar to Khatemi on political and social
freedoms and on reducing Iran’s international isolation, but supports strong
state intervention in the economy to benefit workers, lower classes.
Appeared at some 2009 protests, sometimes intercepted or constrained by
regime security agents. However, may have lost ground to harder line
opposition leaders who criticize his statements indicating reconciliation
with the regime is possible. On eve of 2010 “Nowruz” (Persian New Year),
cal ed 2010 a “year of patience” for winning Iran’s freedom. IRGC and
about 125 parliamentary hardliners are urging his arrest for his continued
calls for demonstrations, and his main bodyguard reportedly was arrested
on May 15, 2010, suggesting increased regime pressure on him. Wife,
Zahra Rahnevard, a major presence during Musavi’s presidential campaign,
physical y attacked as part of regime’s blockage of February 11 protests.
A founder of the leftwing Association of Combatant Clerics (different
organization but with similar name from that above), Mehdi Karrubi was
Speaker of the Majles during, 1989-92 and 2000-2004. Formed a separate
pro-reform “National Trust” faction after losing 2005 election. Ran again in
2009, but received few votes and subsequently emerged, along with Musavi,
as a symbol of the opposition. Indicated in late January 2010 that
Ahmadinejad is the chief executive of Iran by virtue of the Supreme
Leader’s backing, but later reiterated strong criticism of regime’s use of
force against protesters. Has been physically blocked by regime from
attending Green demonstrations during 2010.
Other Green Movement Dissidents
Other leading dissidents have challenged the regime long before the
presidential election. For example, journalist Akbar Ganji conducted
hunger strikes to protest regime oppression; he was released on schedule
on March 18, 2006, after sentencing in 2001 to six years in prison for
alleging high-level involvement in 1999 murders of Iranian dissident
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intellectuals. Another prominent dissident is Abdol Karim Soroush, who
challenged the doctrine of clerical rule. Others include former
Revolutionary Guard organizer Mohsen Sazegara, former Culture Minister
Ataollah Mohajerani, and Mohsen Kadivar. All are said to have substantial
followings among Green movement supporters in Iran.
Student Opposition
Staunch oppositionists and revolutionaries, many now favor replacement of
Leaders/Confederation of Iranian
the regime with secular democracy. Generally young and well-educated,
Students/Office of Consolidation of
want free and open media and contact with the West. Many are women.
Unity (Daftar Tahkim-e-Vahdat)
One key bloc in this group is the Confederation of Iranian Students (CIS),
led by Amir Abbas Fakhravar, who was jailed for five years for participating
in July 1999 student riots. CIS, committed to non-violent resistance, is an
offshoot/competitor of the Office of Consolidation Unity, which led the
1999 riots. At the time of those riots, most students were strong Khatemi
supporters, but turned against him for acquiescing to hardliner demands
that he crack down on the rioting. The crackdown killed four students.
Student leaders currently attempting, with mixed success, to gain support
of older generation, labor, clerics, village-dwellers, and other segments. CIS
supports imposition of severe sanctions against Iran, including a total oil
sale embargo, to deprive the regime of the funds it needs to pay its security
forces. CIS and other student activists purportedly developing list of Iranian
officials who they assert have committed major human rights abuses—an
intended parallel to the “deck of cards” of alleged Saddam-regime “war
criminals” developed by the United States before the ouster of Saddam.
Islamic Iran Participation Front
The most prominent and best organized pro-reform grouping, but has lost
(IIPF)
political ground to more active and forceful core of the Green movement
of which Musavi is the most visible symbol. Its leaders include Khatemi’s
brother, Mohammad Reza Khatemi (a deputy speaker in the 2000-2004
Majles) and Mohsen Mirdamadi. Backed Musavi in June 12 election; several
IIPF leaders, including Mirdamadi, detained and prosecuted in postelection
dispute. The grouping was outlawed by the regime in late April, 2010
Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Composed mainly of left-leaning Iranian figures who support state control
Organization (MIR)
of the economy, but want greater political pluralism and relaxation of rules
on social behavior. A major constituency of the reformist camp. Its leader
is former Heavy Industries Minister Behzad Nabavi, who supported Musavi
in 2009 election and remains jailed for post-election unrest. The
organization was outlawed by the regime simultaneously with the outlawing
of the IIPF, above.
Labor Unions
Organized labor has suffered from official repression for many years.
Organized labor is not a core constituency of the Green Movement, but
laborers are viewed as sympathetic to dramatic political change. Some
labor protests took place in Tehran on “May Day” 2010.
Shirin Abadi
A number of dissidents have struggled against regime repression for many
years, long before the election dispute. One major longtime dissident and
human rights activist is Nobel Peace Prize laureate (2003) and Iran human
rights activist lawyer Shirin Abadi. Subsequent to the passage of the U.N.
General Assembly resolution above, Iranian authorities raided the Tehran
office of the Center for Defenders of Human Rights, which she runs. She
has often represented clients persecuted or prosecuted by the regime. She
left Iran for Europe, fearing arrest in connection with the postelection
dispute. In December 2009, the regime confiscated her Nobel Prize.
Grand Ayatollah Hosein Ali
Died December 20, 2009, of natural causes but remains a symbol of some
Montazeri
oppositionists. Montazeri was Khomeini’s designated successor until 1989,
when Khomeini dismissed him for allegedly protecting intellectuals and
opponents of clerical rule He was released in January 2003 from several
years of house arrest, and, despite being under close watch, issued
statements highly critical of the postelection crackdown.
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Son of the Late Shah of Iran – Reza
Some Iranian exiles, as well as some elites still in Iran, want to replace the
Pahlavi
regime with a constitutional monarchy led by Reza Pahlavi, the U.S.-based
son of the late former Shah and a U.S.-trained combat pilot. In January
2001, the Shah’s son, who is about 50 years old, ended a long period of
inactivity by giving a speech in Washington, DC, calling for unity in the
opposition and the institution of a constitutional monarchy and democracy
in Iran. He has since broadcast messages into Iran from Iranian exile-run
stations in California,3 and has delivered statements condemning the regime
for the post-2009 election crackdown. He does not appear to have large-
scale support inside Iran, but he may be trying to capitalize on the
opposition’s growing popularity. In January 2010, he cal ed for international
governments to withdraw their representation from Tehran.
Other U..S.-Based Activists
Some organizations, such as The National Iranian American Council
(NIAC) and the Public Affairs Alliance of Iranian-Americans (PAAIA), are
not necessarily seeking change within Iran. The mission of NIAC,
composed largely of Iranian-Americans, is to promote discussion of U.S.
policy and the group has advocated engagement with Iran. PAAIA’s mission
is to discuss issues affecting Iranian-Americans, such as discrimination
caused by public perceptions of association with terrorism or radical Islam.
Numerous Iranians-Americans of differing ideologies in the United States
want to see a change of regime in Tehran. Many of them are based in
California, where there is a large Iranian-American community, and there
are about 25 small-scale radio or television stations that broadcast into
Iran. A growing number of U.S.-based Iranian activists appear to be
supporting or affiliated with the Green movement. Many of them protested
Ahmadinejad’s visit to the United Nations in September 2009, and many
others often sport green bracelets indicating sympathy with the Green
movement.

The Presidency/Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Although subordinate to the Supreme Leader, the presidency is a coveted position which provides
vast opportunities for the holder of the post to empower his political base and to affect policy. The
presidency, a position held since 2005 by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, appoints and supervises the
work of the cabinet. Cabinet appointments are subject to confirmation by the Majles (parliament).
The Supreme Leader is believed to have significant input into security-related cabinet
appointments, including ministers of defense, interior, and intelligence (Ministry of Information
and Security, MOIS).
After suffering several presidential election defeats at the hands of President Mohammad
Khatemi and the reformists in the 1997 and 2001 presidential elections, hardliners successfully
moved to regain the sway they held when Khomeini was alive. Conservatives won the February
20, 2004, Majles elections (which are always held one year prior to each presidential election),
although the conservative win was the result of the Council of Guardians’ disqualification of
3,600 reformist candidates, including 87 Majles incumbents. That helped conservatives win 155
out of the 290 seats. The George W. Bush Administration and the Senate (S.Res. 304, adopted by
unanimous consent on February 12, 2004) criticized the elections as unfair.

3 Kampeas, Ron. “Iran’s Crown Prince Plots Nonviolent Insurrection from Suburban Washington.” Associated Press,
August 26, 2002.
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As the reformist faction suffered setbacks, the Council of Guardians narrowed the field of
candidates for the June 2005 presidential elections to 8 out of the 1,014 persons who filed.
Rafsanjani 4 was considered the favorite against several opponents more hardline than he is—
three had ties to the Revolutionary Guard: Ali Larijani; Mohammad Baqer Qalibaf; and Tehran
mayor Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. In the June 17, 2005, first round, turnout was about 63% (29.4
million votes out of 46.7 million eligible voters). With 21% and 19.5%, respectively, Rafsanjani
and Ahmadinejad, who did unexpectedly well because of tacit backing from Khamene’i and the
Basij militia arm of the Revolutionary Guard, moved to a runoff. Reformist candidates (Mehdi
Karrubi and Mostafa Moin) fared worse than expected. Ahmadinejad won in the June 24 runoff,
receiving 61.8% to Rafsanjani’s 35.7%. He first took office on August 6, 2005.
Ahmadinejad’s Policies and Political Position
Even before the 2009 Iranian presidential election campaign, several Iranian leaders, and portions
of the population, particularly younger, well educated and urban Iranians, were expressing
concern that Ahmadinejad’s defiance of the international community was isolating Iran. This
sentiment was evident in several university student protests against him.
Ahmadinejad’s unpopularity contributed to a split within his conservative “Principalist” faction in
the March 2008 Majles elections. The more moderate wing wanted to consider a compromise
with the international community over Iran’s nuclear program. Khamene’i generally backed
Ahmadinejad in these and other intra-regime disputes but, at times, such as April 2009, upbraided
Ahmadinejad. In that case he opposed Ahmadinejad’s incorporation of the position of coordinator
of the Hajj (major pilgrimage to Mecca) into the Tourism Ministry; the move was reversed.
Khamene’i was perceived as favoring Ahmadinejad’s reelection but he was publicly neutral in the
2009 campaign. During 2010, Ahmadinejad’s conservative critics have become more vocal in
finding fault with his performance, to the point where some discussion has taken place in official
circles of possible impeachment by the Majles (which would require certification of the Supreme
Leader to be implemented). Such figures as Larijani and Qalibaf, discussed above, are now
considered opponents of Ahmadinejad rather than allies.
Table 2. Factions in the Eighth Majles
(Elected March 14-April 25, 2008)
Pro-Ahmadinejad Conservatives (United Front of Principalists) 117
Anti-Ahmadinejad Conservatives (Coalition of Principalists)
53
Reformists (39 seats in seventh Majles)
46
Independents
71
Seats annulled or voided
3
Total 290


4 Rafsanjani was constitutionally permitted to run because a third term would not have been consecutive with his
previous two terms. In the 2001 presidential election, the Council permitted 10 out of the 814 registered candidates.
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Ahmadijejad’s Economic Policies
On economic matters, many Iranians have criticized Ahmadinejad for favoring the lower classes
economically by raising some wages and lowering interest rates for poorer borrowers, cancelling
some debts of farmers, and increasing some social welfare payments. These moves fed inflation,
but poorer Iranians saw Ahmadinejad as attentive to their economic plight. Iranian economists say
that these programs began to deplete Iran’s reserve fund (“Oil Stabilization Fund,” which had
been as high as about $10 billion) even when oil prices were high in mid-2008, leaving Iran less
able to cope with a fall in oil prices. Others say he has not moved to curb the dependence on oil
revenues, which account for about 20% of Iran’s gross domestic product (GDP). On the other
hand, in early 2010, he successfully persuaded the Majles to pass legislation to begin to reduce
state subsidies and instead provide direct cash handouts for poorer Iranians. In January 2010, the
Majles approved $20 billion for such an exchange, but Ahmadinejad is pressing for the Majles to
double that amount to $40 billion (out of a total of ($90 billion-$100 million per year in total
subsidies).
Major economic sectors or markets are controlled by the quasi-statal “foundations” (bonyads),
run by powerful former officials, and there are special trading privileges for them and the bazaar
merchants, a key constituency for some conservatives. The same privileges—and more—
reportedly apply to businesses run by the Revolutionary Guard, as discussed below, leading to
criticism that the Guard is using its political influence to win business contracts.

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
First non-cleric to be president of the Islamic republic since the assassination of then-president Mohammad Ali Rajai
in August 1981. About 57, he asserts he is a “man of the people,” the son of a blacksmith who lives in modest
circumstances, who would promote the interests of the poor and return government to the original principles of the
Islamic revolution. Has burnished that image as president through regular visits to poor areas and through subsidies
directed at the lower classes. His official biography says he served with the “special forces” of the Revolutionary
Guard, and he served subsequently (late 1980s) as a deputy provincial governor. Has been part of the “Isargaran”
faction composed of former Guard and Basij (volunteer popular forces) leaders and other hardliners. U.S. intelligence
reportedly determined he was not one of the holders of the 52 American hostages during November 1979-January
1981. Other accounts say Ahmadinejad believes his mission is to prepare for the return of the 12th Imam—Imam
Mahdi—whose return from occultation would, according to Twelver Shiite doctrine, be accompanied by the
establishment of Islam as the global religion. Earned clerical criticism in May 2008 for again invoking intervention by
Imam Mahdi in present day state affairs.
Following limited recount, declared winner of June 12, 2009, election. Wel earlier, had been a controversial figure for
inflammatory statements. He attracted significant world criticism for an October 26, 2005, Tehran conference
entitled “A World Without Zionism” by stating that “Israel should be wiped off the map.” In an October 2006
address, Ahmadinejad said, “I have a connection with God.” He insisted on holding a December 2006 conference in
Tehran questioning the Holocaust, a theme he has returned to several times since, including at a September 2007
speech at Columbia University. A U.N. Security Council statement and Senate and House resolutions (H.Res. 523 and
S.Res. 292), passed by their respective chambers, condemned the statement. On June 21, 2007, the House passed
H.Con.Res. 21, calling on the U.N. Security Council to charge Ahmadinejad with violating the 1948 Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide; the Convention includes “direct and public incitement” of
genocide as a punishable offense. On March 6, 2010, Ahmadinejad cal ed the September 11, 2001, attacks on the
United States a “big lie” used to justify intervention in Afghanistan. Was apparent target of an unsuccessful grenade
attack on his motorcade in the city of Hamedan on August 4, 2010.
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June 12, 2009, Presidential Elections
Prospects for reformists to unseat Ahmadinejad through the established election process seemed
to brighten in February 2009, when Khatemi—who is still highly popular among reform-minded
Iranians—said that he would run. However, on March 18, 2009, Khatemi withdrew from the race
in favor of another reformist, former Prime Minister Mir Hossein Musavi. Musavi was viewed as
somewhat less divisive—and therefore more acceptable to the Supreme Leader—because Musavi
had served as prime minister during the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq war. Khatemi endorsed Musavi.
A total of about 500 candidates for the June 12, 2009, presidential elections registered their names
during May 5-10, 2009. The Council of Guardians decide on four final candidates on May 20:
Ahmadinejad, Musavi, Mehdi Karrubi, and former Commander-in-Chief of the Revolutionary
Guard Mohsen Reza’i. The Interior Ministry, which runs the election, also instituted an
unprecedented series of one-on-one debates, which including Ahmadinejad’s acrimonious
accusations of corruption against Rafsanjani and against Musavi’s wife. If no candidate received
more than 50% of the vote on June 12, there would have been a runoff one week later.
The challengers and their backgrounds and platforms were as follows.
• Mir Hosein Musavi. The main reformist candidate. See box above.
• Mehdi Karrubi. See box above.
• Mohsen Reza’i. As noted above, he was commander in chief of the
Revolutionary Guard for almost all of the Iran-Iraq war period. About 58 years
old, he is considered an anti-Ahmadinejad conservative. Reza’i dropped out just
prior to the 2005 presidential election due to perceived insufficient support. He
alleged election fraud but later dropped his formal challenge.
Domestic Unrest: Election Dispute and Emergence of the
“Green Movement”

The outcome of the election was always difficult to foresee; polling was inconsistent. Musavi
supporters held large rallies in Tehran, but pro-Ahmadinejad rallies were large as well. During the
campaign, Khamene’i met with Musavi and, in mid-May 2009, visited Musavi’s father at his
home, suggesting neutrality. The two were often at odds during the Iran-Iraq war, when
Khamene’i was president and Musavi was prime minister. Turnout was high at about 85%; 39.1
million valid (and invalid) votes were cast. The Interior Ministry announced two hours after the
polls closed that Ahmadinejad had won, although in the past results have been announced the day
after. The totals were announced on Saturday, June 13, 2009, as follows:
• Ahmadinejad: 24.5 million votes—62.6%
• Musavi: 13.2 million votes—33.75%
• Reza’i: 678,000 votes—1.73%
• Invalid: 409,000 votes—1%
• Karrubi: 333,600 votes—0.85%
Almost immediately after the results were announced, Musavi supporters began protesting the
results on June 13, as he, Karrubi, and Reza’i asserted outright fraud and called for a new
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election, citing the infeasibility of counting 40 million votes so quickly; the barring of candidate
observers at many polling stations; regime shut-down of Internet and text services; and repression
of postelection protests. Khamene’i declared the results a “divine assessment,” appearing to
certify the results even though formal procedures require a three day complaint period. Some
outside analysts said the results tracked pre-election polls, which showed strong support for
Ahmadinejad in rural areas and among the urban poor.5
Green Movement Formation
The opposition “Green movement” grew out of the protests, later moving well beyond that issue
into an outright challenge to the pillars of the regime. The demonstrations built throughout June
13-19, large in Tehran but also held in other cities. Security forces used varying amounts of force
to control them, causing 27 protester deaths during that period, according to official Iranian
statements (with figures from opposition groups running over 100). The protesters’ hopes of
having Khamene’i annul the election were dashed by his major Friday prayer sermon on June 19
in which he refuted allegations of vast fraud and threatened a crackdown on further protests.
Protesters defied Khamene’i the following day, but faced a crackdown that killed at least 10
protesters that day. On June 29, 2009, the Council of Guardians tried to address the complaints by
performing a televised recount of 10% of the votes of Tehran’s districts and some provincial
ballots and, finding no irregularities, certified the results.
Protests continued, but more sporadically thereafter, including on the July 9 anniversary of the
suppression of the 1999 student riots; the August 5, 2009, official inauguration of Ahmadinejad;
and September 18, 2009, “Jerusalem Day.” The opposition made considerable use of Internet-
based sites (Facebook, Twitter) to organize their demonstrations around official holidays when
people can gather easily. Several demonstrations—on November 4, 2009, the 30th anniversary of
the takeover of the U.S. embassy in Tehran, and particularly the occasion of the Ashura Shiite
holy day (December 27, 2009, which also marked the seventh day since the death of Ayatollah
Montazeri, a major critic of Khamene’i) were marked by the seizure and burning of several police
vehicles, the refusal by some anti-riot police to beat protesters, the spreading to smaller cities, and
the involvement of some clerics.
The momentum of the Green movement led some experts to predict the potential downfall of the
regime, but the movement has not visibly recovered from the setback it suffered when its
demonstration planned for the February 11, 2010, anniversary of the founding of the Islamic
Republic (in 1979) did not amount to a large “show of force.” Musavi and Karrubi both backed
the protests. With weeks to prepare, the regime limited opposition communication and made
several hundred pre-emptive arrests, as well as executing some oppositionists in late January.
Another protest attempt was made on March 16, 2010, a Zoroastrian holiday (Fire Festival)
celebrated by many Iranians, despite an explicit statement from Khamene’i saying the festival has
no basis in Islam and should not be celebrated. Many Iranians defied the edict by combining the
celebration of the festival with protest in numerous neighborhoods. Other scattered protests,
including by some labor groups, were held in major cities on May 1, 2010 (May Day). Students at
Seyed Beheshti University held a spontaneous protest against Ahmadinejad’s visit there on May
10. Musavi and Karrubi called for a huge demonstration on the June 12, 2010, anniversary of the

