Rwanda: Background and Current
Developments
Ted Dagne
Specialist in African Affairs
August 3, 2010
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R40115
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress
Rwanda: Background and Current Developments
Summary
In 2003, Rwanda held its first multi-party presidential and parliamentary elections in decades.
President Paul Kagame of the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) won 95% of the votes cast, while his
nearest rival, Faustin Twagiramungu, received 3.6% of the votes cast. In the legislative elections,
the ruling RPF won 73% in the 80-seat National Assembly, while the remaining seats went to
RPF allies and former coalition partners. In September 2008, Rwanda held legislative elections,
and the RPF won a majority of the seats. Rwandese women are now the majority in the National
Assembly. In October 2008, the National Assembly elected Ms. Mukantabam Rose as the first
female speaker of the Assembly. The next presidential elections are scheduled for August 9, 2010.
In Rwanda, events of a prior decade are still fresh in the minds of many survivors and
perpetrators. In 1993, after several failed efforts, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and the
government of Rwanda reached an agreement in Tanzania, referred to as the Arusha Peace
Accords. The RPF joined the Rwandan government as called for in the agreement. In April 1994,
the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi, along with several senior government officials, were
killed when their plane was shot down as it approached the capital of Rwanda, Kigali. Shortly
after, the Rwandan military and a Hutu militia known as the Interhamwe began to systematically
massacre Tutsis and moderate Hutu opposition members. In the first 10 weeks of the Rwandan
genocide, an estimated 1 million people, mostly Tutsis, were slaughtered by government forces
and the Interhamwe militia. In July 1994, the RPF took over power and later formed a coalition
government.
In late 2008, the governments of Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) agreed
on a wide range of issues. The two governments agreed to launch a joint military offensive
against the National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People (CNDP) and the
Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR). They also agreed to restore full
diplomatic relations and to activate economic cooperation. In January 2009, Rwanda and Congo
launched the joint military operation in eastern Congo. In late February 2009, Rwandese troops
pulled out of Congo as part of the agreement with the Kabila government. In October 2009,
Ugandan authorities arrested a top genocide suspect, Idelphonse Nizeyimana. He was later
transferred to Tanzania to stand trial at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.
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Rwanda: Background and Current Developments
Contents
Recent Developments.................................................................................................................. 1
Rwanda: Background .................................................................................................................. 2
Political Conditions............................................................................................................... 3
Human Rights Conditions ........................................................................................................... 4
Economic Conditions .................................................................................................................. 5
Rwanda in Congo and Regional Issues ........................................................................................ 5
Recent Developments............................................................................................................ 6
U.S.-Rwanda Relations ............................................................................................................... 7
Contacts
Author Contact Information ........................................................................................................ 7
Congressional Research Service
Rwanda: Background and Current Developments
Recent Developments
In early June 2010, Peter Erlinder, a professor at the William Mitchell College of Law and a
defense lawyer at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), was arrested in
Rwanda for denying the 1994 genocide. Professor Erlinder claims that he is being targeted by the
Rwandan government because of his work at the ICTR. Rwandan authorities assert that he is
being investigated for his activities outside his ICTR work. Erlinder claims that he went to
Rwanda to represent opposition leader Victoire Ingabire, although there is no evidence that he
was asked by Ingabire to represent her in court, nor did he ask permission from the Rwandan Bar
Association, which is a requirement by law. Professor Erlinder informed the U.S. embassy about
his presence in Rwanda and his desire to leave within a few days. Shortly after his arrest, Erlinder
began to complain about health issues, and reportedly tried to kill himself by swallowing
prescription drugs. He was visited by embassy officials routinely while in detention, and provided
medical care by Rwandan doctors. In late June, the Rwandan High Court ordered his release on
medical grounds. Family members, through the State Department, provided his medical records
to Rwandan authorities. According to Rwandan authorities, the record showed that Professor
Erlinder is mentally unstable.
In mid-July 2010, the vice chairman of the Democratic Green Party, Andre Kagwa Rwisereka,
was killed, and his decapitated body was dumped near a river in Butare, Rwanda. Mr. Rwisereka,
who is also an owner of a nightclub, had expressed concern about his safety weeks before his
killing. Rwandan authorities arrested one suspect, who was at the nightclub after it was closed.
In late June 2010, a Rwandan journalist, Jean Leonard Rugambage, was killed outside his home.
Prior to his work as a journalist, he served in the former Rwandan Armed Forces and was
convicted of crimes committed during the genocide. Rwandan authorities arrested a suspect, who
said he had killed Mr. Rugambage because his brother was murdered during the genocide by Mr.
Rugambage. The killing was triggered after Mr. Rugambage invited the suspect to his wedding,
according to Rwandan officials.