5 A paper published by Chatham House and the University of St. Andrews strongly questions how Ahmadinejad’s vote
could have been as large as reported by official results, in light of past voting patterns throughout Iran. “Preliminary
Analysis of the Voting Figures in Iran’s 2009 Presidential Election.” http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk.
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election, leading to some movement by parliament hardliners to have them arrested. Others
viewed the execution of five Kurdish oppositionists in early May as an effort to intimidate the
opposition in advance of the June 12 anniversary; that action led Kurds in several northwestern
cities to shutter their businesses for one day. Sensing regime preparations for harsh repression, the
two publicly “called off” the planned June 12 protest in order to avoid harm to protesters.
How Shaken and Divided Is the Regime?
The regime, particularly the Supreme Leader, appears to believe that its suppressions have placed
the Green challenge on the defensive. The success in preventing or limiting the protests in 2010
has circumscribed those in the regime that sought compromise with the Green movement.
However, some say that the most serious effect of the Green challenge has been to significantly
narrow the base of the regime to hardline purists, backed by the revolutionary security forces
(Revolutionary Guard and Basij). This view might have been corroborated by Ahmadinejad’s
own comments in July 2010 that Iran now has “one party.”
However, many say that Green movement supporters are awaiting another opportunity to take to
the streets, perhaps in reaction to a regime decision or action, or perhaps in the context of a health
crisis involving the Supreme Leader. Others say that even the most loyal security forces are open
to compromise with the Green movement if protests and places severe pressure on the regime.
Most reformists and even some senior clerics in Qom have left the regime fold and many
prominent reformists were imprisoned and are still incarcerated. Senior longtime regime stalwart
Rafsanjani, who heads two key regime bodies, is perceived as tacitly, if not outwardly, backing
the Green movement. The regime has not taken the further step of arresting Musavi, Karrubi, or
Khatemi but, as a sign of continuing nervousness about the popularity of reformist leaders, the
regime prevented Khatemi from attending an international conference in Japan in April 2010.
Karrubi and Musavi’s vehicles and family have come under attack on some occasions when they
sought to attend or lead protests.
Additional Political Fallout of Economic Sanctions
In July 2010, Ahmadinejad lost additional support among the traditional conservative blocs when
his government attempted to raise taxes on the bazaar merchant incomes by 70%, causing a
shuttering of several major bazaars around Iran in protest. To end the strike, the government
eventually re-negotiated a 15% tax increase. Some read the strikes as evidence of growing belief
among the bazaaris that youth-led unrest has not ended and that the government can be
challenged successfully. Others interpreted the bazaari unrest as an indication that international
sanctions are starting to pressure the Iranian private sector. Sanctions have made it difficult for
the bazaaris—many of whom belong to large trading families—to obtain trade credits and have
increased the costs of obtaining their merchandise. Sanctions increased in June and July 2010
with the adoption of U.N. Resolution 1929, the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability,
and Divestment Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-195), and European Union sanctions on Iran.
Armed Opposition Factions
Some groups have been committed to the replacement of the regime virtually since its inception,
and have used, or are still using, violence to achieve their objectives. Their linkages to the Green
Path movement are unclear, and some indications are these movements want to dominate any
coalition that might topple the regime.
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People’s Mojahedin Organization of Iran (PMOI)/Camp Ashraf
One of the best-known exiled opposition groups is the People’s Mojahedin Organization of Iran
(PMOI).6 Secular and left-leaning, it was formed in the 1960s to try to overthrow the Shah of Iran
and has been characterized by U.S. reports as attempting to blend several ideologies, including
Marxism, feminism, and Islamism. It allied with pro-Khomeini forces during the Islamic
revolution and, according to past State Department reports, supported the November 1979
takeover of the U.S. Embassy in Tehran. It was driven into exile when it rose up against the
Khomeini regime in September 1981. Even though it is an opponent of Tehran, since the late
1980s the State Department has refused contact with the PMOI and its umbrella organization, the
National Council of Resistance (NCR). The State Department designated the PMOI as a foreign
terrorist organization (FTO) in October 19977 and the NCR was named as an alias of the PMOI in
the October 1999 re-designation. In August 14, 2003, the State Department designated the NCR
offices in the United States an alias of the PMOI, and NCR and the Justice Department closed
down those offices.
The FTO designation is a widely debated issue. The State Department’s annual reports on
international terrorism, including the report for 2009 issued August 5, 2010, asserts that the
organization—and not just a radical element of the organization as the group asserts—was
responsible for the alleged killing of seven American military personnel and contract advisers to
the former Shah in 1975-1976. The State Dept.’s August 5, 2010, terrorism report also alleges the
group responsibility for bombings at U.S. government facilities in Tehran in 1972 as a protest of
the visit to Iran of then-President Richard Nixon. The August 5, 2010, State Dept. reports also list
as terrorist acts numerous attacks by the group against regime officials, facilities in Iran and
abroad, and security officers. However, the report does not list any attacks by the group that
purposely targets civilians – a key distinction that leads several experts to argue that the group
should not be considered “terrorist.” The State Dept. report does not state that the group has
pledged, as of mid-2001, to end all use of violence inside Iran and that there are no reports that it
has resumed those activities. The group’s alliance with Saddam Hussein’s regime in the 1980s
and 1990s has contributed to the U.S. criticism of the organization.
The PMOI also asserts that, by retaining the group on the FTO list, the United States is unfairly
preventing the PMOI from participating in the growing opposition movement. The regime
accuses the group of involvement in the post-June 2009 presidential election violence, and some
of those tried for mohareb as of early February 2010 are members of the organization, according
to statements issued by the group.
The group is trying to build on recent legal successes in Europe; on January 27, 2009, the
European Union (EU) removed the group from its terrorist group list; the group had been so
designated by the EU in 2002. In May 2008, a British appeals court determined that the group
should no longer be considered a terrorist organization on the grounds that the British government
did not provide “any reliable evidence” that the PMOI would “resort to terrorist activities in the
future.” Currently, the governments that still list the group as a “terrorist organization,” include
the United States, Canada, and Australia. In June 2003, France arrested about 170 opposition

6 Other names by which this group is known is the Mojahedin-e-Khalq Organization (MEK or MKO) and the National
Council of Resistance (NCR).
7 The designation was made under the authority of the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (P.L.
104-132).
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activists, including Maryam Rajavi (wife of PMOI founder Masoud Rajavi, whose whereabouts
are unknown), the “President-elect” of the NCR. She was released and remains based in France,
and is frequently received by European parliamentarians and other politicians in Europe.
In regard to the group’s contesting its FTO designation by the State Department, in July 2008, the
PMOI formally petitioned to the State Department that its designation be revoked, on the grounds
that it renounced any use of terrorism in 2001. However, the State department announced in mid-
January 2009 that the group would remain listed. The group remained on the FTO list when the
list was reviewed and reissued in January 2010. The Department said it would “carefully review”
a July 16, 2010, Court of Appeals decision to ask the State Department to review the decision to
retain the group on the FTO list; the decision was based on a ruling that the group had not been
given proper opportunity to rebut allegations against it. H.Res. 1431, introduced June 10, 2010,
“invites the Secretary of State” to remove the PMOI from the FTO list. Some advocate that the
United States not only remove the group from the FTO list but also enter an alliance with the
group against Iran.
Camp Ashraf Issue
The issue of group members in Iraq is increasingly pressing. U.S. forces attacked PMOI military
installations in Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom and negotiated a ceasefire with PMOI
military elements in Iraq, requiring the approximately 3,400 PMOI fighters to remain confined to
their Ashraf camp near the border with Iran. Its weaponry is in storage, guarded by U.S.
personnel. Another 200 Ashraf residents have taken advantage of an arrangement between Iran
and the ICRC for them to return to Iran if they disavow further PMOI activities; none are known
to have been persecuted since returning.
In July 2004, the United States granted the Ashraf detainees “protected persons” status under the
4th Geneva Convention. However, the U.S.-led security mandate in Iraq was replaced on January
1, 2009, by a bilateral U.S.-Iraq agreement that limits U.S. flexibility in Iraq. Iraq now has
sovereignty over Ashraf, which the United States recognizes, and the residents are not protected
persons under the 4th Geneva Convention. Iraq has pledged the residents would not be extradited
to Tehran or forcibly expelled as long as U.S. forces have a mandate to help secure Iraq.
The group has long feared that Iraqi control of the camp would lead to the expulsion of the group
to Iran. The Iraqi government tried to calm those fears in January 2009 by saying that it would
adhere to all international obligations not to do so, but that trust was lost on July 28, 2009, when
Iraq used force to overcome resident resistance to setting up a police post in the camp. At least
eleven residents of the Camp were killed. In December 2009, Iraq announced the group would be
relocated to a detention center near Samawah, in southern Iraq; substantial resistance by the
Ashraf residents is expected if and when Iraq attempts to implement that decision. No date has
been set for the relocation. Secretary of State Clinton testified before the House Foreign Affairs
Committee on February 25, 2010, that it is U.S. understanding that adequate food, fuel, and
medical supplies are reaching camp residents. The EU “de-listing,” discussed above, might help
resolve the issue by causing EU governments to take in those at Ashraf. H.Res. 704 deplores Iraqi
government violence against Ashraf residents and calls on the U.S. government to “take all
necessary and appropriate steps” to protect Ashraf residents in accordance with international law
and U.S. treaty commitments. The Ashraf residents’ fears have heightened as of June 10, 2010,
when the U.S. military announced that full physical control over Ashraf would pass to the Iraqi
Security Forces as of July 1, 2010. That transfer has occurred and the U.S. military post near the
Camp has closed.
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Pro-Monarchy Radical Groups
One issue that has arisen in recent months is that a pro-monarchist armed group in Iran, called
Tondar (Thunder)/Kingdom Assembly of Iran is accused of conducting attacks inside Iran. One
attack, a bombing of a mosque in Shiraz that took place in April 2008, killed 14 Iranian
worshippers, including some children. There are some allegations that Iranians living in
California are directing the group’s activities in Iran.
Ethnic or Religiously Based Armed Groups
Some armed groups are operating in Iran’s border areas, and are generally composed of ethnic or
religious minorities. These groups are not known to be cooperating with the mostly Persian
members of the Green movement. One such group is Jundullah, composed of Sunni Muslims
primarily from the Baluchistan region bordering Pakistan. Since mid-2008, it has conducted
several successful attacks on Iranian security personnel, apparently including in May 2009,
claiming revenge for the poor treatment of Sunnis in Iran. On October 18, 2009, it claimed
responsibility for killing five Revolutionary Guard commanders during a meeting they were
holding with local groups in Sistan va Baluchistan Province. The regime claimed a major victory
against the group in late February 2010 by announcing the capture of Jundullah’s top leader,
Abdolmalek Rigi. The regime executed him in June 2010, and the group retaliated in July 2010
with a major bombing in Zahedan, which killed 28 persons, including some Revolutionary
Guards. Secretary of State Clinton publicly condemned this bombing.
An armed Kurdish group operating out of Iraq is the Free Life Party, known by its acronym
PJAK. PJAK was designated in early February 2009 as a terrorism supporting entity under
Executive Order 13224, although the designation statement indicated the decision was based
mainly on PJAK’s association with the Turkish Kurdish opposition group Kongra Gel, also
known as the PKK. The five Kurds executed in May 2010 were alleged members of PJAK. In
June 2010, Iran is reported to have conducted some shelling of reputed PJAK bases inside Iraq,
reportedly killing some Kurdish civilians. Another militant group, the Ahwazi Arabs, operates in
the largely Arab inhabited areas of southwest Iran, bordering Iraq.
Other Human Rights Practices
International criticism of Iran’s human rights practices predates and transcends the crackdown
against the Green movement. Table 3, which discusses the regime’s record on a number of human
rights issues, is based largely on the latest State Department human rights report (for 2009, March
11, 2010) and State Department International Religious Freedom report (for 2009, October 26,
2009). These reports cite Iran for a wide range of serious abuses, including unjust executions,
politically motivated abductions by security forces, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, and
arrests of women’s rights activists. The State Department human rights report said the
government’s “poor human rights record degenerated during the year, particularly after the
disputed June presidential elections.” The report cited the regime’s arrests, deaths in custody, and
other abuses against the protesters. According to the State Department report, in August 2009
Iran’s judiciary estimated that 4,000 oppositions had been detained, and there were many more
arrests in advance of the planned February 11, 2010, major demonstration.
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A U.N. General Assembly resolution, finalized on December 18, 2008, by a vote of 69-54, called
on Iran to allow visits by U.N. personnel investigating the status of human rights practices in Iran.
The post-election crackdown on the Green movement was a focus of the U.N. four-year review of
Iran’s human rights record that took place in mid-February 2010 in Geneva. Despite the criticism,
on April 29, 2010, Iran acceded to the U.N. Commission on the Status of Women, after earlier
dropping its attempt to win a seat on the higher-profile U.N. Human Rights Council. Still, on June
10, 2010, Iran was formally questioned by the U.N. Human Rights Council about its record.
Table 3. Human Rights Practices
Group/Issue
Regime Practice/Recent Developments
Ethnic and
Persians are about 51% of the population, and Azeris (a Turkic people) are about 24%. Kurds are
Religious
about 7% of the population, and about 3% are Arab. Of religions, Shiite Muslims are about 90% of
Breakdown
the Muslim population and Sunnis are about 10%. About 2% of the population is non-Muslim,
including Christians, Zoroastrians (an ancient religion in what is now Iran), Jewish, and Baha’i.
Media Freedoms
Even before the election-related unrest, Iran’s Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance had an
active program of blocking pro-reform websites and blogs, and had closed hundreds of reformist
newspapers, although many have tended to reopen under new names. In August 2007, the
government closed a major reformist daily, Shargh, which had previously been suspended
repeatedly. In February 2008, the regime closed the main women’s magazine, Zanan (“women” in
Farsi) for al egedly highlighting gender inequality in Islamic law. In November 2008, the regime
arrested famed Iranian blogger Hossein Derakshan. Canadian journalist (of Iranian origin) Zahra
Kazemi was detained in 2003 for filming outside Tehran’s Evin prison and allegedly beaten to death
in custody. The intelligence agent who conducted the offense was acquitted July 25, 2004.
Labor Unions
Independent unions are technical y legal but not al owed in practice. The sole authorized national
labor organization is a state-controlled “Workers’ House” umbrella. However, some activists
show independence and, in 2007, the regime arrested labor activists for teachers’ associations, bus
drivers’ unions, and a bakery workers’ union. A bus drivers union leader, Mansur Osanloo, has
been in jail since July 2007.
Women
Regime strictly enforces requirement that women cover themselves in public, generally with a
garment called a chador, including through detentions. In March 2007, the regime arrested 31
women activists who were protesting the arrest in 2006 of several other women’s rights activists;
all but 3 of the 31 were released by March 9. In May 2006, the Majles passed a bill calling for
increased public awareness of Islamic dress; the bill did not contain a requirement that members
of Iran’s minority groups wear badges or distinctive clothing. Women can vote and run in
parliamentary and municipal elections. Iranian women can drive, and many work outside the home,
including owning their own businesses. There are nine women in the 290-seat Majles.
Religious Freedom Each year since 1999, the State Department religious freedom report has named Iran as a
“Country of Particular Concern” under the International Religious Freedom Act (IRFA). No
sanctions have been added under IRFA, on the grounds that Iran is already subject to extensive
U.S. sanctions. Continued deterioration in religious freedom noted in the International Religious
Freedom report for 2009 (October 26, 2009).
Baha’is
Iran repeatedly cited for repression of the Baha’i community, which Iran’s Shiite Muslim clergy
views as a heretical sect. It numbers about 300,000-350,000. The State Department cited Iran on
February 13, 2009, for charging seven Bahai’s with espionage; 30 other Bahai’s remain imprisoned.
Several were sentenced to death in February 2010. In the 1990s, several Baha’is were executed for
apostasy (Bahman Samandari in 1992; Musa Talibi in 1996; and Ruhol ah Ruhani in 1998). Another,
Dhabihullah Mahrami, was in custody since 1995 and died of unknown causes in prison in
December 2005. A wave of Baha’i arrests occurred in May 2006 and two-thirds of university
students of the Baha’i faith were expel ed from university in 2007. Virtual y every year,
congressional resolutions have condemned Iran’s treatment of the Baha’is.
Jews
Along with Christians, a “recognized minority,” with one seat in the Majles, the 30,000-member
Jewish community (the largest in the Middle East aside from Israel) enjoys somewhat more
freedoms than Jewish communities in several other Muslim states. However, in practice the
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Group/Issue
Regime Practice/Recent Developments
freedom of Iranian Jews to practice their religion is limited, and Iranian Jews remain reluctant to
speak out for fear of reprisals. During 1993-1998, Iran executed five Jews al egedly spying for
Israel. In June 1999, Iran arrested 13 Jews (mostly teachers, shopkeepers, and butchers) from the
Shiraz area that it said were part of an “espionage ring” for Israel. After an April-June 2000 trial, 10
of the Jews and two Muslim accomplices were convicted (July 1, 2000), receiving sentences ranging
from 4 to 13 years. An appeals panel reduced the sentences, and al were released by April 2003.
On November 17, 2008, Iran hanged businessman Ali Ashtari (a Muslim), who was arrested in
2006, for al egedly providing information on Iran’s nuclear program to Israel.
Kurds/Other
The cited reports note other discrimination against Sufis and Sunni Muslims, although abuses
Sunni Muslims
against Sunnis could reflect that minority ethnicities, including Kurds, are mostly Sunnis. No
reserved seats for Sunnis in the Majles but several are usual y elected in their own right. Five
Kurdish oppositionists executed in May 2010.
Human Trafficking The June 14, 2010, (latest annual), State Department “Trafficking in Persons” report continues to
place Iran in Tier 3 (worst level) for failing to take significant action to prevent trafficking in
persons. Girls are trafficked for sexual exploitation within Iran and from Iran to neighboring
countries.
Executions Policy
Human rights groups say executions have increased sharply since the dispute over the June 2009
election. Iran executed six persons under the age of 18 in 2008, the only country to do so. As a
party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Convention on the Rights
of the Child, Iran is obligated to abolish such executions.
Stonings
In 2002, the head of Iran’s judiciary issued a ban on stoning. However, Iranian officials later cal ed
that directive “advisory” and could be ignored by individual judges. On December 2, 2008, Iran
confirmed the stoning deaths of two men in Mashhad who were convicted of adultery. A sentence
of stoning against a 45-year old woman (Sakineh Ashtiani) convicted of adultery was set aside for
further review in July 2010. Brazil has offered her asylum.
Azeris
Azeris are one quarter of the population, but they complain of ethnic and linguistic discrimination.
In 2008, there were several arrests of Azeri students and cultural activists who were pressing for
their right to celebrate their culture and history.
Arrests of Dual
An Iranian-American journalist, Roxanna Saberi, was arrested in January 2009 al egedly because
Nationals and
her press credentials had expired; was charged on April 9, 2009, with espionage for possessing an
Foreign Nationals
Iranian military document. Sentenced to eight years in jail, she was released on appeal on May 12,
2009, and left Iran. Another dual national, Esha Momeni, arrested in October 2008, is unable to
leave Iran. U.S. national, former FBI agent Robert Levinson, remains missing after a visit in 2005 to
Kish Island. Iran was given a U.S. letter on these cases at a March 31, 2009, meeting in the
Netherlands on Afghanistan. Three American hikers remain under detention in Iran; they were
arrested in August 2009 after crossing into Iran, possibly mistakenly, from a hike in northern Iraq.
Families say two of the hikers having health problems. The mothers visited the hikers during May
20-21, 2010, but left Iran with their children still incarcerated and Iran proposing a “swap.” An
ailing 72 year old Iranian-American, Reza Taghavi, has been incarcerated since May 2008. While
on a visit to Iran, he delivered a small amount of funds from an Iranian-American to this person’s
relative in Iran who, unbeknownst to Taghavi, was part of the Tondar group, mentioned above.
Sources: Most recent State Department reports on human rights (March 11, 2010), trafficking in persons (June
16, 2009), and on religious freedom (October 26, 2009). http://www.state.gov.
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Iran’s Strategic Capabilities and Weapons of Mass
Destruction Programs

Many in the Obama Administration view Iran, as the Bush Administration did, as one of—and
perhaps the key—national security challenges facing the United States.8 This assessment is based
largely on Iran’s weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs—particularly in light of
revelations in September 2009 that Iran is building at least one more nuclear site than it had
previously declared—and its ability to exert influence in the region counter to U.S. objectives.9
Many experts agree that Iran’s core national security goals are to protect itself from foreign,
primarily U.S., interference or attack, and to exert regional influence that Iran believes is
commensurate with its size and concept of nationhood. Others see Iran’s intent as aggressive
rather than defensive: a nuclear armed Iran, according to this view, would be more assertive than
it now is in supporting countries and movements that oppose U.S. interests in allies, because the
United States might be hesitant to take military or other action against a nuclear power.
Some U.S. officials see the internal dissent as distracting Iranian leaders from exerting influence
outside Iran and from making key decisions that might be needed to further accelerate WMD
programs. Others see the internal unrest as narrowing the core of decision makers to those most
inclined to take risks abroad and to defy the international community.
Conventional Military/Revolutionary Guard/Qods Force
Iran’s armed forces are extensive but they are widely considered relatively combat ineffective
against a well-trained, sophisticated military such as that of the United States or a regional power
such as Turkey. Iran is believed to largely lack the logistical ability to project power much beyond
its borders. Still, Iranian forces could still cause damage to U.S. forces and allies in the Gulf
region, and they are sufficiently effective to deter or fend off conventional threats from Iran’s
weaker neighbors such as post-war Iraq, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, and Afghanistan. Iran’s armed
forces have few formal relationships with foreign militaries, but Iran and India have a “strategic
dialogue” and some Iranian naval officers reportedly have undergone some training in India. Iran
and Turkey agreed in principle in April 2008 to jointly fight terrorism along their border. Most of
Iran’s other military-to-military relationships, such as with Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, North
Korea, and a few others, generally center on Iranian arms purchases or upgrades. This assessment
was presented in the Defense Department’s mandated Unclassified Report on Military Power of
Iran
released in April 2010.10
Iran’s armed forces are divided organizationally. The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC,
known in Persian as the Pasdaran)11 controls the Basij (Mobilization of the Oppressed) volunteer
militia that enforces adherence to Islamic customs and has been the main instrument to repress

8 A March 16, 2006 “National Security Strategy” document stated that the United States “may face no greater challenge
from a single country than from Iran.”
9 See http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2006/.
10 For text, see http://media.washingtontimes.com/media/docs/2010/Apr/20/Iran_Military_Report.pdf. The report is
required by Section 1245 of the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2010 (P.L. 111-84).
11 For a more extensive discussion of the IRGC, see Katzman, Kenneth. “The Warriors of Islam: Iran’s Revolutionary
Guard,” Westview Press, 1993.
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the postelection protests in Iran. The IRGC and the regular military report to a joint headquarters,
headed by Hassan Firuzabadi.
Table 4. Iran’s Conventional Military Arsenal
Defense
Surface-
Budget
Military
Air
Combat
(billions
Personnel
Tanks Missiles
Aircraft
Ships
U.S. $)
460,000+. Regular ground force is
1,800+ 150+
330+
100+ (IRGC and
About
about 220,000, Revolutionary
(incl.
I-Hawk
(incl. 25 MiG-29
regular Navy)
$10.00
Guard Corps (IRGC) ground force 480 T-
plus some and 30 Su-24).
(incl. 4 Corvette; 18 billion
is about 130,000. Remainder are
72)
Stinger
Still dependent
IRGC-controlled
(2008-9),
regular and IRGC navy (18,000 and
on U.S. F-4’s, F-
Chinese-made
about 2.8%
20,000 personnel respectively) and
5’s and F-14
Hudong, 40
of GDP
Air Forces (52,000 regular Air
bought during
Boghammer) Also
Force personnel and 5,000 Guard
Shah’s era.
has 3 Kilo subs (reg.
Air Force personnel. ) About
Navy controlled)
12,000 air defense.
Security Forces About 40,000-60,000 law enforcement forces on duty, with another 600,000 Basij
security/paramilitary forces available for combat or internal security missions.
Ship-launched cruise missiles. Iran is able to arm its patrol boats with Chinese-made C-802 cruise missiles. Iran
also has Chinese-supplied HY-2 Seerseekers emplaced along Iran’s coast.
Midget Subs. Iran is said to possess several, possibly purchased assembled or in kit form from North Korea. Iran
claimed on November 29, 2007, to have produced a new smal sub equipped with sonar-evading technology.
Anti-aircraft missile systems. Russia has sold and now delivered to Iran (January 2007) 30 anti-aircraft missile
systems (Tor M1), worth over $1 billion. In September 2006, Ukraine agreed to sell Iran the Kolchuga radar system
that can improve Iran’s detection of combat aircraft. In December 2007, Russia agreed to sel the even more capable
S-300 (also known as SA-20 “Gargoyle”) air defense system, purportedly modeled after the U.S. Patriot system, which
U.S. officials say would greatly enhance Iran’s air defense capability. The value of the deal is estimated at $800 million.
Amid unclear or weak denials by Iranian and Russian officials, U.S. officials told journalists on December 11, 2008, that
Iran has indeed contracted for the missile. It is reportedly was due for delivery by March 2009 and to be operational
by June 2009. However, Russia has not gone ahead with delivery because of the international criticism of Iran’s
nuclear program, and Administration officials said on May 21, 2010, that Russia has no plans to make the delivery. The
system is a ground-to-air missile whose sale to Iran would apparently not violate the provisions of U.N. Resolution
1929, see further below, because the system is not covered in the “U.N. Registry on Conventional Arms.
Source: IISS Military Balance: 2010—Section on Middle East and North Africa, and various press reports; April
2010 DOD report on “Military Power of Iran,” cited earlier.


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Table 5. The Revolutionary Guard
The IRGC is generally loyal to Iran’s hardliners politically and is clearly more politically influential than is Iran’s regular
military, which is numerically larger. but was held over from the Shah’s era. IRGC influence has grown sharply as the
regime has relied on it to suppress dissent to the point where Secretary of State Clinton sees it as wielding
preponderant influence. As described in a 2009 Rand Corporation study,“ Founded by a decree from Ayatollah
Khomeini shortly after the victory of the 1978-1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps
(IRGC) has evolved well beyond its original foundations as an ideological guard for the nascent revolutionary regime.
Today the IRGC functions as an expansive socio-political-economic conglomerate whose influence extends into
virtually every corner of Iranian political life and society. Bound together by the shared experience of war and the
socialization of military service, the Pasdaran have articulated a populist, authoritarian, and assertive vision for the
Islamic Republic of Iran that they maintain is a more faithful reflection of the revolution’s early ideals. The IRGC’s
presence is particularly powerful in Iran’s highly factionalized political system, in which [many senior figures] hail from
the ranks of the IRGC. Outside the political realm, the IRGC oversees a robust apparatus of media resources,
training activities, education programs designed to bolster loyalty to the regime, prepare the citizenry for homeland
defense, and burnish its own institutional credibility vis-à-vis other factional actors.”
Through its Qods (Jerusalem) Force, the IRGC has a foreign policy role in exerting influence throughout the region
by supporting pro-Iranian movements, as discussed further below. The Qods Force numbers approximately 10,000-
15,000 personnel who provide advice, support, and arrange weapons deliveries to pro-Iranian factions in Lebanon,
Iraq, Persian Gulf states, Gaza/West Bank, Afghanistan, and Central Asia. It also operates a worldwide intelligence
network to give Iran possible terrorist option and to assist in procurement of WMD-related technology. The Qods
Force commander, Brigadier General Qassem Soleimani, is said to have his own independent channel to Supreme
Leader Khamene’i, bypassing the IRGC and Joint Staff command structure. The Qods Force commander during 1988-
1995 was Brigadier General Ahmad Vahidi, confirmed as defense minister on September 3, 2009. He led the Qods
Force when it allegedly assisted two bombings of Israeli and Jewish targets in Buenos Aires (he is wanted by Interpol
for a role in the 1994 bombing there); recruited Saudi Hezbollah activists later accused of the June 1996 Khobar
Towers bombing; and assassinated Iranian dissident leaders in Europe in the early 1990s.
IRGC leadership developments are significant because of the political influence of the IRGC. On September 2, 2007,
Khamene’i replaced Rahim Safavi with Mohammad Ali Jafari as commander In chief of the Guard; Jafari is considered a
hardliner against political dissent and is reputedly close to the Supreme Leader and less so to Ahmadinejad. The Basij
reports to the IRGC commander in chief; its leadership was changed in October 2009, to Brigadier General
Mohammad Reza Naqdi (replacing Hossein Taeb). It operates from thousands of positions in Iran’s institutions.
Command reshuffles in July 2008 integrated the Basij more closely with provincially based IRGC units; furthered the
view that the Basij is playing a more active role in internal security. In November 2009, the regime gave the IRGC’s
intelligence units greater authority, perhaps surpassing those of the Ministry of Intelligence, in monitoring dissent, an
apparent response to the Green movement. The IRGC Navy now has responsibility to patrol the entire Persian Gulf,
and that the regular Navy is patrolling the Strait of Hormuz. More information on how the Iranian military might
perform against the United States is discussed later.
As noted, the IRGC is also increasingly involved in Iran’s economy, acting through a network of contracting
businesses it has set up, most notably Ghorb (also called Khatem ol-Anbiya, Persian for “Seal of the Prophet”). Active
duty IRGC senior commanders reportedly serve on Ghorb’s board of directors. In late September 2009, the Guard
bought a 50% stake in Iran Telecommunication Company at a cost of $7.8 billion. In the past five years, Guard
affiliated firms have won 750 oil and gas and construction contracts, and the Guard has its own civilian port facilities.
However, questions arose about the IRGC firms’ capabilities in July 2010 when Ghorb pul ed out of a contract to
develop part of the large South Pars gas field, citing the impact of expanded U.S. and international sanctions (which
might have caused foreign partner firms to refuse to cooperate with Ghorb). On October 21, 2007, the Treasury
Department designated several IRGC companies as proliferation entities under Executive Order 13382. Also that
day, the IRGC as a whole, the Ministry of Defense, several IRGC commanders, and several Iranian banks were
sanctioned under that same executive order. Simultaneously, the Qods Force was named as a terrorism supporting
entity under Executive Order 13224. Four more IRGC companies, as wel as the IRGC commander of Khatem ol-
Anibya, were designated under Executive Order 13382 on February 10, 2010. These orders freeze the U.S.-based
assets and prevent U.S. transactions with the named entities, but these entities are believed to have virtual y no U.S.-
based assets. The National Defense Authorization Act for FY2010 (Section 1224, P.L. 111-84) cal s for a report on
Iran’s conventional military strategy and power, in particular IRGC the capabilities. Sources: Frederic Wehrey et al.
“The Rise of the Pasdaran.” Rand Corporation. 2009. Katzman, Kenneth. “The Warriors of Islam: Iran’s
Revolutionary Guard.” Westview Press, 1993.

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Nuclear Program and Related International Diplomacy
The United States and its partners accept Iran’s right to pursue peaceful uses of nuclear energy,
but they have sought, without success to date, to induce Iran to verifiably demonstrate that its
nuclear program is for purely peaceful purposes. According to the February 2, 2010, annual
intelligence community threat assessment, Iran “is keeping open the option to develop nuclear
weapons in part by developing various nuclear capabilities that bring it closer to being able to
produce such weapons, should it choose to do so.” This assessment, reportedly reiterated by an
intelligence report of March 3, 2010,12 was foreshadowed on September 25, 2009, when President
Obama and French and British leaders publicized long-standing information that Iran is
developing a uranium enrichment site on a Revolutionary Guard base at Fordo, near Qom, that
appears unsuitable for purely civilian use. This, and other findings contained in International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reports of February 18, 2010, and May 31, 2010,13 call into
question whether Iran’s weaponization efforts are on hold. Several previous IAEA reports
(January 31, 2006; February 27, 2006; May 26, 2008; and September 15, 2008) describe Iranian
documents that show a possible involvement of Iran’s military in the program.
That 2007 NIE assessed that Iran will likely be technically capable of producing enough highly
enriched uranium for a nuclear weapon some time during 2010-2015. However, U.S. officials,
possibly basing their comments on a reported new draft NIE, amended the time frame to “3-5
years” from April 2010 if there were a decision to acquire a nuclear weapons capability, and with
no indications that such a decision has been made in Iran.14
Iranian Recent Nuclear Activities
International scrutiny of Iran’s nuclear program intensified in late 2002, when Iran confirmed
PMOI allegations that Iran was building two facilities that could potentially be used to produce
fissile material useful for a nuclear weapon: a uranium enrichment facility at Natanz and a heavy
water production plant at Arak,15considered ideal for the production of plutonium. It was revealed
in 2003 that the founder of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program, A.Q. Khan, sold Iran nuclear
technology and designs.16
The Obama Administration faces policy choices in light of a judgment based on the May 31,
2010, IAEA report that Iran has now enriched enough uranium for two nuclear weapons (if
enriched to 90%). Most of Iran’s enrichment thus far has been primarily to less that 5%, which is
a level that would permit only civilian uses, although on July 12, 2010, Iran said it had produced
44 pounds of 20% enriched uranium, to date. At the same time, U.S. and IAEA intelligence,
including the May 31, 2010, IAEA report, says that less than less than 4,000 of Iran’s 8,600
installed centrifuges are operating, suggesting technical problems or possibly slowdowns due to
defections, other manifestations of the societal unrest, or a belief that slowing the program could

12 Gertz, Bill. “CIA Says Iran Has Capability to Produce Nuke Weapons.” Washington Times, March 30, 2010.
13 For text of the May 31, 2010, IAEA report, see http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/
IAEA_Report_Iran_31May2010.pdf.
14 Entous, Adam. “U.S. Officials See Iran Nuclear Bomb Probable in 3-5 Years.” Reuters, April 13, 2010.
15 In November 2006, the IAEA, at U.S. urging, declined to provide technical assistance to the Arak facility on the
grounds that it was likely for proliferation purposes.
16 Lancaster, John and Kamran Khan. “Pakistanis Say Nuclear Scientists Aided Iran.” Washington Post, January 24,
2004.
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help Iran avoid more international sanctions.17 The slowdowns have given the Administration
increased confidence that Iran is not on the verge, at least before mid-2011, of achieving a nuclear
weapons capability. Still, in April 2010, Iran unveiled a new generation of centrifuges that
reportedly could allow it to enrich uranium at a rate five times faster than Iran’s existing older-
model centrifuges. There continues to be no evidence that Iran has diverted any nuclear material
for a nuclear weapons program.
Iran’s Arguments
Iranian leaders have addressed the scrutiny by saying that Iran’s nuclear program is for electricity
generation and that enrichment is its “right” as a party to the NPT. Iran professes that WMD is
inconsistent with its ideology and says that its leaders, including the late Ayatollah Khomeini,
have issued formal pronouncements (fatwas) that nuclear weapons are un-Islamic. Iran says its oil
resources are finite and that enriching uranium to make nuclear fuel is allowed under the 1968
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty,18 to which Iran is a party. An analysis was published by the
National Academy of Sciences challenging the U.S. view that Iran is petroleum rich and therefore
has no need for a nuclear power program. According to the analysis, the relative lack of
investment could cause Iran to have negligible exports of oil by 2015.19 In the past, U.S. officials
have said that Iran’s gas resources make nuclear energy unnecessary.
Iran’s assertions of a purely peaceful program are met with widespread skepticism, in part
because Iran’s governing factions perceive a nuclear weapons capability as a means of ending
Iran’s perceived historic vulnerability to invasion and domination by great powers, and as a
symbol of Iran as a major nation. Others believe a nuclear weapon represents the instrument with
which Iran intends to intimidate its neighbors and dominate the Persian Gulf region. There are
also fears Iran might transfer WMD to extremist groups or countries.
On the other hand, some Iranian strategists maintain that a nuclear weapons will bring Iran only
further sanctions, military containment, U.S. attempted interference in Iran, and efforts by
neighbors to develop countervailing capabilities. Some members of the domestic opposition, such
as Musavi, have positions on the nuclear issue similar to those of regime leaders, but several
Green movement factions see the nuclear program as an impediment to eventual reintegration
with the West and might be willing to significantly limit the program.
U.S. officials have generally been less concerned with Russia’s work, under a January 1995
contract, on an $800 million nuclear power plant at Bushehr. Russia insisted that Iran sign an
agreement under which Russia would provide reprocess the plant’s spent nuclear material; that
agreement was signed on February 28, 2005. The plant was expected to become operational in
2007, but Russia had insisted that Iran first comply with the U.N. resolutions discussed below. In
December 2007, Russia began fueling the reactor. Some preliminary tests of the plant began in
February 2009, but Russia appeared to be delaying opening the plant to pressure Iran on the
broader nuclear issue. However, in late May 2010, Russia’s top nuclear official said the plant

17 Warrick, Joby and Greg Miller. “Discontented Iranian Officials Provide Wealth of Intelligence.” Washington Post,
April 25, 2010.
18 For Iran’s arguments about its program, see Iranian paid advertisement “An Unnecessary Crisis—Setting the Record
Straight About Iran’s Nuclear Program,” in the New York Times, November 18, 2005. P. A11.
19 Stern, Roger. “The Iranian Petroleum Crisis and United States National Security,” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
. December 26, 2006.
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would go into operation some time in the summer of 2010 “if everything goes according to plan.”
The plant is scheduled to be inaugurated as active on August 21, 2010. As part of this work,
Russia has trained 1,500 Iranian nuclear engineers.
The International Response
The international response to Iran’s nuclear program has grown as Iran’s program has progressed,
and some see a growing global consensus to apply substantial pressure on Iran to limit its
program.
Diplomatic Efforts in 2003 and 2004/Paris Agreement
In 2003, France, Britain, and Germany (the “EU-3”) opened a separate diplomatic track to curb
Iran’s program. On October 21, 2003, Iran pledged, in return for peaceful nuclear technology, to
(1) fully disclose its past nuclear activities, (2) to sign and ratify the “Additional Protocol” to the
NPT (allowing for enhanced inspections), and (3) to suspend uranium enrichment activities. Iran
signed the Additional Protocol on December 18, 2003, although the Majles has not ratified it. Iran
discontinued abiding by the Protocol after the IAEA reports of November 10, 2003, and February
24, 2004, stated that Iran had violated its NPT reporting obligations over an 18-year period.
In the face of the U.S. threat to push for Security Council action, the EU-3 and Iran reached a
more specific November 14, 2004, “Paris Agreement,” committing Iran to suspend uranium
enrichment (which it did as of November 22, 2004) in exchange for renewed trade talks and other
aid.20 The Bush Administration did not openly support the track until March 11, 2005, when it
announced it would drop U.S. objections to Iran applying to join the World Trade Organization (it
applied in May 2005) and to selling civilian aircraft parts to Iran. The Bush Administration did
not participate directly in the talks.
Reference to the Security Council
The Paris Agreement broke down just after Ahmadinejad’s election; Iran rejected as insufficient
an EU-3 offer to assist Iran with peaceful uses of nuclear energy and provide limited security
guarantees in exchange for Iran’s (1) permanently ending uranium enrichment; (2) dismantling
the Arak heavy-water reactor;21 (3) no-notice nuclear inspections; and (4) a pledge not to leave
the NPT (it has a legal exit clause). On August 8, 2005, Iran broke the IAEA seals and began
uranium “conversion” (one step before enrichment) at its Esfahan facility. On September 24,
2005, the IAEA Board declared Iran in non-compliance with the NPT and decided to refer the
issue to the Security Council,22 but no time frame was set for the referral. After Iran resumed
enrichment activities, on February 4, 2006, the IAEA board voted 27-323 to refer the case to the

20 For text of the agreement, see http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/IaeaIran/eu_iran14112004.shtml. EU-3-Iran
negotiations on a permanent nuclear pact began on December 13, 2004, and related talks on a trade and cooperation
accord (TCA) began in January 2005.
21 In November 2006, the IAEA, at U.S. urging, declined to provide technical assistance to the Arak facility.
22Voting in favor: United States, Australia, Britain, France, Germany, Canada, Argentina, Belgium, Ghana, Ecuador,
Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Slovakia, Japan, Peru, Singapore, South Korea, India. Against:
Venezuela. Abstaining: Pakistan, Algeria, Yemen, Brazil, China, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Sri Lanka,
Tunisia, and Vietnam.
23 Voting no: Cuba, Syria, Venezuela. Abstaining: Algeria, Belarus, Indonesia, Libya, South Africa.
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Security Council. On March 29, 2006, the Council agreed on a presidency “statement” setting a
30-day time limit (April 28, 2006) for ceasing enrichment.24
Establishment of “P5+1” Contact Group/June 2006 Incentive Package
Taking a multilateral approach, the George W. Bush Administration offered on May 31, 2006, to
join the nuclear talks with Iran if Iran first suspends its uranium enrichment. Such talks would
center on a package of incentives and possible sanctions—formally agreed on June 1, 2006—by a
newly formed group of nations, the so-called “Permanent Five Plus 1” (P5+1: United States,
Russia, China, France, Britain, and Germany). EU representative Javier Solana formally
presented the P5+1 offer to Iran on June 6, 2006. (The package is Annex I to Resolution 1747.)
Incentives:
• Negotiations on an EU-Iran trade agreements and acceptance of Iran into the
World Trade Organization.
• Easing of U.S. sanctions to permit sales to Iran of commercial aircraft/parts.
• Sale to Iran of a light-water nuclear reactor and guarantees of nuclear fuel
(including a five-year buffer stock of fuel), and possible sales of light-water
research reactors for medicine and agriculture applications.
• An “energy partnership” between Iran and the EU, including help for Iran to
modernize its oil and gas sector and to build export pipelines.
• Support for a regional security forum for the Persian Gulf, and support for the
objective of a WMD free zone for the Middle East.
• The possibility of eventually allowing Iran to resume uranium enrichment if it
complies with all outstanding IAEA requirements.
Sanctions:25
• Denial of visas for Iranians involved in Iran’s nuclear program and for high-
ranking Iranian officials.
• A freeze of assets of Iranian officials and institutions; a freeze of Iran’s assets
abroad; and a ban on some financial transactions.
• A ban on sales of advanced technology and of arms to Iran; and a ban on sales to
Iran of gasoline and other refined oil products.
• An end to support for Iran’s application to the WTO.

24 See http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N06/290/88/PDF/N0629088.pdf?OpenElement.
25 One source purports to have obtained the contents of the package from ABC News: http://www.basicint.org/pubs/
Notes/BN060609.htm.
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First Set of U.N. Security Council Resolutions Adopted
Iran did not immediately respond to the offer. In response, the U.N. Security Council began its
efforts, still ongoing, to impose sanctions on Iran in an effort to shift Iran’s calculations toward
compromise.
Resolution 1696. On July 31, 2006, the Security Council voted 14-1 (Qatar
voting no) for U.N. Security Council Resolution 1696, giving Iran until August
31, 2006, to fulfill the long-standing IAEA nuclear demands (enrichment
suspension, etc.). Purportedly in deference to Russia and China, it was passed
under Article 40 of the U.N. Charter, which makes compliance mandatory, but
not under Article 41, which refers to economic sanctions, or Article 42, which
would authorize military action. It called on U.N. member states not to sell Iran
WMD-useful technology. On August 22, 2006, Iran responded, but Iran did not
offer enrichment suspension, instead offering vague proposals of engagement
with the West.
Resolution 1737. With the backing of the P5+1, chief EU negotiator Javier
Solana negotiated with Iran to try arrange a temporary enrichment suspension,
but talks ended on September 28, 2006, without agreement. The Security Council
adopted U.N. Security Council Resolution 1737 unanimously on December 23,
2006, under Chapter 7, Article 41 of the U.N. Charter. It prohibits sale to Iran—
or financing of such sale—of technology that could contribute to Iran’s uranium
enrichment or heavy-water reprocessing activities. It also required U.N. member
states to freeze the financial assets of 10 named Iranian nuclear and missile firms
and 12 persons related to those programs. It called on—but did not mandate—
member states not to permit travel by these persons. In deference to Russia, the
Resolution did not apply to the Bushehr reactor.
Resolution 1747. Resolution 1737 demanded enrichment suspension by February
21, 2007. With no Iranian compliance, on March 24, 2007, after only three weeks
of P5+1 negotiations, Resolution 1747 was adopted unanimously, which
demanded Iran suspend enrichment by May 24, 2007, and:
• added 10 military/WMD-related entities, 3 Revolutionary Guard entities, 8
persons, and 7 Revolutionary Guard commanders. Bank Sepah is among the
entities sanctioned.
• banned arms transfers by Iran, a provision targeted at Iran’s alleged arms
supplies to Lebanese Hezbollah and to Shiite militias in Iraq.
• required all countries to report to the United Nations when sanctioned Iranian
persons travel to their territories.
• called for (but did not require) countries to avoid selling arms or dual use
items to Iran and for countries and international financial institutions to avoid
any new lending or grants to Iran. The Resolution specifically exempted
loans for humanitarian purposes, thereby exempting application to World
Bank lending.
• Iran did not comply with Resolution 1747, but, suggesting it wanted to avoid
further isolation, in August 2007, Iran agreed to sign with the IAEA an
agreement to clear up outstanding questions on past nuclear activities by the
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end of 2007. On September 28, 2007, the P5+1 grouping—along with the EU
itself—agreed to a joint statement pledging to negotiate another sanctions
resolution if there is no progress reported by the IAEA in implementing the
August 2007 agreement or in negotiations with EU representative Javier
Solana. The IAEA and Solana indicated that Iran’s responses fell short;
Solana described a November 30, 2007, meeting with Iranian negotiator
Sayid Jallili as “disappointing.”