Since January 2010, numerous grenade attacks in Kigali, the capital, killed and wounded dozens
of people. The latest attacks took place in mid-May, killing two and wounding 32 people. The
government of Rwanda blamed two former senior army officers, including Lt. General Kayumba
Nyamwasa, who was in exile in Uganda and later left for South Africa. In June 2010, General
Nyamwasa was shot in the stomach in Johannesburg, South Africa. The government of South
Africa arrested six suspects, including two Tanzanians, one Mozambican, a Somali, and two
Rwandese nationals. One of the Rwandese prisoners was released a few days later. The driver of
General Nyamwasa was also arrested, although South African authorities have not announced his
arrest.
In May 2010, President Kagame was endorsed by the ruling RPF as the party’s presidential
candidate, in advance of elections scheduled to take place on August 9, 2010. A number of other
political parties are expected to endorse President Kagame. Several other parties, however, are
expected to run against the ruling RPF. The United Democratic Forces (UDF), led by Victoire
Ingabire; the Green Party, led by Frank Habineza; and Party Social (PS-Imberakuri), led by
Bernard Ntaganda, are expected to challenge President Kagame. In March 2010, Mr. Ntaganda
was ousted as party president. In May 2010, the UDF and PS-Imberakuri requested postponement
of the August 2010 elections reportedly to ensure free and fair elections.
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Rwanda: Background and Current Developments
In April 2010, Victoire Ingabire was arrested on charges of promoting genocide ideology;
denying the 1994 genocide; and collaborating with a Rwandan rebel group based in the
Democratic Republic of Congo. She was later released on bail. In January 2010, Ms. Ingabire
returned to Rwanda after 16 years in exile in Europe. Ms. Ingabire is also suspected of having
links with members of the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR). The
opposition leader has traveled to the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and met with some of
the leaders of the FDLR, according to senior Rwandan officials. One of the commanders of the
FDLR, who Ingabire met in the DRC, is currently in prison in Rwanda.
Rwanda: Background
Rwanda, a landlocked nation the size of Maryland, is one of the poorest in sub-Saharan Africa.
The population is largely comprised of two ethnic groups, the Tutsis (about 14%), who had been
the dominant political and economic force until 1961, and the majority Hutu (about 85%), who
took power at independence. Shortly after independence, many Rwandese Tutsi left Rwanda and
became refugees in Uganda. For decades, Rwanda suffered from periodic ethnic clashes in which
hundreds of thousands died. In 1990, the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) launched a
military offensive from Uganda against government troops inside Rwanda. Government forces
were able to repel the RPF and force it to retreat into the mountains. In 1993, after several failed
efforts, the RPF and the government of Rwanda reached an agreement in Tanzania, referred to as
the Arusha Peace Accords.
In April 1994, the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi, along with several senior government
officials, were killed when their plane was shot down as it approached the capital of Rwanda,
Kigali. The Rwandan military and Hutu militia soon began to systematically massacre Tutsis and
moderate Hutu opposition members. In the first 10 weeks of the Rwandan genocide, an estimated
1 million people, mostly Tutsis, were slaughtered by government forces and the Interhamwe
militia. Millions of Hutu refugees fled to the neighboring DRC—then Zaire—after RPF troops
took control in Kigali and ousted the Hutu government in July 1994. In 1996, most of the
refugees returned home after RPF troops attacked militias and former Rwandan government
troops inside Congo.
The Rwandan intervention in Congo led to the ouster of the Zairean president, Mobutu Sese
Seko. Insurgent leader Laurent Kabila became president of the Congo with the help of the RPF-
led government of Rwanda and Uganda. However, violence related to the Rwandan upheaval
continued in Congo for much of the late 1990s. Rwanda is still very divided along ethnic lines,
and the 1994 genocide is fresh in the minds of many survivors and perpetrators. However,
resentment among the majority Hutu population toward the Tutsis appears to have decreased in
part due to reconciliation efforts by the government. In 2000, the Hutu president and a leading
figure of the ruling RPF, Pasteur Bizimungu, resigned in protest of “Tutsi domination” in
government. But Bizimungu was not able to garner support for his cause. In April 2000, one
month after President Bizimungu resigned, General Paul Kagame, who had served as defense
minister and vice president since July 1994, was elected by the Rwandan legislature to the post of
president.
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Rwanda: Background and Current Developments
Political Conditions
In March 2001, Rwanda held its first local
Rwanda at a Glance
elections in over 30 years. The turnout was
Population: 11 Million
estimated at about 90%, and the elections
Population Growth: 2.8% (2010 est.)
were monitored by 200 international
observers. The United Nations Special
Comparative Area: Slightly smaller than Maryland
Representative for Human Rights in Rwanda,
Languages: Kinyarwanda (official), French, English
Michel Moussali, called the elections a
Life Expectancy: 57.46 years
success despite some “technical problems.”