Resolution 1803 and Additional Incentives for Iran. After several months of
negotiations, Resolution 1803 was adopted by a vote of 14-0 (Indonesia
abstaining) on March 3, 2008. It:
• banned virtually all sales of dual use items to Iran, citing equipment listed as
dual use in various proliferation conventions and documents.
• authorized, but did not require, inspections of shipments by Iran Air Cargo
and Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Line, if such shipments are suspected
of containing banned WMD-related goods
• imposed a firm travel ban on five Iranians named in Annex II to the
Resolution and requires reports on international travel by 13 individuals
named in Annex I;
• called for, but did not impose, a prohibition on financial transactions with
Iran’s Bank Melli and Bank Saderat;
• added 12 entities to those sanctioned under Resolution 1737.
• stated the willingness of the P5+1 to consider additional incentives to resolve
the Iranian nuclear issue through negotiation “on the basis of their June 2006
proposals.”
• The Bush Administration agreed to expand the June 2006 incentive package at a
meeting in London on May 2, 2008, offering to add political cooperation and
enhanced energy cooperation for Iran. EU envoy Solana presented the package
(which included a signature by Secretary of State Rice) on June 14, 2008, but
Iran was non-committal. (The text of the enhanced incentive offer to Iran is
contained in an Annex to Resolution 1929.)
• Iran did not accept the enhanced package of incentives as a basis of further
discussion but, in July 2008, Iran indicated it might be ready to first accept a six
week “freeze for freeze:” the P5+1 would freeze further sanctions efforts and Iran
would freeze any expansion of uranium enrichment (though not suspend
outright). To try to take advantage of this opening, the Bush Administration sent
Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs William Burns to join Solana and
the other P5+1 representatives at a meeting in Geneva on July 19, 2008. Iran did
not accept the “freeze for freeze” by an extended deadline of August 2, 2008.
Resolution 1835. As a result of the lack of progress, the P5+1 began discussing
another sanctions resolution. However, the August 2008 crisis between Russia
and Georgia set back U.S.-Russia relations, and Russia opposed new U.N.
sanctions on Iran. In an effort to demonstrate to Iran continued unity, the Council
adopted Resolution 1835 (September 27, 2008), calling on Iran to comply with
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previous resolutions, but restating a willingness to negotiate and imposing no
new sanctions.
• The P5+1 met again in October and in November of 2008, but U.S. partner
officials were uncertain about what U.S. policy toward Iran might be under a new
U.S. Administration. No consensus on additional sanctions was reached.
The International Response Under the Obama Administration
After President Obama was inaugurated, the P5+1 met in Germany (February 4, 2009), reportedly
focusing on the new Administration’s approach on Iran. The other members of the P5+1 sought to
incorporate the Administration’s commitment to direct U.S. engagement with Iran into the U.N.
sanctions and negotiating framework. The meeting recommitted to the pre-existing “two track”
strategy of incentives and sanctions.26 Another P5+1 meeting was held in London on April 8,
2009, during which Under Secretary Burns told the other members of the group that, henceforth,
a U.S. diplomat would attend all of the group’s meetings with Iran. Iran put off new meetings
until after its Iranian June 12, 2009, election.27 The P5+1 did not materially alter its approach
because of the unrest in Iran that erupted after that election, and a July 9, 2009, G-8 summit
statement, which included Russian concurrence, mentioned late September 2009 (G-20 summit
on September 24) as a time by which the P5+1 would expect Iran to attend new talks and offer
constructive proposals, lest the P5+1 consider imposing “crippling sanctions” on Iran.
Sensing pressure, both from the international community and from the Green movement’s active
street protests, on September 1, 2009, Iran’s senior negotiator, Sayid Jallili, said Iran would come
to new talks. On September 9, 2009, Iran distributed its long-anticipated proposals to settle the
nuclear issue to P5+1 representatives in Iran (the Swiss ambassador represented the United
States).28 The Iranian proposals were criticized as vague, but the P5+1 considered it a sufficient
basis to meet with Iran in Geneva on October 1, 2009.
October 1, 2009, Agreement on Reprocessing Iran’s Enriched Uranium
In light of September 25, 2009, revelations about the previously unreported Iranian nuclear site—
and despite Iran’s insistence that it would allow the facility to be inspected—little progress was
expected at the meeting. However, the seven-hour session, in which U.S. Under Secretary of State
William Burns, representing the United States, also met privately with Iranian negotiator Sayed
Jallili, resulted in tentative agreements to (1) meet again later in October; (2) allow the IAEA to
inspect the newly revealed Iranian facility near Qom; and (3) allow Russia and France, subject to
technical talks to begin by mid-October, to reprocess 2,600 pounds (about 75% of Iran’s low-
enriched uranium) for medical use. (The Qom facility was inspected during October 25-29, 2009,
as agreed.)
The technical talks were held October 19-21, 2009, at IAEA headquarters in Vienna, Austria, and
chaired on the U.S. side by Deputy Energy Secretary Daniel Poneman. A draft agreement was
approved by the P5+1 countries and the IAEA. Despite Ahmadinejad’s comments in early

26 Dempsey, Judy. “U.S. Urged to Talk With Iran.” International Herald Tribune, February 5, 2009.
27 CRS conversations with European diplomats in July 2009.
28 “Cooperation for Peace, Justice, and Progress.” Text of Iranian proposals. http://enduringamerica.com/2009/09/11/
irans-nukes-full-text-of-irans-proposal-to-51-powers/.
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February 2010 that he “did not have a problem” with the arrangement, Iran did not formally
accept the draft, instead floating counter-proposals to ship its enriched uranium to France and
Russia in increments, to ship the uranium to Turkey instead, or to reprocess the uranium in Iran
itself.
Iran-Brazil-Turkey Uranium Exchange Deal (“Tehran Declaration”)
All of Iran’s counter-proposals were deemed insufficiently specific or responsive to meet P5+1
demands. Iran also rebuffed a specific U.S. proposal in January 2010 to allow it to buy on the
open market isotopes for its medical reactor. However, as international discussions of new
sanctions accelerated in April 2010, Brazil and Turkey stepped in as mediators to revive the
October 1, 2009, arrangement. On May 17, 2010, with the president of Brazil and prime minister
of Turkey in Tehran, the three signed an arrangement for Iran to send 2,600 pounds of uranium to
Turkey, which would be exchanged for medically useful reprocessed uranium along the lines
discussed in October 2009.29 As required by the agreement, Iran forwarded to the IAEA a formal
letter accepting the agreement terms.
Resolution 1929 and EU Follow-Up
The Obama Administration did not accept the Iran-Brazil-Turkey arrangement as a resolution of
the issue, asserting that the amount of enriched uranium to be reprocessed now only represents
about half of Iran’s enriched uranium (and does not therefore preclude enrichment of enough
uranium for a nuclear weapon) and did not address the fact that Iran has begun some enrichment
to the 20% level. On May 18, 2010, one day after the signing of the Iran-Brazil-Turkey draft
agreement, Secretary of State Clinton announced that the P5+1 had reached agreement on a new
sanctions resolution.
The resolution reflects a compromise designed to attract support from Russia and China, which
believe sanctions might threaten their own interests in Iran, while also giving U.S. allies authority
to take substantial new measures against Iran. It largely met the insistence of Russia and China
that new sanctions not target Iran’s civilian economy or its population, although it does provide
authority for those countries that want to limit banking or other corporate relationships with Iran.
During the negotiations, China received U.S. briefings on the likely adverse implications for the
oil market if Iran’s nuclear program proceeds apace. China was also reportedly reassured that the
UAE and Saudi Arabia would compensate for Iran’s oil exports to China if Iran cut off supplies to
retaliate for China’s support for new sanctions.30 Simultaneously with Russian agreement on the
draft, several Russian entities, including the main state arms export agency Rosoboronexport,
were removed from U.S. lists of sanctioned entities. (See CRS Report RS20871, Iran Sanctions
for a table of entities under sanction.)
The main points of the draft, which was adopted on June 9, 2010 (Resolution 1929), by a vote of
12-2 (Turkey and Brazil) with one abstention (Lebanon) are: 31

29 Text of the pact is at http://www.cfr.org/publication/22140/.
30 Mackenzie, Kate. “Oil At the Heart of Latest Iranian Sanctions Efforts.” Financial Times, March 8, 2010.
31 Text of the resolution is at http://www.isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/
Draft_resolution_on_Iran_annexes.pdf.
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• It adds 15 Iranian firms affiliated with the Revolutionary Guard firms to the list
of U.N.-sanctioned entities, although some of these firms are alternate names for
the Khatem ol-Anbiya (Seal of the Prophet) engineering firm under Guard
control. Twenty-two other Iranian entities, including the “First East Export
Bank,” and one individual, AEIO head Javad Rahiqi, were also added to the list.
• It makes mandatory a ban on travel for Iranian persons named in it and in
previous resolutions—including those Iranians for whom there was a non-
binding travel ban in previous resolutions.
• It gives countries the authorization to inspect any shipments—and to dispose of
their cargo—if the shipments are suspected to carry contraband items. However,
inspections on the high seas are subject to concurrence by the country that owns
that ship. This provision is modeled after a similar provision imposed on North
Korea, which did cause that country to reverse some of its shipments.
• It prohibits countries from allowing Iran to invest in uranium mining and related
nuclear technologies, or nuclear-capable ballistic missile technology.
• It bans sales to Iran of most categories of heavy arms and requests restraint in
sales of light arms, but does not bar sales of missiles not on the “U.N. Registry of
Conventional Arms” (meaning that the delivery of the S-300 system, discussed
above, would not be banned).
• It requires countries to insist that their companies refrain from doing business
with Iran if there is reason to believe that such business could further Iran’s
WMD programs.
• It requests, but does not mandate, that countries prohibit Iranian banks to open in
their countries, or for their banks to open in Iran, if doing so could contribute to
Iran’s WMD activities.
• The resolution sets up a “panel of experts,” which the Obama Administration
announced on June 10 would be chaired by longtime arms control official Robert
Einhorn, to assess the effect of the resolution and previous Iran resolutions, and
suggest ways of more effective implementation.
• The resolution did not include some measures discussed in press reports on the
negotiations, including barring any foreign investment in Iranian bond offerings;
banning insurance for transport contracts for shipments involving Iran; banning
international investment in Iran’s energy sector; and banning the provision of
trade credits to Iran.
President Obama, in a statement, said Resolution 1929 “will put in place the toughest sanctions
ever faced by the Iranian government,”32 but some experts and press accounts said the resolution
is unlikely to affect Iran’s nuclear decisionmaking, which is the core goal of the sanctions.
However, the subsequent adoption on July 27, 2010, by the European Union to use many of the
authorities of the Resolution and impose major new sanctions against Iran (for example banning
export credit and credit guarantees, as well as investment in and supplies to Iran’s energy sector)
led to new assessments by experts that the sanctions are exerting substantial pressure on Iran that

32 The text of President Obama’s statement is at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-united-
nations-security-council-resolution-iran-sanctions.
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could induce new Iranian flexibility. The EU move followed the signature by President Obama
on U.S. sanctions legislation that primarily seeks to stop sales of gasoline and oil refinery
equipment to Iran (Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010,
P.L. 111-195). More detail on sanctions against Iran and the effect of them is in CRS Report
RS20871, Iran Sanctions, by Kenneth Katzman.
President Obama, Secretary of State Clinton, and a joint P5+1 statement expressed that the intent
of the Resolution was to bring Iran back to the bargaining table in earnest. The annex to the
resolution reinforced that point; the annex presents the modified offer of incentives and a new
relationship between Iran and the international community, presented to Iran in June 2008. Iran,
for its part, reacted by dismissing its likely effect and beginning a Majles discussion of whether
and how to reduce further cooperation with the IAEA. Still, immediately after the passage of
Resolution 1929, EU foreign policy chief Baronness Catherine Ashton issued a letter to Iran
inviting it to attend new talks. Iran’s chief nuclear negotiator Seyed Jallili responded on July 6,
2010, by letter, saying that Iran might welcome new talks after the Ramadan observance, which
would end in mid-September 2010, although his letter indicated Iran might want to raise broader
issues beyond just the nuclear question. In an August 18, 2010, speech, Supreme Leader
Khamene’i did not reverse the Iranian government move toward new talks, but he did rule out
any new bilateral talks with the United States unless the United States ceases a strategy of
bringing pressure to bear on Iran through sanctions.
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Table 6.Summary of Provisions of U.N. Resolutions on Iran Nuclear Program
(1737, 1747, 1803, and 1929)
Requires Iran to suspend uranium enrichment.
Prohibits transfer to Iran of nuclear, missile, and dual use items, except for use in light-water reactors.
Prohibits Iran from exporting arms or WMD-useful technology.
Prohibits Iran from investing abroad in uranium mining, related nuclear technologies or nuclear capable ballistic missile
technology.
Freezes the assets of over 80 named Iranian persons and entities, including Bank Sepah, and several corporate
affiliates of the Revolutionary Guard.
Requires that countries ban the travel of over 40 named Iranians.
Mandates that countries not export major combat systems to Iran.
Calls for “vigilance” (a non-binding call to cut off business) with respect to all Iranian banks, particularly Bank Melli and
Bank Saderat.
Calls for vigilance (voluntary restraint) with respect to providing international lending to Iran and providing trade
credits and other financing and financial interactions.
Calls on countries to inspect cargoes carried by Iran Air Cargo and Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines—or by any
ships in national or international waters—if there are indications they carry cargo banned for carriage to Iran.
Searches in international waters would require concurrence of the country where the ship is registered.
A Sanctions Committee, composed of the fifteen members of the Security Council, monitors Implementation of all
Iran sanctions and collects and disseminates information on Iranian violations and other entities involved in banned
activities. A “panel of experts” is empowered to make recommendations for improved enforcement.

Possible Additional International and Multilateral Sanctions to Address Iran’s
Nuclear Program33

Aside from the measures contained in the four Security Council resolutions discussed above,
there are a number of other possible U.N. or multilateral measures to isolate Iran that have
received varying amounts of consideration. Some of these possibilities include:
Mandating Reductions in Diplomatic Exchanges with Iran or Prohibiting Travel
by Iranian Officials. Some have suggested extending a ban on travel to Iranian
civilian officials, such as those involved in suppressing democracy activists.
Some outside groups have called on countries to reduce their diplomatic presence
in Iran, or to expel some Iranian diplomats from Iranian embassies in their
territories. A further option is to limit sports or cultural exchanges with Iran, such
as Iran’s participation in the World Cup soccer tournament. However, many
experts oppose using sporting events to accomplish political goals.
Banning Passenger Flights to and from Iran. Bans on flights to and from Libya
were imposed on that country in response to the finding that its agents were
responsible for the December 21, 1988, bombing of Pan Am 103 (now lifted).

33 The sanctions issue, particularly U.S. sanctions, is discussed in far greater detail in CRS Report RS20871, Iran
Sanctions
, by Kenneth Katzman.
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There are no indications that a passenger aircraft flight ban is under consideration
among the P5+1.
A Ban on Exports to Iran of Refined Oil Products and Energy Equipment. As
noted, U.N. resolutions on Iran do not ban the sale of gasoline to Iran, but P.L.
111-195 mandates sanctions on firms that sell gasoline or equipment for Iran to
refine its own oil into gasoline and other products. The EU sanctions set to be
formalized July 26 will not ban sales of gasoline but will ban the sale to Iran of
equipment for Iran’s energy sector (refineries as well as exploration and drilling).
A possibility would be to make such a general ban on sales of energy equipment
universal in a new U.N. resolution, along the lines of the measures announced by
the EU on July 27, 2010. U.N. sanctions against Libya for the Pan Am 103
bombing banned the sale of energy equipment to Libya, thereby establishing
some precedent for such sanctions.
Financial and Trade Sanctions, Such as a Freeze on Iran’s Financial Assets
Abroad. Existing U.N. resolutions do not freeze all Iranian assets abroad, and
such a broad freeze does not appear to be under Security Council consideration at
this time. An effort to shut Iran’s banks out of the Western banking system,
potentially including the Central Bank of Iran (Bank Markazi), reportedly was
under consideration, and a call for vigilance in dealing with Iran’s Central Bank
is mentioned in Resolution 1929. Fearing these possibilities, Iran moved $75
billion out of European banks in May 2008.
Limiting Lending to Iran by Banks or International Financial Institutions.
Resolution 1747 calls for restraint on but does not outright ban international
lending to Iran. An option is to make a ban on such lending mandatory.
Banning Trade Financing or Official Insurance for Trade Financing. Another
option is to mandate a ban on official trade credit guarantees. Then Prime
Minister of Britain Gordon Brown indicated British support for a limitation of
official credits on November 12, 2007, and this limitation was announced by the
EU on July 27 but was not included in Resolution 1929. In February-March 2010
discussions on a new resolution, a ban on investment in Iranian bonds reportedly
was considered and then deleted to attract China and Russia’s support.
Banning Worldwide Investment in Iran’s Energy Sector. This option would
represent an “internationalization” of the U.S. “Iran Sanctions Act,” which is
discussed in CRS Report RS20871, Iran Sanctions, by Kenneth Katzman. In
November 12, 2007, comments, then-Prime Minister Brown expressed support
for a worldwide ban on financing of energy projects in Iran as a means of cutting
off energy development in Iran. This is a central focus of the EU measures
announced on July 27, but it is not a feature of Resolution 1929.
Restricting Operations of and Insurance for Iranian Shipping. One option,
reportedly long under consideration, has been to ban the provision of insurance,
or reinsurance, for any shipping to Iran. A call for restraint is in Resolution 1929,
but is not mandatory. The EU measures finalized on July 27 include a restriction
on insurance for Iranian ships, and the pullout from the Iran market by Lloyd’s
insurance firm has significantly harmed the ability of Islamic Republic of Iran
Shipping Lines (IRISL) to operate. (The United States has imposed sanctions on
IRISL.)
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Imposing a Worldwide Ban on Sales of Arms to Iran. Resolution 1929 imposes a
ban on sales of major weapons systems to Iran, but another option is to extend
that ban to all lethal equipment.
Imposing an International Ban on Purchases of Iranian Oil or Other Trade. This
is widely considered the most sweeping of sanctions that might be imposed, and
would be unlikely to be considered in the Security Council unless Iran was found
actively developing an actual nuclear weapon. Virtually all U.S. allies conduct
extensive trade with Iran, and would oppose sanctions on trade in civilian goods
with Iran. A ban on oil purchases from Iran is unlikely to be imposed because of
the potential to return world oil prices to the high levels of the summer of 2008.
Chemical Weapons, Biological Weapons, and Missiles
Official U.S. reports and testimony continue to state that Iran is seeking a self-sufficient chemical
weapons (CW) infrastructure, and that it “may have already” stockpiled blister, blood, choking,
and nerve agents—and the bombs and shells to deliver them. This raises questions about Iran’s
compliance with its obligations under the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which Iran
signed on January 13, 1993, and ratified on June 8, 1997. These officials and reports also say that
Iran “probably maintain[s] an offensive [biological weapons] BW program ... and probably has
the capability to produce at least small quantities of BW agents.”
Ballistic Missiles/Warheads
In his February 2010 Annual Threat Assessment of the Intelligence Community, Director of
National Intelligence Dennis Blair testified “Iran’s growing inventory of ballistic missiles and its
acquisition of indigenous production of anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs) provide capabilities to
enhance its power projection. Tehran views its conventionally armed missiles as an integral part
of its strategy to deter—and if necessary retaliate against—forces in the region, including U.S.
forces.” However, Iran’s technical capabilities are a matter of some debate among experts, and
Iran appears to be focusing more on missiles capable of hitting regional targets rather than those
of intercontinental range. Table 7 contains some details on Iran’s missile programs. 34
In August 2008, the George W. Bush Administration reached agreements with Poland and the
Czech Republic to establish a missile defense system to counter Iranian ballistic missiles. These
agreements were reached over Russia’s opposition, which was based on the belief that the missile
defense system would be used to neutralize Russian capabilities. However, reportedly based on
assessments of Iran’s focus on missiles of regional range, on September 17, 2009, the Obama
Administration reoriented this missile defense program to focus, at least initially, on ship-based
systems, possibly later returning to the idea of Poland and Czech-based systems. Some saw this
as an effort to win Russia’s support for additional sanctions on Iran. In February 2010, Romania’s
top defense policy body approved a U.S. plan to base missile interceptors there. Russia is
considered less resistant to placement in Romania because Russia’s own missiles would not need
to overfly that territory if they were ever fired.

34 Annual Threat Assessment of the Intelligence for the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Dennis C. Blair,
Director of National Intelligence, February 2, 2010.
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Table 7. Iran’s Ballistic Missile Arsenal
Shahab-3
800-mile range. The Defense Department report of April 2010, cited earlier, has the missile as
(“Meteor”)
“deployed.” Still, several of its tests (July 1998, July 2000, and September 2000) reportedly were
unsuccessful or partially successful, and U.S. experts say the missile not completely reliable. Iran
tested several of the missiles on September 28, 2009, in advance of the October 1 meeting with
the P5+1.
Shahab-3
1,200-1,500-mile range. The April 2010 Defense Department report has the liquid fueled Shahab-3
“Variant” /Sijjil
“variant” as “possibly deployed” The solid fuel version, called the Sijil, is considered “not”
deployed by the Defense Department. The Sijil is alternately called the “Ashoura.” These missiles
potential y put large portions of the Near East and Southeastern Europe in range, including U.S.
bases in Turkey.
BM-25
1,500-mile range. On April 27, 2006, Israel’s military intelligence chief said that Iran had received a
shipment of North Korean-supplied BM-25 missiles. Missile said to be capable of carrying nuclear
warheads. The Washington Times appeared to corroborate this reporting in a July 6, 2006, story,
which asserted that the North Korean-supplied missile is based on a Soviet-era “SS-N-6” missile.
ICBM
U.S. officials believe Iran might be capable of developing an intercontinental ballistic missile (3,000
mile range) by 2015, a time frame reiterated by the April 2010 DOD report.
Other
On September 6, 2002, Iran said it successfully tested a 200 mile range “Fateh 110” missile (solid
Missiles
propel ent), and Iran said in late September 2002 that it had begun production. Iran also possesses
a few hundred short-range ballistic missiles, including the Shahab-1 (Scud-b), the Shahab-2 (Scud-
C), and the Tondar-69 (CSS-8). In January 2009, Iran claimed to have tested a new air-to-air missile.
On March 7, 2010, Iran claimed it was now producing short-range cruise missiles that it claimed
are highly accurate and can destroy heavy targets.
Space
In February 2008 Iran claimed to have launched a probe into space, suggesting its missile
Vehicle
technology might be improving to the point where an Iranian ICBM is realistic. Following an
August 2008 failure, in early February 2009, Iran successfully launched a small, low-earth satellite
on a Safir-2 rocket (range about 155 miles). The Pentagon said the launch was “clearly a concern
of ours” because “there are dual-use capabilities here which could be applied toward the
development of long-range missiles.”
Warheads
Wall Street Journal report of September 14, 2005, said that U.S. intelligence believes Iran is working
to adapt the Shahab-3 to deliver a nuclear warhead. Subsequent press reports say that U.S.
intelligence captured an Iranian computer in mid-2004 showing plans to construct a nuclear
warhead for the Shahab.35 The IAEA is seeking additional information from Iran.

Foreign Policy and Support for Terrorist Groups
Iran’s foreign policy is a product of the ideology of Iran’s Islamic revolution, blended with long-
standing national interests and what some describe as a near obsession about the intent and extent
of U.S. strategic power. Others interpret Iran’s objectives as well beyond defensive—as a vision
of overturning of the power structure in the Middle East, which Iran believes favors the United
States, Israel, and their “collaborators”—Sunni Muslim regimes such as Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi
Arabia.

35 Broad, William and David Sanger. “Relying On Computer, U.S. Seeks to Prove Iran’s Nuclear Aims.” New York
Times
, November 13, 2005.
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Many U.S. experts see Iran as increasingly isolated by international sanctions and by the blemish
on its image from the crackdown against the Green movement. Iran’s leaders have sought new
allies in Africa and Latin America, as well as Turkey, to try to show that Iran is still accepted
globally and to counter the loss of support from big powers such as Russia and China. Other
experts say that Iran has been strategically constrained by the installation of pro-U.S. regimes in
Iraq and Afghanistan, and by the strong support for the United States in the Persian Gulf.
Elections in Lebanon in 2009 that boosted pro-U.S. factions, as well as U.S. engagement with
Syria, also have rendered Iran weaker than it has been in recent years, according to this view.
A contrary view is that Iran is ascendant in the region because of the installation of pro-Iranian
regimes in Iraq and Afghanistan, and the strength of Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Gaza.
Iran might, according to this view, seek to press its advantage to strengthen regional Shiite
movements and possibly drive the United States out of the Gulf. Others say Iran’s attendance at a
June 8, 2010, regional summit of Turkey, Russia, and Iran—and its hosting on August 5, 2010, of
a summit of Persian speaking countries (Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan)—demonstrates that
Iran is far from isolated.
The State Department report on international terrorism for 2009 released August 5, 2010, again
stated (as it has for more than a decade) that Iran “remained the most active state sponsor of
terrorism” in 2009, and it again attributes the terrorist activity primarily to the Qods Force of the
Revolutionary Guard. On October 27, 2008, the deputy commander of the Basij became the first
top Guard leader to publicly acknowledge that Iran supplies weapons to “liberation armies” in the
region, a reference to pro-Iranian movements discussed below. The appointment of Brigadier
General Ahmad Vahidi, the former Qods Forces commander, as defense minister in September
2009 (who got the highest number of Majles votes for his confirmation) caused concern in some
neighboring states. The April 2010 Defense Department report on Iran, cited earlier, contains
substantial discussion of the role of the Qods Force in supporting the movements and factions
discussed below.
In the 1990s, Iran allegedly was involved in the assassination of several Iranian dissidents based
in Europe. In May 2010, France allowed the return to Iran of Vakili Rad, who had been convicted
in the 1991 stabbing of the Shah’s last prime minister, Shahpour Bakhtiar. At the same time, Iran
allowed a French academic, Clotide Reiss, to return to France. She was accused of assisting the
Green movement in 2009 and not allowed to leave Iran, pending a trial. Iran has not been accused
of dissident assassinations abroad in over a decade.
Relations with the Persian Gulf States
The Persian Gulf monarchy states (Gulf Cooperation Council, GCC: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates) are concerned about Iranian strategic
influence but they do not openly support U.S. conflict with Iran that might cause Iran to retaliate
against Gulf state targets. The Gulf states are, for the most part, cooperating with U.S.
containment strategies discussed in the “U.S. Policy Approaches and Additional Options,”
section, below. In part to counter Iran’s perceived growing influence in the Gulf, in December
2006 the summit of the GCC leaders announced that the GCC states might jointly study their own
development of “peaceful nuclear technology.”
Outwardly, both diplomatic and commercial relations between the Gulf states and Iran are
relatively normal. Several of the Gulf states, particularly Kuwait, Bahrain, and UAE, have excess
oil refining capacity and are reportedly selling gasoline to Iran. They are reportedly increasingly
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replacing supplies that Iran has lost due to the termination of gasoline sales to Iran by European
majors such as Vitol, Glencore, Trafigura, and others.
Since the mid-1990s, Iran has tried to blunt Gulf state fears of Iran by curtailing activity,
conducted during the 1980s and early 1990s, to sponsor Shiite Muslim extremist groups in these
states, all of which are run by Sunni governments. Iran found, to its detriment, that such activity
caused the Gulf states to ally closely with the United States. Seeking to avoid further tensions
with Iran, the GCC leaders invited Ahmadinejad to speak at the December 2007 summit of the
GCC leaders in Doha, Qatar, marking the first time an Iranian president had been invited since
the GCC was formed in 1981.
Saudi Arabia. Many observers closely watch the relationship between Iran and
Saudi Arabia because of Saudi alarm over the emergence of a pro-Iranian
government in Iraq and Iran’s nuclear program. Saudi Arabia sees itself as leader
of the Sunni Muslim world and views Shiite Muslims as heretical and disloyal
internally. However, the Saudis, who do not want a repeat of Iran’s sponsorship
of disruptive and sometimes violent demonstrations at annual Hajj pilgrimages in
Mecca in the 1980s and 1990s—or an increase in Iranian support for Saudi Shiite
dissidents—are receptive to easing tensions with Iran. The Saudis continue to
blame a pro-Iranian movement in the Kingdom, Saudi Hezbollah, for the June
25, 1996, Khobar Towers housing complex bombing, which killed 19 U.S.
airmen.36 After restoring relations in December 1991 (after a four-year break),
Saudi-Iran ties progressed to high-level contacts during Khatemi’s presidency,
including Khatemi visits in 1999 and 2002. Ahmadinejad has visited on several
occasions. Both Saudi Arabia and the UAE are reportedly increasing oil supplies
to China in part to help persuade China to sanction Iran.
United Arab Emirates (UAE) concerns about Iran never fully recovered from the
April 1992 Iranian expulsion of UAE security forces from the Persian Gulf island
of Abu Musa, which it and the UAE shared under a 1971 bilateral agreement. (In
1971, Iran, then ruled by the U.S.-backed Shah, seized two other islands, Greater
and Lesser Tunb, from the emirate of Ras al-Khaymah, as well as part of Abu
Musa from the emirate of Sharjah.) In general, the UAE (particularly the
federation capital, Abu Dhabi, backs U.S. efforts to dissuade Iran from
developing its nuclear capability through international sanctions. The UAE
reportedly has increased scrutiny of exports to Iran since the passage of
Resolution 1929 to ensure no WMD-related technology is being re-exported, and
it has frozen the assets of 41 Iranians sanctioned subject to asset freezes under the
U.N. resolutions. These moves may reduce the estimated $12 billion in trade
between the two.
Within the UAE, Abu Dhabi generally takes a harder line against Iran than does
the emirate of Dubai, which has an Iranian-origin resident community as large as
300,000 and business ties to Iran. This view could explain comments by the UAE
Ambassador to the United States on July 6, 2010, when, on a panel at the Aspen

36 Walsh, Elsa. “Annals of Politics: Louis Freeh’s Last Case.” The New Yorker, May 14, 2001. The June 21, 2001,
federal grand jury indictments of 14 suspects (13 Saudis and a Lebanese citizen) in the Khobar bombing indicate that
Iranian agents may have been involved, but no indictments of any Iranians were announced. In June 2002, Saudi
Arabia reportedly sentenced some of the eleven Saudi suspects held there. The 9/11 Commission final report asserts
that Al Qaeda might have had some as yet undetermined involvement in the Khobar Towers attacks.
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Institute, Ambassador Yusuf Otaiba said, when asked about UAE support for
military action to try to halt Iran’s nuclear program, “We cannot live with a
nuclear Iran… I am willing to absorb what takes place at the expense of the
security of the UAE.” On the islands dispute, the UAE wants to refer the dispute
to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Iran insists on resolving the issue
bilaterally. The UAE formally protested Iran’s setting up of a maritime and ship
registration office on Abu Musa in July 2008. The United States supports UAE
proposals but takes no formal position on sovereignty. Still seeking to avoid
antagonizing Iran, in May 2007 the UAE received Ahmadinejad (the highest-
level Iranian visit since the 1979 revolution) and allowed him to lead an anti-U.S.
rally of a reported several hundred Iranian-origin residents of Dubai at a soccer
stadium there.
Qatar, like most of the other Gulf states, does not seek confrontation and seeks to
accommodate some of its interests, yet Qatar remains wary that Iran might
eventually seek to encroach on its large North Field (natural gas). It shares that
field with Iran (called South Pars on Iran’s side) and Qatar earns large revenues
from natural gas exports from it. Qatar’s fears were heightened on April 26,
2004, when Iran’s deputy oil minister said that Qatar is probably producing more
gas than “her right share” from the field and that Iran “will not allow” its wealth
to be used by others. Possibly to try to ease such implied threats, Qatar invited
Ahmadinejad to the December 2007 GCC summit there.
Bahrain is about 60% Shiite-inhabited, many of whom are of Persian origin, but
its government is dominated by the Sunni Muslim Al Khalifa family. In 1981 and
again in 1996, Bahrain publicly accused Iran of supporting Bahraini Shiite
dissidents (the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain, Bahrain-Hezbollah,
and other Bahraini dissident groups) in efforts to overthrow the ruling Al Khalifa
family. Bahraini fears that Iran would try to interfere in Bahrain’s November 25,
2006, parliamentary elections by providing support to Shiite candidates did not
materialize, although the main Shiite opposition coalition won 18 out of the 40
seats of the elected body. Tensions have flared several times since July 2007
when Iranian editorialists asserted that Bahrain is part of Iran—that question was
the subject of the 1970 U.N.-run referendum in which Bahrainis opted for
independence. The issued flared again after a February 20, 2009, statement by Ali
Akbar Nateq Nuri, an adviser to Khamene’i, that Bahrain was at one time an
Iranian province. The statement contributed to a decision by Morocco to break
relations with Iran. Still, Bahrain has sought not to antagonize Iran and has
apparently allowed Iran’s banks to establish a presence in Bahrain’s vibrant
banking sector. On March 12, 2008, the Treasury Department sanctioned the
Bahrain-based Future Bank under Executive Order 13382 that sanctions
proliferation entities. Future Bank purportedly is controlled by Bank Melli. The
bank remains in operation.
Oman. Of the GCC states, the Sultanate of Oman is closest politically to Iran and
has refused to ostracize or even harshly criticize Iranian policies. Some press
reports say local Omani officials routinely turn a blind eye to or even cooperate
in the smuggling of western goods to Iran. Sultan Qaboos made a state visit to
Iran in August 2009, coinciding with the inauguration of Ahmadinejad, and
despite the substantial unrest inside Iran over his reelection.
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Kuwait has enjoyed generally good relations with Iran because it saw Iran as the
counterweight to Saddam Hussein, who invaded Kuwait in August 1990. Since
Saddam’s overthrow in 2003, Kuwait has become somewhat more distant from
Iran and, in April 2010, Kuwaiti newspapers reported that security officials had
broken up a cell of spies for the Qods Force inside Kuwait. About 25% of
Kuwaitis are Shiite Muslims, and Iran supported Shiite radical groups in Kuwait
in the 1980s as a means to try to pressure Kuwait not to support the Iraqi war
effort in the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988).
Iranian Policy in Iraq37
The U.S. military ousting of Saddam Hussein benefitted Iran strategically. In an effort by Iran to
reap those benefits, during 2004-2008, U.S.-Iran differences in Iraq widened to the point where
some were describing the competition as a U.S.-Iran “proxy war” inside Iraq. The acute source of
tension was evidence, detailed on several occasions by U.S. commanders in Iraq, that the Qods
Force was providing arms (including highly lethal “explosively forced projectiles,” EFPs, which
have killed U.S. soldiers), training, guidance, and financing to pro-Iranian Shiite militias involved
in sectarian violence. The State Department report on terrorism for 2009, released August 5,
2010, says much of this activity continues, although U.S. assessments indicate this material
support may have fallen off as Shiite militia activity has declined more generally. The major
issues involved in Iran’s relationship with Iraq and interference in it are discussed in CRS Report
RS22323, Iran-Iraq Relations, by Kenneth Katzman.
Supporting Palestinian Militant Groups
Iran’s support for Palestinian militant groups has long concerned U.S. Administrations, as part of
an apparent effort by Tehran to obstruct an Israeli-Palestinian peace, which Iran believes would
strengthen the United States and Israel. Ahmadinejad’s various statements on Israel were
discussed above, and Supreme Leader Khamene’i has repeatedly called Israel a “cancerous
tumor.” He used a similar term (“disease”) in an August 18, 2010, speech. In December 2001,
Rafsanjani, now considered a moderate, said that it would take only one Iranian nuclear bomb to
destroy Israel, whereas a similar strike against Iran by Israel would have far less impact because
Iran’s population is large.
Iran has hosted numerous conferences to which anti-peace process terrorist organizations were
invited (for example: April 24, 2001, and June 2-3, 2002). During his presidency, Khatemi also
issued sharp criticisms and recriminations against Israel, but he also conversed with Israel’s
president at the 2005 funeral of Pope John Paul II. The formal position of the Iranian Foreign
Ministry, considered a bastion of moderates, is that Iran would not seek to block an Israeli-
Palestinian settlement but that the process is too weighted toward Israel to yield a fair result.
Iran and Hamas
The State Department report on terrorism for 2009 (mentioned above) again accused Iran of
providing “extensive” funding, weapons, and training to Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ),

37 This issue is covered in greater depth in CRS Report RS22323, Iran-Iraq Relations, by Kenneth Katzman.
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the Al Aqsa Martyr’s Brigades, and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General
Command (PFLP-GC). All are named as foreign terrorist organizations (FTO) by the State
Department for their use of violence to undermine the Arab-Israeli peace process. Some saw
Iran’s regional policy further strengthened by Hamas’s victory in the January 25, 2006,
Palestinian legislative elections, and even more so by Hamas’s June 2007 armed takeover of the
Gaza Strip. The Hamas gains potentially positioned it to block any peace settlement with Israel.
Hamas activists downplay Iranian influence on them, asserting that Iran is mostly Shiite, while
Hamas members are Sunni Muslims.38 Hamas was reputed to receive about 10% of its budget in
the early 1990s from Iran, although since then Hamas has cultivated funding from wealthy
Persian Gulf donors and supporters in Europe and elsewhere.
It was evident from the December 27, 2008-January 17, 2009, Israel-Hamas war in Gaza, that
Iran provides material support to Hamas. Joint Chiefs Chairman Admiral Mike Mullen said on
January 27, 2009, that the United States boarded but did not seize a ship carrying light arms to
Hamas from Iran; the ship (the Monchegorsk) later went to Cyprus. On March 11, 2009, a U.N.
committee monitoring Iran’s compliance with Resolution 1747, which bans Iranian arms exports,
said Iran might have violated that resolution with the alleged shipment. Hamas appeared to
corroborate allegations of Iranian weapons supplies when its exiled leader, Khaled Meshal, on
February 1, 2009, publicly praised Iran for helping Hamas achieve “victory” over Israel in the
conflict.39 On December 29, 2008, Khamene’i said that Muslims worldwide were “duty-bound”
to defend Palestinians in the Gaza Strip against the Israeli offensive against the Hamas-run
leadership there, but the Iranian leadership did not attempt to send Iranian volunteers to Gaza to
fight on Hamas’ behalf. Iranian weaponry might also have been the target of a January 2009 strike
on a weapons delivery purportedly bound for Gaza in transit via Sudan (presumably via Egypt).
Iran joined in regional criticism of Israel for its May 31, 2010, armed inspection of a Turkish ship,
carrying humanitarian goods, that attempted to evade Israel’s naval blockade of Gaza, and Iran
subsequently threatened—but has not implement these threats to date—to provide naval escorts
for future such shipments or to organize a blockade-running shipment.
Sunni Arab leaders in Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and throughout the region apparently fear
Iran’s reported attempts to discredit these leaders for what Iran considers insufficient support for
Hamas in its recent war with Israel. Some Iranian efforts reportedly involve establishing
Hezbollah cells in some of these countries, particularly Egypt, purportedly to stir up opposition to
these governments and build public support for Hezbollah and Hamas. 40
Lebanese Hezbollah and Syria
Iran has maintained a close relationship with Hezbollah since the group was formed in 1982 by
Lebanese Shiite clerics who were sympathetic to Iran’s Islamic revolution and belonged to the
Lebanese Da’wa Party. Hezbollah was responsible for several acts of anti-U.S. and anti-Israel
terrorism in the 1980s and 1990s.41 Hezbollah’s attacks on Israeli forces in southern Lebanon

38 CNN “Late Edition” interview with Hamas co-founder Mahmoud Zahar, January 29, 2006.
39 Hamas Leader Praises Iran’s Help in Gaza ‘Victory.’ CNN.com. February 1, 2009.
40 Slackman, Michael. “Egypt Accuses Hezbollah of Plotting Attacks in Sinai and Arms Smuggling to Gaza.” New
York Times
, April 14, 2009
41 Hezbollah is believed responsible for the October 1983 bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut, as well as
attacks on U.S. Embassy Beirut facilities in April 1983 and September 1984, and for the hijacking of TWA Flight 847
in June 1985 in which Navy diver Robert Stetham was killed. Hezbollah is also believed to have committed the March
(continued...)
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contributed to an Israeli withdrawal in May 2000, but, despite United Nations certification of
Israel’s withdrawal, Hezbollah maintained military forces along the border. Hezbollah continued
to remain armed and outside Lebanese government control, despite U.N. Security Council
Resolution 1559 (September 2, 2004) that required its dismantlement. In refusing to disarm,
Hezbollah says it was resisting Israeli occupation of some Lebanese territory (Shib’a Farms).
Although Iran likely did not instigate Lebanese Hezbollah to provoke the July-August 2006 war,
Iran has long been its major arms supplier. Hezbollah fired Iranian-supplied rockets on Israel’s
northern towns during the fighting. Reported Iranian shipments to Hezbollah prior to the conflict
included the “Fajr” (dawn) and Khaybar series of rockets that were fired at the Israeli city of
Haifa (30 miles from the border), and over 10,000 Katyusha rockets that were fired at cities
within 20 miles of the Lebanese border.42 Iran also supplied Hezbollah with an unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV), the Mirsad, which Hezbollah briefly flew over the Israel-Lebanon border on
November 7, 2004, and April 11, 2005; at least three were shot down by Israel during the conflict.
On July 14, 2006, Hezbollah apparently hit an Israeli warship with a C-802 sea-skimming missile
probably provided by Iran. Iran also purportedly provided advice during the conflict; about 50
Revolutionary Guards Qods Force personnel were in Lebanon (down from about 2,000 when
Hezbollah was formed, according to a Washington Post report of April 13, 2005) when the
conflict began; that number might have increased during the conflict to help Hezbollah operate
the Iran-supplied weaponry. In November 2009, Israel intercepted a ship that it asserted was
carrying 500 tons of arms purportedly for Hezbollah, and press reports in early 2010 said
Hezbollah maintains a wide network of arms and missile caches around Lebanon, not limited to
the movement’s redoubt in the south.
Even though Hezbollah reduced its overt military presence in southern Lebanon in accordance
with the conflict-related U.N. Security Council Resolution 1701 (July 31, 2006), Hezbollah was
perceived as a victor in the war for holding out against heavy Israeli air-strikes and some ground
action. Iran supported Hezbollah’s demands and provided it with leverage by resupplying it, after
the hostilities, with over 25,000 new rockets.43 Among the post-war deliveries were 500 Iranian-
made “Zelzal” (Earthquake) missiles with a range of 186 miles, enough to reach Tel Aviv from
south Lebanon. Iran also made at least $150 million available for Hezbollah to distribute to
Lebanese citizens (mostly Shiite supporters of Hezbollah) whose homes were damaged in the
Israeli military campaign.44 The State Department terrorism report for 2008, released on April 30,
2009, specified Iranian aid to Hezbollah as exceeding $200 million in 2008, and said that Iran
trained over 3,000 Hezbollah fighters in Iran during that year. The report for 2009 used similar r
figures for Iranian aid and training for Hezbollah but over an unspecified time frame.

(...continued)
17, 1992, bombing of Israel’s embassy in that city, which killed 29 people. Its last known terrorist attack outside
Lebanon was the July 18, 1994, bombing of a Jewish community center in Buenos Aires, which killed 85. On October
31, 2006, Argentine prosecutors asked a federal judge to seek the arrest of Rafsanjani, former Intelligence Minister Ali
Fallahian, former Foreign Minister Ali Akbar Velayati, and four other Iranian officials for this attack.
42“Israel’s Peres Says Iran Arming Hizbollah.” Reuters, February 4, 2002.
43 Rotella, Sebastian. “In Lebanon, Hezbollah Arms Stockpile Bigger, Deadlier.” Los Angeles Times, May 4, 2008.
44 Shadid, Anthony. “Armed With Iran’s Millions, Fighters Turn to Rebuilding.” Washington Post, August 16, 2006.
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Syria
Iran’s support for Hezbollah is linked in many ways to its alliance with Syria. Syria is the transit
point for the Iranian weapons shipments to Hezbollah and both countries see Hezbollah as
leverage against Israel to achieve their regional and territorial aims. In order to preserve its links
to Syria, which is one of Iran’s few real allies, Iran purportedly has acted as an intermediary with
North Korea to supply Syria with various forms of WMD and missile technology. In April 2010,
the Obama Administration called in Syria’s ambassador to ask about reports that Syria had
transferred Scud missiles to Hezbollah, although an Iranian connection to the purported transfer
remains unclear. However, in late June 2010, it was reported that Iran had sent Syria a
sophisticated air defense radar system that Syria could potentially use to thwart Israeli air
strikes.45
Some see Israel-Syria negotiations—and recent Obama Administration engagement with Syria—
as means to wean Syria away from its alliance with Iran. However, Iran is a major investor in the
Syrian economy, which attracts very little Western investment, and some believe the Iran-Syria
alliance is not easily severed. On December 13, 2009, the Syrian and Iranian defense ministers
signed a defense agreement to “face common enemies and challenges.”
Central Asia and the Caspian
Iran’s policy in Central Asia has thus far emphasized Iran’s rights to Caspian Sea resources,
particularly against Azerbaijan. That country’s population, like Iran’s, is mostly Shiite Muslim,
but its leadership is secular. In addition, Azerbaijan is ethnically Turkic, and Iran fears that
Azerbaijan nationalists might stoke separatism among Iran’s large Azeri Turkic population, which
demonstrated some unrest in 2006. These factors could explain why Iran has generally tilted
toward Armenia, which is Christian, even though it has been at odds with Azerbaijan over
territory and control of ethnic Armenians. In July 2001, Iranian warships and combat aircraft
threatened a British Petroleum (BP) ship on contract to Azerbaijan out of an area of the Caspian
that Iran considers its own. The United States called that action provocative, and it is engaged in
border security and defense cooperation with Azerbaijan directed against Iran (and Russia). The
United States successfully backed construction of the Baku-Tblisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline, intended
in part to provide alternatives to Iranian oil.
Along with India and Pakistan, Iran has been given observer status at the Central Asian security
grouping called the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO—Russia, China, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan). In April 2008, Iran applied for full membership in the
organization, which opposes a long-term U.S. presence in Central Asia. However, illustrating the
degree to which the United States has been able to isolate Iran, in June 2010 the SCO denied Iran
the opportunity to achieve full membership by adopting membership rules that bar admission to
countries under U.N. Security Council sanctions.

45 Levinson, Charles. “Iran Arms Syria With Radar.” Wall Street Journal, June 30, 2010.
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South Asia: Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India 46
Iran looks to its eastern neighbors in South Asia as allies and potential allies to help parry U.S.
and European pressure on Iran’s economy and its leaders.
Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, Iran is viewed by U.S. officials as pursuing a multi-track strategy—attempting to
help develop Afghanistan and enhance its influence there, while also building leverage against the
United States by arming anti-U.S. militant groups. During a March 9-10, 2010, visit to
Afghanistan, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates said Iran is “playing a double game” in
Afghanistan. Ahmadinejad leveled the same charge against the United States during his visit to
Kabul on March 10, 2010, saying the United States is now fighting the same militants it armed
when the Soviet Union had occupied Afghanistan during the 1980s. Iran is particularly interested
in restoring some of its traditional sway in eastern, central, and northern Afghanistan, where
Persian-speaking Afghans predominate. Iran may also want to be in position to threaten the air
base at Shindand, in Herat Province, which is used by U.S. and allied forces and which Iran
believes could be used for surveillance of or strikes on Iran. The Administration has requested
FY2011 military construction funds to improve that airbase.
For Afghanistan’s part, President Hamid Karzai considers Iran an important neighbor and has
said, including during his May 2010 visit to Washington, DC, that he does not want proxy
competition between the United States and Iran in Afghanistan. Many Afghans speak Dari, a
dialect of Persian language, and have long affinity with Iran. Partly as a signal of respect for these
Afghans, Karzai, who is a Pashtun (non-Persian-speaking), visited Iran for the celebration of
Nowruz. He returned to Kabul to receive visiting President Obama on March 28, 2010. The two
have met several times since, including at the summit of Persian speaking nations in Tehran on
August 5, 2010.
U.S. reports, including the April 2010 Defense Department report cited earlier, as well as the
August 5, 2010, State Department terrorism report for 2009, continue to accuse the Qods Force of
supplying various munitions, including 107mm rockets, to Taliban and other militants in
Afghanistan; some Taliban commanders openly say they are obtaining Iranian weapons. The
former top U.S. commander in Afghanistan, General Stanley McChrystal, said in May 2010 that
Iran was also training Taliban fighters in Iran, although it was not certain this was deliberate
Iranian government policy. U.S. commanders, including McChrystal, have maintained that the
Iranian assistance to Afghan militants is at a relatively low level and not decisive on the
battlefield, but is large enough that the Iranian government would have to have known about it.
The 2009 State Department terrorism report, as it did the previous year, accused Iran of training
Taliban fighters in small unit tactics, small arms use, explosives, and indirect weapons fire. In
August 2010, the Treasury Department sanctioned two Iranian Qods Force officers under
Executive Order 13224 for supporting international terrorism.

46 Substantially more detail on Iran’s activities in Afghanistan is contained in: CRS Report RL30588, Afghanistan:
Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy
, by Kenneth Katzman.
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Pakistan
Iran’s relations with Pakistan have been partly a function of events in Afghanistan, although
relations have worsened somewhat in late 2009 as Iran has accused Pakistan of supporting Sunni
Muslim rebels in Iran’s Baluchistan region. These Sunni guerrillas have conducted a number of
attacks on Iranian regime targets in 2009, as discussed above (Jundullah).
Iran had a burgeoning military cooperation with Pakistan in the early 1990s, and as noted Iran’s
nuclear program benefitted from the A.Q. Khan network. However, Iran-Pakistan relations
became strained in the 1990s when Pakistan was supporting the Taliban in Afghanistan, which
committed alleged atrocities against Shiite Afghans (Hazara tribe), and which seized control of
Persian-speaking areas of Afghanistan. Currently, Iran remains suspicious that Pakistan might
want to again implant the Taliban in power in Afghanistan—and Iran itself is aiding the Taliban to
some extent—but Iran and Pakistan now have a broad agenda that includes a potential major gas
pipeline project, discussed further below.
India
Iran and India have cultivated good relations with each other in order to enable each to pursue its
own interests and avoid mutual conflict. The two backed similar anti-Taliban factions in
Afghanistan during 1996-2001 and have a number of mutual economic and even military-to-
military relationships and projects, discussed further in CRS Report RS22486, India-Iran
Relations and U.S. Interests
, by K. Alan Kronstadt and Kenneth Katzman. One particular source
of U.S. concern has been visits to India by some Iranian naval personnel, although India has said
these exchanges involve junior personnel and focus mainly on promoting interpersonal relations
and not on India’s provision to Iran of military expertise.
Some Indian diplomats believe that India is coming under undue U.S. pressure to reduce its ties to
Iran. India, for now, appears to be resisting, but it is not expanding relations with Iran, either. One
aspect of the relationship involves not only the potential building of a natural gas pipeline from
Iran, through Pakistan, to India, but also the supplies of gasoline to Iran. While India’s
participation in a trans-Pakistan pipeline remains uncertain over pricing and security issues, India
and Iran reportedly are discussing a direct, undersea pipeline that would bypass Pakistan.
A key supplier of gasoline to Iran has been Reliance Industries Ltd. In December 2008, some
Members of Congress expressed opposition to a decision by the Export-Import Bank to provide
up to $900 million in loan guarantees to Reliance, because of its gasoline sales to Iran. A
provision of the FY2010 consolidated appropriation (P.L. 111-117) ended provision of such loan
guarantees to companies that sell gasoline to Iran. The Comprehensive Iran Sanctions,
Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-195) sanctions firms that sell threshold
amounts of gasoline to Iran.
Al Qaeda
Iran is not a natural ally of Al Qaeda, largely because Al Qaeda is an orthodox Sunni Muslim
organization. However, some experts believe that hardliners in Iran might want to use Al Qaeda
activists as leverage against the United States and its allies. The 9/11 Commission report said
several of the September 11 hijackers and other plotters, possibly with official help, might have
transited Iran, but the report does not assert that the Iranian government cooperated with or knew
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about the plot. Another bin Laden ally, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, killed by U.S. forces in Iraq on
June 7, 2006, reportedly transited Iran after the September 11 attacks and took root in Iraq,
becoming an insurgent leader there. Press reports in May 2010 have said that Al Qaeda figures
have been regularly entering and leaving Iran.
Iran might see possibilities for tactical alliance with Al Qaeda. Three major Al Qaeda figures
believed to have been in Iran include spokesman Sulayman Abu Ghaith, top operative Sayf Al
Adl, and Osama bin Laden’s son, Saad,47 although some U.S. officials said in January 2009 that
Saad bin Laden might have left Iran and could be in Pakistan. That information was publicized a
few days after the Treasury Department (on January 16, 2009) designated four Al Qaeda
operatives in Iran, including Saad bin Laden (and three lesser known figures) as terrorist entities
under Executive Order 13224. (U.S. officials blamed Saad bin Laden, Adl, and Abu Ghaith for
the May 12, 2003, bombings in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, against four expatriate housing complexes,
saying they have been able to contact associates outside Iran.48) Saad bin Laden was subsequently
said to have possibly been killed in a U.S. air strike against Al Qaeda locations in Pakistan,
although there has been no confirmation of that.
Iran has, to some extent, confirmed the presence of Al Qaeda militants in Iran. It asserted on July
23, 2003, that it had “in custody” senior Al Qaeda figures. On July 16, 2005, Iran’s intelligence
minister said that 200 Al Qaeda members are in Iranian jails.49 U.S. officials have said since
January 2002 that Iran has not prosecuted or extradited any senior Al Qaeda operatives. In
December 2009, Iran’s foreign minister confirmed that a teenage daughter of Osama bin Laden
had sought refuge in the Saudi embassy in Tehran—the first official confirmation that members of
bin Laden’s family have been in Iran. She left Iran in March 2010, and one of her brothers may
have left for Syria around this time. As many as 20 other family members are said to still be
living in a compound in Iran since the September 11, 2001, attacks, and accusing Iran of refusing
to allow them to leave for Saudi Arabia or other places. Some family members have said the
young bin Ladens have never been affiliated with Al Qaeda.
Latin America
A growing concern has been Iran’s developing relations with countries and leaders in Latin
America considered adversaries of the United States, particularly Cuba and Venezuela’s Hugo
Chavez. Ahmadinejad made a high-profile visit to five Latin American countries in November
2009, including Brazil but also including, as expected, Venezuela. Of the Latin American
countries, Brazil is emerging as its most noteworthy supporter, particularly because of Brazil’s
engagement with Iran to forge the “Tehran Declaration” on nuclear issues in June 2010.
Recent State Department terrorism reports have said that Cuba maintains “close relationships
with other state sponsors of terrorism such as Iran.” Iran has offered Bolivia $1 billion in aid and
investment, according to an Associated Press report of November 23, 2008. Iran has also
apparently succeeded in persuading Brazil to publicly oppose new U.N. sanctions on Iran.

47 Gertz, Bill. “Al Qaeda Terrorists Being Held by Iran.” Washington Times, July 24, 2003.
48 Gertz, Bill. “CIA Points to Continuing Iran Tie to Al Qaeda.” Washington Times, July 23, 2004.
49 “Tehran Pledges to Crack Down on Militants.” Associated Press, July 18, 2005.
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Venezuela
On October 30, 2007, then Secretary of Homeland Security Michael Chertoff said that Iran’s
relationship with Venezuela is an emerging threat because it represents a “marriage” of Iran’s
extremist ideology with “those who have anti-American views.” On January 27, 2009, Secretary
of Defense Gates said Iran was trying to build influence in Latin America by expanding front
companies and opening offices in countries there. The April 2010 Defense Department report on
Iran was the first U.S. government publication to say that Qods Force personnel are in Venezuela,
where their presence has “increased” in recent years. Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez has
visited Iran on several occasions, offering to engage in joint oil and gas projects.
However, many accounts say that most of the agreements between Iran and Venezuela are
agreements in principle that have not been implemented in reality. Among the arrangements
implemented are the establishment of direct air links through an obscure air service dedicated to
this route. A firm deal for Petroleos de Venezuela to supply Iran with gasoline was signed in
September 2009, apparently in a joint effort to circumvent the reduction in worldwide sales of
gasoline to Iran. About 400 Iranian engineers have reportedly been sent to Venezuela to work on
infrastructure projects there.
Africa
Sensing growing isolation, Ahmadinejad appears to be reaching out to African leaders to enlist
their support for Iran against U.S. pressure. Iran has cultivated Senegal as an ally, for example. In
April 2010, Ahmadinejad visited Uganda and Zimbabwe, even though Zimbabwe’s leader, Robert
Mugabe, has himself been heavily criticized by the international community in recent years. Still,
it is believed that African support for Iran is unlikely to outweigh its growing estrangement from
Europe and its partial abandonment by Russia and China.
Some Members of Congress are concerned that Iran is supporting radical Islamist movements in
Africa. In the 111th Congress, H.Con.Res. 16 cites Hezbollah for engaging in raising funds in
Africa by trafficking in “conflict diamonds.” Iran also might have supplied Islamists in Somalia
with anti-aircraft and anti-tank weaponry. The possible transfer of weaponry to Hamas via Sudan
was discussed above.
U.S. Policy Approaches and Additional Options
The February 11, 1979, fall of the Shah of Iran, a key U.S. ally, opened a long and deep rift in
U.S.-Iranian relations. As noted in the section on Iran’s foreign policy and support of terrorism,
U.S.-Iran differences significantly transcend the concerns over Iran’s nuclear program. The U.S.
policy focus on Iran predates the emergence of the nuclear program as a major issue, although the
nuclear issue has, according to many, made U.S. policy toward Iran more urgent. Some experts
maintain that the United States has always lacked a comprehensive and consistent strategy to
limit the Islamic regime’s regional influence and its weapons programs.
The Carter Administration sought a degree of engagement with the Islamic regime during 1979,
but it agreed to allow in the ex-Shah for medical treatment, and Iranian officials of the new
regime who engaged the United States were singled out as insufficiently loyal or revolutionary.
As a result, the U.S.-Iran estrangement began in earnest on November 4, 1979, when radical pro-
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Khomeini “students in the line of the Imam (Khomeini)” seized the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and
held its diplomats hostage until minutes after President Reagan’s inauguration on January 20,
1981. The United States broke relations with Iran on April 7, 1980 (just after the failed U.S.
military attempt to rescue the hostages), and the two countries had only limited official contact
thereafter.50 The United States tilted toward Iraq in the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq war, including U.S.
diplomatic attempts to block conventional arms sales to Iran, providing battlefield intelligence to
Iraq51 and, during 1987-1988, direct skirmishes with Iranian naval elements in the course of U.S.
efforts to protect international oil shipments in the Gulf from Iranian mines and other attacks. In
one battle on April 18, 1988 (“Operation Praying Mantis”), Iran lost about one-quarter of its
larger naval ships in a one-day engagement with the U.S. Navy, including one frigate sunk and
another badly damaged. Iran strongly disputed the U.S. assertion that the July 3, 1988, U.S.
shoot-down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the U.S.S. Vincennes over the Persian Gulf (bound for
Dubai, UAE) was an accident.
In his January 1989 inaugural speech, President George H. W. Bush laid the groundwork for a
rapprochement, saying that, in relations with Iran, “goodwill begets goodwill,” implying better
relations if Iran helped obtain the release of U.S. hostages held by Hezbollah in Lebanon. Iran
reportedly did assist in obtaining their releases, which was completed in December 1991, but no
thaw followed, possibly because Iran continued to back groups opposed to the U.S.-sponsored
Middle East peace process, a major U.S. priority.
Clinton Administration Policy
Upon taking office in 1993, the Clinton Administration moved to further isolate Iran as part of a
strategy of “dual containment” of Iran and Iraq. In 1995 and 1996, the Clinton Administration and
Congress added sanctions on Iran in response to growing concerns about Iran’s weapons of mass
destruction, its support for terrorist groups, and its efforts to subvert the Arab-Israeli peace
process. The election of Khatemi in May 1997 precipitated a U.S. shift toward engagement; the
Clinton Administration offered Iran official dialogue, with no substantive preconditions. In
January 1998, Khatemi publicly agreed to “people-to-people” U.S.-Iran exchanges as part of his
push for “dialogue of civilizations, but he ruled out direct talks. In a June 1998 speech, then
Secretary of State Albright called for mutual confidence building measures that could lead to a
“road map” for normalization. Encouraged by the reformist victory in Iran’s March 2000 Majles
elections, Secretary Albright, in a March 17, 2000, speech, acknowledged past U.S. meddling in
Iran, announcing some minor easing of the U.S. trade ban with Iran, and promised to try to
resolve outstanding claims disputes. In September 2000 U.N. “Millennium Summit” meetings,
Albright and President Clinton sent a positive signal to Iran by attending Khatemi’s speeches.
George W. Bush Administration Policy
The George W. Bush Administration policy priority was to prevent Iran from obtaining a nuclear
weapons capability, reflecting a widespread view that a nuclear Iran would be even more

50 An exception was the abortive 1985-1986 clandestine arms supply relationship with Iran in exchange for some
American hostages held by Hezbollah in Lebanon (the so-called “Iran-Contra Affair”). Iran has an interest section in
Washington, DC, under the auspices of the Embassy of Pakistan; it is staffed by Iranian-Americans. The U.S. interest
section in Tehran has no American personnel; it is under the Embassy of Switzerland.
51 Sciolino, Elaine. The Outlaw State: Saddam Hussein’s Quest for Power and the Gulf Crisis. New York: John Wiley
and Sons, 1991. p. 168.
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assertive in attempting to undermine U.S. objectives in the Middle East than it already is. The
Administration undertook multi-faceted efforts to limit Iran’s strategic capabilities through
international diplomacy and sanctions—both international sanctions as well as sanctions enforced
by its allies, outside Security Council mandate. At the same time, the Administration engaged in
bilateral diplomacy with Iran on specific priority issues, such as Afghanistan and Iraq. The policy
framework was supported by maintenance of a large U.S. conventional military capabilities in the
Persian Gulf and through U.S. alliances with Iran’s neighbors.
At times, the George W. Bush Administration considered or pursued more assertive options.
Some Administration officials, reportedly led by Vice President Cheney, believed that policy
should focus on using the leverage of possible military confrontation with Iran or on U.S. efforts
to change Iran’s regime.52 The Bush Administration’s statements that it considered Iran a great
nation and respects its history could have represented efforts to win support among Iran’s youth
who are disaffected with the Islamic regime. Such themes were prominent in speeches by
President George W. Bush such as at the Merchant Marine Academy on June 19, 2006, and his
September 18, 2006, speech to the U.N. General Assembly. Then Secretary of State Rice said in
January 2008 that the United States does not consider Iran a “permanent enemy.”
Bush Administration officials did engage Iran on specific regional priority (Afghanistan and Iraq)
and humanitarian issues, but not broadly or without some preconditions in most cases. The United
States had a dialogue with Iran on Iraq and Afghanistan from late 2001 until May 2003, when the
United States broke off the talks following the May 12, 2003, terrorist bombing in Riyadh. At that
time, the United States and Iran publicly acknowledged that they were conducting direct talks in
Geneva on those two issues,53 the first confirmed direct dialogue between the two countries since
the 1979 revolution. The United States briefly resumed some contacts with Iran in December
2003 to coordinate U.S. aid to victims of the December 2003 earthquake in Bam, Iran, including a
reported offer—rebuffed by Iran—to send a high-level delegation to Iran including Senator
Elizabeth Dole and reportedly President George W. Bush’s sister, Dorothy.
Prior to the July 2008 decision to have Under Secretary Burns attend the July 19, 2008, P5+1
nuclear negotiations with Iran, the George W. Bush Administration maintained it would join
multilateral nuclear talks, or even potentially engage in direct bilateral talks, only if Iran
suspended uranium enrichment. An amendment by then Senator Biden (adopted June 2006) to the
FY2007 defense authorization bill (P.L. 109-364) supported the Administration’s offer to join
nuclear talks with Iran.
“Grand Bargain Concept”
The George W. Bush Administration did not offer Iran an unconditional, direct U.S.-Iran bilateral
dialogue on all issues of U.S. concern: nuclear issues, Iranian support of militant movements,
involvement in Iraq, and related issues. Some argue that the issues that divide the United States
and Iran cannot be segregated, and that the key to resolving the nuclear issue is striking a “grand
bargain” on all outstanding issues.

52 Cooper, Helene and David Sanger. “Strategy on Iran Stirs New Debate at White House.” New York Times, June 16,
2007.
53 Wright, Robin. “U.S. In ‘Useful’ Talks With Iran.” Los Angeles Times, May 13, 2003.
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Some say the Administration “missed an opportunity,” saying that U.S. officials rebuffed a
reported comprehensive overture from Iran just before the May 12, 2003, Riyadh bombing, along
the lines of a so-called “grand bargain.” The Washington Post reported on February 14, 2007,
(“2003 Memo Says Iranian Leaders Backed Talks”) that the Swiss ambassador to Iran in 2003,
Tim Guldimann, had informed U.S. officials of a comprehensive Iranian proposal for talks with
the United States. However, State Department officials and some European diplomats based in
Tehran at that time question whether that proposal represented an authoritative Iranian
communication. Others argue that the offer was unrealistic because an agreement would have
required Iran to abandon key tenets of its Islamic revolution.
Overview of Obama Administration Policy
President Obama’s Administration came into office with an apparent belief that there was an
opportunity to dissuade Iran from expanding its nuclear program, and possibly to build a new
framework for relations with Iran after the decades of estrangement, suspicion, and enmity. The
Administration offered to accept Iran’s government as it is and to better integrate it into the world
economy in return for Iranian compromises on its nuclear program. This approach has influenced
the course of P5+1 deliberations among its members and between the P5+1 and Iran, as discussed
in the sections above on Iran’s nuclear program.
The first major public manifestation of President Obama’s approach to Iran policy came in his
message to the Iranian people on the occasion of Nowruz (Persian New Year), March 21, 2009.
He stated that the United States “is now committed to diplomacy that addresses the full range of
issues before us, and to pursuing constructive ties among the United States, Iran, and the
international community.” In concert with that approach, Obama Administration officials did not
indicate support for hardline options such as military action or regime change, although no option
was explicitly “taken off the table.”
Some Obama Administration officials, including Secretary of State Clinton and Secretary of
Defense Gates, well before the unrest in Iran, expressed public skepticism that engagement would
yield changes in Iran’s policies. Others, including Dennis Ross, who was named in February 2009
as an adviser to Secretary of State Clinton for “Southwest Asia” (a formulation understood to
center on Iran), and then assigned to a similar capacity in the White House in June 2009, believed
that the United States and its partners need to present Iran with clear incentives and punishments
if Iran continues to refuse cooperation on the nuclear issue.
Implementation of the Engagement Policy
Prior to the June 12 election in Iran, the steps to engage Iran included:
• Experts noted particularly, in the March 2009 Nowruz message referenced above,
the President’s reference to “The Islamic Republic of Iran,” a formulation that
appears to suggest that the United States fully accepts the Islamic revolution in
Iran and is not seeking “regime change.” (President Obama issued another
Nowruz message on March 20, 2010, but it was critical of Iran’s lack of
acceptance of the diplomatic overtures of the past year.)
• President Obama reportedly sent a letter to Iran’s leadership expressing the
Administration’s philosophy in favor of engagement with Iran. (According to
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Iran’s “Tabnak” website, which is close to the Revolutionary Guard, a second
letter was sent to Iran in August 2009.)
• The major speech to the “Muslim World” in Cairo on June 4, 2009, in which
President Obama said the United States had played a role in the overthrow of
Mossadeq, and said that Iran had a right to peaceful nuclear power if it complies
with its responsibilities under the NPT.
• The public invitation for Iran to attend the March 31, 2009, conference on
Afghanistan in the Netherlands, discussed above.
• The U.S. announcement on April 8, 2009, that it would attend all future P5+1
meetings with Iran.
• The loosening of restrictions on U.S. diplomats to meet their Iranian counterparts
at international meetings, and the message to U.S. embassies abroad that they can
invite Iranian diplomats to upcoming celebrations of U.S. Independence Day.
(The July 4, 2009, invitations did not get issued because of the Iran unrest.)
• On the other hand, President Obama issued a formal one year extension of the
U.S. ban on trade and investment with Iran on March 15, 2009 (and again on
March 15, 2010).
As noted above, the election-related unrest in Iran and Iran’s refusal to agree to technical terms of
the October 1, 2009, nuclear agreement lessened the Administration’s commitment to
engagement. President Obama has described Iran as refusing, thus far, to accept the path of
engagement and choosing instead to preserve all elements of its nuclear program. He asserted this
again in a statement following the June 9, 2010, passage of Resolution 1929, but reiterated that
the United States is open to diplomacy with Iran on its nuclear program and that further sanctions
are intended to cause Iran to bargain in good faith in those negotiations. It is possible that the
United States and Iran might meet again in October 2010 if Iran schedules formal talks with the
P5+1, as has been requested by EU foreign policy chief Baronness Catherine Ashton. U.S.
National Security Adviser James Jones said in early August 2010 that a meeting between
President Obama and Ahmadinejad during the U.N. General Assembly in September 2010 is not
ruled out, if Iran were to dramatically alter its position on the nuclear issue by then. That is
considered unlikely by most observers.
Military Action
Those who view a nuclear Iran as an unacceptable development believe that military action might
be the only means of preventing Iran from acquiring a working nuclear device. The Obama
Administration has not has not indicated an inclination toward military options against Iran’s
nuclear program, stressing instead the potential adverse consequences (Joint Chiefs Chairman
Admiral Michael Mullen) and temporary effectiveness (Secretary Gates) of such options. Perhaps
to maximize leverage in international dealings with Iran, Administration officials say no option is
“off the table,” although, on April 21, 2010, Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Michelle
Flournoy said that military action is “off the table in the near term.” Suggesting frustrations that
other options have not altered Iran’s nuclear program, it was revealed in mid-April 2010 that
Secretary of Defense Gates had written a memo to the White House in January 2010 that the
United States had not developed clear options to deal with a nuclear Iran, if sanctions do not
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work.54 This was viewed as possibly growing strength within the Administration for military
options, perhaps because of a growing perception among some experts that the Administration
might “accept” or “acquiesce to” a nuclear armed Iran. Secretary Gates subsequently issued a
formal statement saying his memo was mischaracterized as a “wake up call” to develop new
options beyond sanctions and engagement, and was only an effort to stimulate thinking about
several options, including containment in concert with the Gulf states. Still, in statements in June
and July 2010, Admiral Mullen said that it would be “incredibly dangerous” for Iran to achieve a
nuclear weapons capability, while reiterating his long-standing concerns about the adverse
consequences of a strike on Iran.
Proponents of U.S. air and missile strikes against suspected nuclear sites argue that military
action could set back Iran’s nuclear program because there are only a limited number of key
targets, and these targets are known to U.S. planners and vulnerable, even those that are hardened
or buried.55 Estimates of the target set range from 400 nuclear and other WMD-related targets, to
potentially a few thousand targets crucial to Iran’s economy and military. Those who take an
expansive view of the target set argue that the United States would need to reduce Iran’s potential
for retaliation by striking not only nuclear facilities but also Iran’s conventional military,
particularly its small ships and coastal missiles.
A U.S. ground invasion to remove Iran’s regime has not, at any time, appeared to be under serious
consideration in part because of the likely resistance an invasion would meet in Iran. This option
has also suffered from a widespread belief that U.S. action would undercut the prospects of the
Green opposition movement within Iran by rallying the public around the regime. Most U.S.
allies in Europe, not to mention Russia and China, oppose military action.
Still others argue that there are military options that do not require actual combat. Some say that a
naval embargo or related embargo is possible and could pressure Iran into reconsidering its stand
on the nuclear issue. Others say that the imposition of a “no-fly zone” over Iran might also serve
that purpose. Still others say that the United Nations could set up a special inspection mission to
dismantle Iran’s WMD programs, although inserting such a mission is likely to be resisted by Iran
and could involve hostilities.
An Israeli Strike?
Some experts express greater concern over the potential for a strategic strike on Iran by Israel as
compared to strikes by the United States. The debate over this possibility increased following the
publication by the September 2010 issue of The Atlantic magazine of an article by Jeffrey
Goldberg entitled “Point of No Return.”56 As noted in the piece, Israeli officials view a nuclear
armed Iran as an existential threat and have repeatedly refused to rule out the possibility that
Israel might strike Iran’s nuclear infrastructure. Speculation about this possibility increased in
March and April 2009 with statements by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to The
Atlantic
magazine stating that “You don’t want a messianic apocalyptic cult controlling atomic
bombs.” This and other Israeli comments generated assessments by then CENTCOM Commander

54 Sanger, David and Thom Shanker. “Gates Says U.S. Lacks Policy to Curb Iran’s Nuclear Drive.” New York Times,
April 18, 2010.
55 For an extended discussion of U.S. air strike options on Iran, see Rogers, Paul. Iran: Consequences Of a War. Oxford
Research Group, February 2006.
56 The text is at: http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2010/09/the-point-of-no-return/8186/
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General Petraeus that Israel has become so frightened by a prospect of a nuclear Iran that it might
decide to launch a strike on Iran’s nuclear facilities. Adding to the prospects for this scenario, in
mid-June 2008, Israeli officials confirmed reports that Israel had practiced a long-range strike
such as that which would be required. Taking a position similar to that of the George W. Bush
Administration, senior U.S. officials have visited Israel throughout 2010 (including Vice
President Biden in March 2010) in part to express the view that the Obama Administration is
committed to strict sanctions on Iran—with the implication that Israeli military action should not
be undertaken. Others say that the United States, as of August 2010, is using assessments that
Iran’s nuclear program is not as far along as was feared to calm Israeli fears.
Although Israeli strategists say this might be a viable option, several experts doubt that Israel has
the capability to make such action sufficiently effective to justify the risks. U.S. military leaders
are said by observers to believe that an Israeli strike would inevitably draw the United States into
a conflict with Iran but without the degree of planning that would be needed for success. Others
believe Israel may also calculate that a strike would hurt the Green movement’s prospects.
Iranian Retaliatory Scenarios57
Some officials and experts warn that a U.S. military strike on Iran could provoke conventional or,
of even more concern, unconventional retaliation. As Iran sees and hears growing consideration
of such possibilities, Iran’s military leaders have, in mid-2010, stressed its willingness and ability
to retaliate in the Gulf and cause the West economic difficulty. Iran has repeatedly stated it is
capable of closing the Strait of Hormuz and would do so, if attacked. Such conflict is likely to
raise world oil prices significantly out of fear of an extended supply disruption. Others say such
action would cause Iran to withdraw from the NPT and refuse any IAEA inspections.
Iran has developed a strategy for unconventional warfare that partly compensates for its
conventional weakness. Then CENTCOM Commander General John Abizaid said in March 2006
that the Revolutionary Guard Navy, through its basing and force structure, is designed to give
Iran a capability to “internationalize” a crisis in the Strait of Hormuz. On January 30, 2007, his
replacement at CENTCOM, Admiral William Fallon, said that “Based on my read of their
military hardware acquisitions and development of tactics ... [the Iranians] are posturing
themselves with the capability to attempt to deny us the ability to operate in [the Strait of
Hormuz].” (General David Petraeus became CENTCOM commander in September 2008.) In July
2008 Iran again claimed it could close the Strait in a crisis but the then commander of U.S. naval
forces in the Gulf, Admiral Kevin Cosgriff, backed by Joint Chiefs Chairman Mullen, said U.S.
forces could quickly reopen the waterway. Some of these comments appear to be based on Iran’s
reported planning to use swarms of small boats and other unconventional naval craft to attack
U.S. ships or attack shipping in the Gulf.
Iran has tried repeatedly to demonstrate its retaliatory capacity. Iran has conducted at least five
major military exercises since August 2006, including exercises simultaneous with U.S. exercises
in the Gulf in March 2007. In early 2007, Iranian ships were widening their patrols, coming ever
closer to key Iraqi oil platforms in the Gulf. In February 2007, Iran seized 15 British sailors that
Iran said were patrolling in Iran’s waters, although Britain says they were in Iraqi waters
performing coalition-related searches. They were held until April 5, 2007. On January 6, 2008,

57 See also, Washington Institute for Near East Policy. “The Last Resort: Consequences of Preventive Military Action
Against Iran,” by Patrick Clawson and Michael Eisenstadt. June 2008.
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the U.S. Navy reported a confrontation in which five IRGC Navy small boats approached three
U.S. Navy ships to the point where they manned battle stations. The IRGC boats veered off
before any shots were fired. In October 2008, Iran announced it is building several new naval
bases along the southern coast, including at Jask, indicating enhanced capability to threaten the
entry and exit to the Strait of Hormuz. In late November 2009, Iran seized and held for about one
week a British civilian sailing vessel and crew that Iran said had strayed into its waters.
Unclassified studies by the Office of Naval Intelligence have said that Iran has developed new
capabilities and tactics, backed by new acquisitions, that could pose a threat to U.S. naval forces
in the Gulf. If there were a conflict in the Gulf, some fear that Iran might try to use large numbers
of boats to attack U.S. ships, or to lay mines, in the Strait. In April 2006, Iran conducted naval
maneuvers, including test firings of what Iran claims are underwater torpedoes that can avoid
detection, presumably for use against U.S. ships in the Gulf, and a surface-to-sea radar-evading
missile launched from helicopters or combat aircraft. U.S. military officials said the claims might
be an exaggeration.
Many experts view as potentially more significant the potential for Iran to fire missiles at Israel—
and Iran’s July 2008 missile tests could have been intended to demonstrate this retaliatory
capability—or to direct Lebanese Hezbollah or Hamas to fire rockets at Israel. Iran could also try
to direct anti-U.S. militias in Iraq and Afghanistan to attack U.S. troops. The Gulf states fear that
Iran will fire coastal-based cruise missiles at their oil loading or other installations across the
Gulf, as happened during the Iran-Iraq war.
Containment and the Gulf Security Dialogue
Some advocate a strategy of containment of Iran, either to dissuade Iran from pursuing a nuclear
weapon or to constrain Iranian power if that capability is achieved. Stimulating support for this
option may have been the intent of the Gates memo in January 2010, discussed above. A military
containment component of George W. Bush Administration policy was signaled in the January
10, 2007, Iraq “troop surge” statement by President George W. Bush. In that statement, he
announced that the United States was sending a second U.S. aircraft carrier group into the Gulf,58
extending deployment of Patriot anti-missile batteries in the Gulf, reportedly in Kuwait and Qatar,
and increasing intelligence sharing with the Gulf states. Secretary of Defense Gates said at the
time that he saw the U.S. buildup as building leverage against Iran that could bolster diplomacy.
The U.S. Gulf deployments built on a containment strategy inaugurated in mid-2006 by the State
Department, primarily the Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (“Pol-Mil”). It was termed the
“Gulf Security Dialogue” (GSD), and represented an effort to revive some of the U.S.-Gulf state
defense cooperation that had begun during the Clinton Administration but had since languished as
the United States focused on the post-September 11 wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.
The Obama Administration is continuing the GSD effort. During a visit to the Middle East in
March 2009, Secretary of State Clinton said, after meeting with several Arab and Israeli leaders in
the region, that “there is a great deal of concern about Iran from this whole region.” Iran was also
the focus of her trip to the Gulf region (Qatar and Saudi Arabia) in February 2010. On this trip,
she again raised the issue of a possible U.S. extension of a “security umbrella” or guarantee to

58 Shanker, Thom. “U.S. and Britain to Add Ships to Persian Gulf in Signal to Iran,” New York Times, December 21,
2006.
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regional states against Iran, as a means of preventing Gulf accommodations to Iranian demands or
attempting themselves to acquire countervailing nuclear capabilities.
One goal of the GSD, kept in place by the Obama Administration, is to boost Gulf state
capabilities through new arms sales to the GCC states. The emphasis of the sales is to improve
Gulf state missile defense capabilities, for example by sales of the upgraded Patriot Advanced
Capability-3 (PAC-3),59 as well as to improve border and maritime security equipment through
sales of combat littoral ships, radar systems, and communications gear. Several GSD-inspired
sales include PAC-3 sales to UAE and Kuwait, and Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAMs) to
Saudi Arabia and UAE (notified to Congress in December 2007 and January 2008). A sale to
UAE of the very advanced “THAAD” (Theater High Altitude Area Defense) has also been
notified, and the sale is expected to be finalized some time in 2010. In August 2010, the
Administration notified to Congress a potential sale of additional Patriot missiles to Kuwait.
The containment policy may have been furthered somewhat in May 2009 when France
inaugurated a small military base in UAE, its first in the region. This signaled that France is
committed to helping contain Iran.
Presidential Authorities and Legislation
A decision to take military action might raise the question of presidential authorities. In the 109th
Congress, H.Con.Res. 391, introduced on April 26, 2006, called on the President to not initiate
military action against Iran without first obtaining authorization from Congress. A similar bill,
H.Con.Res. 33, was introduced in the 110th Congress. An amendment to H.R. 1585, the National
Defense Authorization Act for FY2008, requiring authorization for force against Iran, was
defeated 136 to 288. A provision that sought to bar the Administration from taking military action
against Iran without congressional authorization was taken out of an early draft of an FY2007
supplemental appropriation (H.R. 1591) to fund additional costs for Iraq and Afghanistan combat
(vetoed on May 1, 2007). Other provisions, including requiring briefings to Congress about
military contingency planning related to Iran’s nuclear program, was in a House-passed FY2009
defense authorization bill (H.R. 5658). In the 111th Congress, H.Con.Res. 94 calls for the United
States to negotiate an “Incidents at Sea” agreement with Iran.
Regime Change
The Obama Administration has, particularly in its first year, sought to allay Iran’s long-standing
suspicions that the main U.S. goal is to unseat the Islamic regime in Iran. U.S. statements,
including the 2009 Nowruz message discussed above, were intended to reinforce that perception
in Iran. However, the continuing unrest in Iran has complicated Iran policy for President Obama,
who has sought to preserve the possibility of a nuclear agreement with Iran while expressing
support for human and political rights demanded by the Green movement. As 2009 progressed,
the statements of President Obama and other U.S. officials became progressively more critical of
the regime. On December 28, 2009, President Obama shifted toward public support for the
opposition outright by saying, in regard to the unrest in Iran, “Along with all free nations, the
United States stands with those who seek their universal rights.”60 In 2010, the Administration has

59 “New Persian Gulf Security Effort Expected to Fuel Arms Sales in FY-07.” Inside the Pentagon, November 9, 2006.
60 White House, Office of the Press Secretary. “Statement by the President on the Attempted Attack on Christmas Day
(continued...)
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taken some steps to help the Green movement avoid regime efforts to monitor or cut off its
communications with itself and the international community. These steps, according to the
Administration, stop short of constituting a policy of “regime change,” although Iran interprets
any help to the Green movement as evidence of U.S. intent to overthrow the clerical government.
Iran’s suspicions are based on the widespread perception that the United States has hoped, and at
times sought to promote, regime change since the 1979 Islamic revolution. The United States
provided some funding to anti-regime groups, mainly pro-monarchists, during the 1980s.61 The
George W. Bush Administration’s belief in this option became apparent after the September 11,
2001, attacks, when President George W. Bush described Iran as part of an “axis of evil” in his
January 2002 State of the Union message. President George W. Bush’s second inaugural address
(January 20, 2005) and his State of the Union messages of January 31, 2006, stated that “our
nation hopes one day to be the closest of friends with a free and democratic Iran.”
Democracy Promotion Efforts
Clear indications of affinity for a regime change option in the George W. Bush Administration
included the funding of Iranian pro-democracy activists (see below), although that Administration
said that the democracy promotion programs were intended to promote political evolution in Iran
and change regime behavior, not to overthrow the regime. A few accounts, such as “Preparing the
Battlefield” by Seymour Hersh in the New Yorker (July 7 and 14, 2008) say that President George
W. Bush authorized U.S. covert operations to destabilize the regime,62 involving assistance to
some of the ethnic-based armed groups discussed above. CRS has no way to confirm assertions in
the Hersh article that up to $400 million was appropriated and/or used to aid the groups
mentioned.
Binding legislation to favor democracy promotion in Iran was enacted in the 109th Congress. The
Iran Freedom Support Act (P.L. 109-293), signed September 30, 2006. It authorized funds (no
specific dollar amount) for Iran democracy promotion and modified the Iran Sanctions Act.63 Iran
asserts that funding democracy promotion represents a violation of the 1981 “Algiers Accords”
that settled the Iran hostage crisis and provide for non-interference in each others’ internal affairs.
The State Department, the implementer of U.S. democracy promotion programs for Iran, has used
funds in appropriations (see Table 8 below) to support pro-democracy programs run by at least 26
organizations based in the United States and in Europe; the Department refuses to name grantees
for security reasons. The funds shown below have been obligated through DRL and the Bureau of

(...continued)
and Recent Violence in Iran.” December 28, 2009.
61 CRS conversations with U.S. officials responsible for Iran policy. 1980-1990. After a period of suspension of such
assistance, in 1995, the Clinton Administration accepted a House-Senate conference agreement to include $18-$20
million in funding authority for covert operations against Iran in the FY1996 Intelligence Authorization Act (H.R.
1655, P.L. 104-93), according to a Washington Post report of December 22, 1995. The Clinton Administration
reportedly focused the covert aid on changing the regime’s behavior, rather than its overthrow.
62 Ross, Brian and Richard Esposito. Bush Authorizes New Covert Action Against Iran. http://blogs.abcnews.com/
theblotter/2007/05/bush_authorizes.html.
63 This legislation was a modification of H.R. 282, which passed the House on April 26, 2006, by
a vote of 397-21, and S. 333, which was introduced in the Senate.
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Near Eastern Affairs in partnership with USAID. About $60 million has been allocated. Some of
the funds have been appropriated for cultural exchanges, public diplomacy, and broadcasting to
Iran. The Obama Administration requested funds for Near East regional democracy programs in
its FY2010 and FY2011 budget requests, but no specific requests for funds for Iran were
delineated. No U.S. assistance has been provided to Iranian exile-run stations. 64
Many have consistently questioned the effectiveness of such funding. In the view of many
experts, U.S. funds would make the aid recipients less attractive to most Iranians. Even before the
post-election crackdown, Iran was arresting civil society activists by alleging they are accepting
the U.S. democracy promotion funds, while others have refused to participate in U.S.-funded
programs, fearing arrest.65 In May 2007—Iranian-American scholar Haleh Esfandiari, of the
Woodrow Wilson Center in Washington, DC, was imprisoned for several months, on the grounds
that the Wilson Center was part of this effort. The center has denied being part of the democracy
promotion effort in Iran.
The Obama Administration has not discontinued the democracy promotion funding, but it has
made the programs perhaps less threatening to the regime by shifting the funding toward working
directly with Iranians inside Iran who are organized around such apolitical issues as health care,
the environment, and science.66 Less emphasis has been placed on funding journalists and human
rights activists in Iran, or on sponsoring visits by Iranians to the United States.67 One issue arose
concerning the State Department decision in late 2009 not to renew a contract to the Iran Human
Rights Documentation Center (IHRDC), based at Yale University, which was cataloguing human
rights abuses in Iran. Some outside experts believe that, particularly in the current context of a
regime crackdown against democracy activists, the contract should have been renewed. That
criticism went hand in hand with the view of some experts that the post-election unrest in Iran
was evidence that such democracy promotion programs were working and should be enhanced.
Other Congressional Action to Assist the Green Movement
More emphasis has been placed on preventing the Iranian government’s suppression of electronic
communication. Among legislation that has been enacted is the “Voice (Victims of Iranian
Censorship) Act” (Subtitle D of the FY2010 Defense Authorization, P.L. 111-84), which contains
provisions to potentially penalize companies that are selling Iran technology equipment that it can
use to suppress or monitor the Internet usage of Iranians.68 In February 2010, the Administration
eased licensing requirements for Iranians to download free mass market U.S. software. And, the
U.S. Office of Foreign Assets Control has reportedly licensed a California firm (Censorship
Research Center) to export anti-filtering software to Iran.69 Several provisions of the

64 The conference report on the FY2006 regular foreign aid appropriations, P.L. 109-102, stated the sense of Congress
that such support should be considered.
65 Three other Iranian Americans were arrested and accused by the Intelligence Ministry of actions contrary to national
security in May 2007: U.S. funded broadcast (Radio Farda) journalist Parnaz Azima (who was not in jail but was not
allowed to leave Iran); Kian Tajbacksh of the Open Society Institute funded by George Soros; and businessman and
peace activist Ali Shakeri. Several congressional resolutions called on Iran to release Esfandiari (S.Res. 214 agreed to
by the Senate on May 24; H.Res. 430, passed by the House on June 5; and S.Res. 199). All were released by October
2007. Tajbacksh was rearrested in September 2009 and remains incarcerated.
66 CRS conversation with U.S. officials of the “Iran Office” of the U.S. Consulate in Dubai. October 2009.
67 Solomon, Jay. “U.S. Shifts Its Strategy Toward Iran’s Dissidents.” Wall Street Journal, June 11, 2010.
68 For more discussion of such legislation, see CRS Report RS20871, Iran Sanctions.
69 Ibid.
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Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-195, signed
July 1, 2010) are designed to prevent suppression of information : one provision excludes from
the ban on U.S. exports to Iran equipment to promote Internet communication; another provision
prohibits U.S. contracts for any firm that exports to Iran equipment that Iran could use to monitor
or restrict the free flow of information. Another provision bans travel to the United States and
freezes the U.S.-based assets of any Iranian named by the Administration as an abuser of human
rights.
Some in Congress want to promote a policy of outright support for the Green movement. Other
such legislative initiatives to sanction the repressive apparatus of the regime (S. 3022), and to
express outright U.S. support for the overthrow of the regime (The Iran Democratic Transition
Act, S. 3008) were introduced on February 11, 2010. Some of these measures might be included
in conference action on H.R. 2194, legislation that would primarily sanction firms that help Iran
meet its needs for gasoline. Several European countries, such as France, Britain, and Germany,
have been even more critical of Iran’s crackdown than the United States has been.
Broadcasting Issues
Another part of the democracy promotion effort has been the development of new U.S.
broadcasting services to Iran. The broadcasting component of policy has been an extension of a
trend that began in the late 1990s. Radio Farda (“tomorrow,” in Farsi) began under Radio Free
Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL), in partnership with the Voice of America (VOA), in October
1998. The service was established with an initial $4 million from the FY1998
Commerce/State/Justice appropriation (P.L. 105-119). (It was to be called Radio Free Iran but
was never formally given that name by RFE/RL.) Radio Farda now broadcasts 24 hours/day. The
State Department also has begun a Persian-language website.
Persian News Network (PNN). VOA-TV’s Persian News Network (PNN) began on July 3, 2003,
and now is broadcasting to Iran about 12 hours a day. VOA Persian services combined cost about
$10 million per year. PNN is coming under increasing criticism from observers who say that
PNN is losing its audience among young, educated Iranians who form the core of the Green
movement and are looking for signs of U.S. official support. Some observers maintain that
decisions on who to put on PNN panel discussion shows are made by a small group of Iranian
exiles who do not seek the replacement of the Iranian regime and who deliberately exclude
certain Green movement persons with whom they disagree. Still others say that PNN frequently
airs the views of Iranian groups that are advocates of U.S. engagement of the regime or who
downplay regime transgressions. Some have criticized PNN for covering long-standing exiled
opposition groups, such as supporters of the son of the former Shah of Iran.70

70 CRS conversations with Iranian members of the Green movement. December 2009- August 2010.
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Table 8. Iran Democracy Promotion Funding
FY2004
Foreign operations appropriation (P.L. 108-199) earmarked $1.5 million for “educational, humanitarian
and non-governmental organizations and individuals inside Iran to support the advancement of
democracy and human rights in Iran.” The State Department Bureau of Democracy and Labor (DRL)
gave $1 million to a unit of Yale University, and $500,000 to National Endowment for Democracy.
FY2005 $3
million from FY2005 foreign aid appropriation (P.L. 108-447) for democracy promotion. Priority
areas: political party development, media, labor rights, civil society promotion, and human rights.
FY2006
$11.15 for democracy promotion from regular FY2006 foreign aid appropriation (P.L. 109-102). $4.15
million administered by DRL and $7 million for the Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs.
FY2006
Total of $66.1 million (of $75 million requested) from FY2006 supplemental (P.L. 109-234): $20
supp.
million for democracy promotion; $5 million for public diplomacy directed at the Iranian population;
$5 million for cultural exchanges; and $36.1 million for Voice of America-TV and “Radio Farda
broadcasting. Broadcasting funds are provided through the Broadcasting Board of Governors.
FY2007
FY2007 continuing resolution provided $6.55 million for Iran (and Syria) to be administered through
DRL. $3.04 million was used for Iran. No funds were requested.
FY2008
$60 million (of $75 million requested) is contained in Consolidated Appropriation (H.R. 2764, P.L. 110-
161), of which, according to the conference report $21.6 million is ESF for pro-democracy programs,
including non-violent efforts to oppose Iran’s meddling in other countries. $7.9 million is from a
“Democracy Fund” for use by DRL. The Appropriation also fully funded additional $33.6 million
requested for Iran broadcasting: $20 million for VOA Persian service; and $8.1 million for Radio Farda;
and $5.5 million for exchanges with Iran.
FY2009
Request was for $65 million in ESF “to support the aspirations of the Iranian people for a democratic
and open society by promoting civil society, civic participation, media freedom, and freedom of
information.” H.R. 1105 (P.L. 111-8) provides $25 million for democracy promotion programs in the
region, including in Iran.
FY2010
No specific democracy promotion request for Iran, but some funds (out of $40 million requested for
Near East democracy programs) likely to fund continued human rights research and public diplomacy
in Iran.
FY2011
No specific request for Iran, but $40 million requested for Near East democracy programs
Source: Information provided by State Department and reviewed by Department’s Iran Office, February
1, 2010.

Enhanced Iran-Focused Regional Diplomatic Presence
In 2006, the George W. Bush Administration also began increasing the presence of Persian-
speaking U.S. diplomats in U.S. diplomatic missions around Iran, in part to help identify and
facilitate Iranian participate in U.S. democracy-promotion programs. The Iran unit at the U.S.
consulate in Dubai has been enlarged significantly into a “regional presence” office, and “Iran-
watcher” positions have been added to U.S. diplomatic facilities in Baku, Azerbaijan; Istanbul,
Turkey; Frankfurt, Germany; London; and Ashkabad, Turkmenistan, all of which have large
expatriate Iranian populations and/or proximity to Iran.71 An enlarged (eight-person) “Office of
Iran Affairs” has been formed at State Department, and it is reportedly engaged in contacts with
U.S.-based exile groups such as those discussed earlier.

71 Stockman, Farah. “‘Long Struggle’ With Iran Seen Ahead.” Boston Globe, March 9, 2006.
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Enhanced U.S. Interests Section
Some go further and say that the United States should staff the U.S. interests section in Tehran
with U.S. personnel, who would mostly process Iranian visas and help facilitate U.S.-Iran people-
to-people contacts (the interests section is currently under the auspices of the Swiss Embassy).
U.S. staffing was considered by the George W. Bush Administration in late 2008, but the decision
was left to the Obama Administration. The Obama Administration appeared inclined toward U.S.
staffing, but no decision was announced. Such a step was likely delayed or derailed outright by
the Iranian response to the postelection protests. However, some observers say that there are State
Department officials who see U.S. staffing as a way to broaden U.S. contacts with representatives
of the Green movement and more accurately gauge its strength.
U.S. Sanctions
As discussed above, a number of additional U.N. sanctions might come under consideration if
Iran continues to refuse acceptable compromise. Additional U.S. and EU sanctions also are
possible. The following are brief summaries of the major U.S. sanctions currently in place against
Iran. These sanctions, as well as the economic effects of U.S. and other sanctions in place, are
discussed in substantially more detail in CRS Report RS20871, Iran Sanctions, by Kenneth
Katzman. That report also discusses, in detail the alterations to many different U.S. sanctions
provided for by P.L. 111-195, the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment
Act of 2010, signed July 1, 2010.
Ban on U.S. Trade With and Investment in Iran
Executive Order 12959 (May 6, 1995) bans almost all U.S. trade with and investment in Iran.
Modifications in 1999 and 2000 allowed for exportation of U.S. food and medical equipment, and
importation from Iran of luxury goods (carpets, caviar, dried fruits, nuts), but P.L. 111-195
restores the complete ban on imports from Iran (and regulations to that effect were issued by
OFAC in August 2010). The trade ban does not apply to foreign subsidiaries of U.S. firms,
because those firms are governed by the laws of the country where they are incorporated.
U.S. Sanctions Against Foreign Firms that Invest in Iran’s Energy Sector
The Iran Sanctions Act (P.L. 104-172, August 5, 1996, as amended, most recently by P.L. 111-
195) authorizes the President to select three out of a menu of nine sanctions to impose against
firms that the Administration has determined have invested more than $20 million to develop
Iran’s petroleum (oil and gas) sector, or which sell Iran more than $1 million worth of gasoline or
equipment to import gasoline or refine oil into gasoline.
Targeted Financial Measures by Treasury Department
U.S. officials, particularly Under Secretary of the Treasury Stuart Levey (who has remained in the
Obama Administration), say the United States is having substantial success in separate unilateral
efforts (“targeted financial measures”) to persuade European governments and companies to stop
transactions with Iran. They assert to these countries and firms that doing so entails financial risk
and furthers terrorism and proliferation.
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Terrorism List Designation Sanctions
Iran’s designation by the Secretary of State as a “state sponsor of terrorism” (January 19, 1984—
commonly referred to as the “terrorism list”) triggers several sanctions, including the following:
• a ban on the provision of U.S. foreign assistance to Iran under Section 620A of
the Foreign Assistance Act. The aid restriction does not apply to such purely
humanitarian assistance as disaster relief, and some U.S. relief aid was provided
to Iran following several recent earthquake disasters.
• a ban on arms exports to Iran under Section 40 of the Arms Export Control Act
(P.L. 95-92, as amended). However, Iran is already subject to a sweeping
restriction on any trade with the United States under the Executive Order 12959
mentioned above.
• under Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act (P.L. 96-72, as amended), a
significant restriction—amended by other laws to a “presumption of denial”—on
U.S. exports to Iran of items that could have military applications.
• under Section 327 of the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (P.L.
104-132, April 24, 1996), a requirement that U.S. representatives to international
financial institutions, such as the World Bank, vote against international loans to
Iran (and other terrorism list states, by those institutions. The U.S. “no” vote does
not, in and of itself, ensure that Iran would not receive such loans, because the
U.S. representative can be and often is outvoted by other governments.
Sanctions Against Foreign Firms that Aid Iran’s Weapons of Mass
Destruction Programs

The Iran-Syria-North Korea Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 106-178, March 14, 2000, as amended)
authorizes the Administration to impose sanctions on foreign persons or firms determined, under
the act, to have provided assistance to Iran’s weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs.
Sanctions to be imposed include restrictions on U.S. trade with the sanctioned entity.
Sanctions Against Foreign Firms that Sell Advanced Arms to Iran
The Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 102-484, October 23, 1992, as amended) provides
for U.S. sanctions against foreign firms that sell Iran “destabilizing numbers and types of
conventional weapons” or WMD technology. Some experts criticized the act for the lack of a
clear definition of what constitutes a “destabilizing number or type” of conventional weapon.
Ban on Transactions With Foreign Entities Determined to Be Supporting
International Terrorism

Executive Order 13324 (September 23, 2001) authorizes a ban on U.S. transactions with entities
determined, in accordance with the Order, to be supporting international terrorism. The Order was
not specific to Iran, coming 12 days after the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States,
but several Iranian entities have been designated as terrorism supporters. These entities include
the Qods Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), as well as Bank Saderat.
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Ban on Transactions With Foreign Entities that Support Proliferation
Executive Order 13382 (June 28, 2005) amended previous executive orders to provide for a ban
on U.S. transactions with entities determined, under the Order, to be supporting international
proliferation. As is the case for Executive Order 13324, mentioned above, Executive Order 13382
was not specific to Iran. However, numerous Iranian entities, including the IRGC itself, have
been designated as proliferation supporting entities under the Order.
Divestment
A growing trend not only in Congress but in several states is to require or call for or require
divestment of shares of firms that have invested in Iran’s energy sector (at the same levels
considered sanctionable under the Iran Sanctions Act).72 A Title in P.L. 111-195 that would
authorize and protect divestment.
Counter-Narcotics
In February 1987, Iran was first designated as a state that failed to cooperate with U.S. anti-drug
efforts or take adequate steps to control narcotics production or trafficking. U.S. and U.N. Drug
Control Program (UNDCP) assessments of drug production in Iran prompted the Clinton
Administration, on December 7, 1998, to remove Iran from the U.S. list of major drug producing
countries. This exempts Iran from the annual certification process that kept drug-related U.S.
sanctions in place on Iran. According to several governments, over the past few years Iran has
augmented security on its border with Afghanistan in part to prevent the flow of narcotics from
that country into Iran. Britain has sold Iran some night vision equipment and body armor for the
counter-narcotics fight. The United States and Iran were in large measure in agreement during a
March 8, 2010, meeting at the United Nations in Geneva on the issue of counter-narcotics,
particularly those emanating from Afghanistan.
U.S.-Iran Assets Disputes
Iranian leaders continue to assert that the United States is holding Iranian assets, and that this is
an impediment to improved relations. This is discussed in CRS Report RS20871, Iran Sanctions,
by Kenneth Katzman.
Travel-Related Guidance
Use of U.S. passports for travel to Iran is permitted. Iranians entering the United States are
required to be fingerprinted, and Iran has imposed reciprocal requirements. In May 2007, the
State Department increased its warnings about U.S. travel to Iran, based largely on the arrests of
the dual Iranian-American nationals discussed earlier.

72 For information on the steps taken by individual states, see National Conference of State Legislatures. State
Divestment Legislation.
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Conclusion
Mistrust between the United States and Iran’s Islamic regime has run deep for almost three
decades. Some argue that, no matter who is in power in Tehran, the United States and Iran have a
common long-term interest in stability in the Persian Gulf and South Asia regions. According to
this view, major diplomatic overtures toward the regime might not only help resolve the nuclear
issue but yield fruit in producing a new, constructive U.S.-Iran relationship.
Others argue that U.S. concerns stem first and foremost from the character of Iran’s regime.
Those who take this view see in the Green movement the potential to replace the regime and to
integrate Iran into a pro-U.S. strategic architecture in the region. Many argue that a wholesale
replacement of the current regime would produce major strategic benefits beyond reducing the
threat from Iran’s nuclear program, including an end to Iran’s effort to obstruct a broad Arab-
Israeli peace.
Others argue that many Iranians are united on major national security issues and that a new
regime would not necessarily align with the United States. Some believe that many Iranians fear
that alignment with the United States would produce a degree of U.S. control and infuse Iran with
Western culture that many Iranians find un-Islamic and objectionable.

Table 9. Selected Economic Indicators
Economic Growth
6.4% (2008 est.)
Per Capita Income
$13,100/yr purchasing power parity
GDP
$865
billion purchasing power parity (2009)
Proven Oil Reserves
135 billion barrels (highest after Russia and Canada)
Oil
4.0 million barrels per day (mbd)/ 2.4 mbd exports. Exports could shrink to zero by
Production/Exports
2015-2020 due to accelerating domestic consumption.
Major Oil/Gas
China—300,00 barrels per day (bpd); about 4% of China’s oil imports; Japan—600,000
Customers
bpd, about 12% of oil imports; other Asia (mainly South Korea)—450,000 bpd; Italy—
300,000 bpd; France—210,000 bpd; Netherlands 40,000 bpd; other Europe—200,000
bpd; India—150,000 bpd (10% of its oil imports; Africa—200,000 bpd. Turkey—gas: 8.6
billion cubic meters/yr
Refined Gasoline
Imports were $5 billion value per year in 2006, but now about $4 billion per year after
Import/ Suppliers
rationing. Traders and suppliers include Vitol (Switzerland), which supplies about 30% of
Iran’s gasoline; Total (France); Trafigura (Switzerland/Nethelands); Reliance Energy (India,
Jamnagar refinery); Russia’s Lukoil; Kuwait, UAE, Turkey, Venezuela (Petroleos de
Venezuela), Singapore, the Netherlands, China, Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan. Iran
planning at least eight new or upgrade refinery projects to expand capacity to about 3
million barrels per day from 1.5 mbd.
Major Export
Japan ($9.9 billion); China ($9.2 billion); Turkey ($5.1 billion); Italy ($4.45 billion); South
Markets (2006)
Korea ($4 billion); Netherlands ($3.2 billion); France ($2.7 billion); South Africa ($2.7
billion); Spain ($2.3 billion); Greece ($2 billion)
Major Imports (2006) Germany ($5.6 billion); China ($5 billion); UAE ($4 billion); S. Korea ($2.9 billion); France
($2.6 billion); Italy ($2.5 billion); Russia ($1.7 billion); India ($1.6 billion); Brazil ($1.3
billion); Japan ($1.3 billion).
Major Non-Oil
Renault (France) and Mercedes (Germany)—automobile production in Karaj, Iran—
valued at $370 million; Renault (France), Peugeot (France) and Volkswagen (Germany)—
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Economic Growth
6.4% (2008 est.)
Investments
auto parts production; Turkey—Tehran airport, hotels; China—shipbuilding on Qeshm
Island, aluminum factory in Shirvan, cement plant in Hamadan; UAE financing Esfahan Steel
Company; India—steel plant, petrochemical plant; S. Korea—steel plant in Kerman
Province; S. Korea and Germany—$1.7 billion to expand Esfahan refinery.
Trade With U.S.
$785 million (trade is severely restricted by U.S. sanctions). Exports to U.S.—$102
(2008)
million (pomegranate juice, caviar, pistachio nuts, carpets, medicines, artwork). Imports
from U.S.—$683 million (wheat: $535 million; medicines, tobacco products, seeds).
“Oil Stabilization
$12.1 billion (August 2008, IMF estimate). Mid-2009 estimates by experts say it may have
Fund” Reserves
now been reduced to nearly zero.
External Debt
$19 billion (2007 est.)
Development
2003 (latest available): $136 million grant aid. Biggest donors: Germany ($38 million);
Assistance Received
Japan ($17 million); France ($9 million).
Inflation
15% + (May 2009), according to Iranian officials.
Unemployment Rate
11%+
Sources: CIA, The World Factbook; various press; IMF; Iran Trade Planning Division; CRS conversations with
experts and foreign diplomats.
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Figure 1. Structure of the Iranian Government

Source: Click and type sources
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Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses


Figure 2. Map of Iran

Source: Map Resources. Adapted by CRS (April 2005).

Author Contact Information
Kenneth Katzman
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
kkatzman@crs.loc.gov, 7-7612

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