HIV/AIDS-adult prevalence rate: 2.8% (2007)
Human Rights Watch criticized the elections,
arguing that people were forced to vote and
Ethnic Groups: Hutu 84%, Tutsi 15%, Twa 1%
that the elections were not transparent.
Religions: Roman Catholic: 56.5%, Protestant: 26%,
Between May and August 2002, the
Adventist: 11.1%, Muslim: 4.6%
government of Rwanda organized hundreds of
GDP-Purchasing power parity: $10.13 billion (2009)
meetings throughout the country to seek the
GDP per capita: $900 (2009)
input of the people of Rwanda for the draft
constitution. A referendum on the draft
Source: CIA—The World Factbook 2010.
constitution was passed in May 2003.
In August 2003, Rwanda held its first multi-party presidential and parliamentary elections in
decades. President Kagame won 95% of the votes cast, while his nearest rival, Faustin
Twagiramungu, received 3.6% of the votes cast. In the legislative elections, the ruling RPF won
73% in the 80-seat National Assembly, while the remaining seats went to RPF allies and former
coalition partners. Twagiramungu charged that the elections were flawed and that government
officials intimidated his supporters.
The European Union Observer Mission also charged that there were election irregularities and
that intimidation of opposition candidates was widespread. However, support for President
Kagame and the RPF was widespread and cut across ethnic lines.1 Analysts note that the RPF was
well organized and financed and that none of the opposition candidates had a political party base
or a clear slogan. President Kagame also benefitted from key endorsements, including from all of
the Hutu-dominated political parties and one of the presidential candidates, who withdrew several
days before the elections. In September 2008, Rwanda held elections for the National Assembly.
The RPF won the majority of the seats. Rwandese women took the majority (56.2%) of the seats,
and the Assembly elected the first female speaker of Parliament in October 2008. The next
presidential elections are set for August 9, 2010. In January 2010, the head of the Electoral
Commission of Rwanda resigned from his position in the ruling party, the Rwanda Patriotic Front
(RPF).
The ruling RPF remains the dominant political force in the country, although there are a number
of opposition parties. President Kagame remains a strong leader within the RPF, and no one has
emerged within the party to challenge his leadership. A number of independents and individuals
from other political parties hold key positions in government, including the posts of prime
minister, internal security minister, and justice minister. Rwanda also has the largest percentage of
1 Ted Dagne spent several days in August 2003 in Rwanda and met with many people, including with the presidential
candidates, including Mr. Twagiramungu, President Kagame, ambassadors and observers from European Union, U.S.
embassy officials and Rwandan election officials.
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women in parliament in the world. Women also hold key ministerial positions, including the
minister of foreign affairs. In March 2008, President Kagame implemented a major cabinet
reshuffle.2 Three senior ministers were reportedly demoted, several other ministers were moved to
other positions, five ministries were disbanded, and three new ministries were created. In early
2008, President Kagame ordered the confiscation of land owned by senior military officers for
redistribution to peasants.
Human Rights Conditions
Human rights conditions in Rwanda are poor, according to human rights groups and Rwanda experts.
According to the State Department’s Country Reports on Human Rights Practices in 2009,
Citizens’ right to change their government was effectively restricted. Violence against
genocide survivors and witnesses by unknown assailants resulted in deaths. There were
reports of abuse of suspects by security forces and local defense members, and prison and
detention center conditions remained generally harsh. Security forces arbitrarily arrested and
detained persons. Prolonged pretrial detention was a problem. There were restraints on
judicial independence and limits on freedoms of speech, press, association, and religion. The
government forcibly returned refugees. Official corruption and restrictions on civil society
remained a problem.3
In 2001, the government of Rwanda began to implement a local justice system known as Gacaca
in order to deal with the large backlog of cases from the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Tens of
thousands of suspects have been released under the Gacaca system, and the Gacaca courts are
expected to complete their work by the end of 2010. In March 2008, the International Criminal
Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) signed an agreement with the government of Rwanda to transfer
some of the genocide suspects to Rwanda. In June 2008, a British court agreed to Rwanda’s
request for the extradition of four Rwandese accused of genocide. In February 2009, a former
Rwandan priest, Emmanuel Rukundo, was sentenced to 25 years in prison for genocide. In
December 2008, the ICTR sentenced Colonel Theoneste Bagosora and two other military officers
to life in prison for genocide. Colonel Bagosora is widely considered as the architect of the 1994
Rwandan genocide. Meanwhile, in February 2009, a Belgium court decided to drop the cases of
two senior Rwanda military officials, Lt. General Charles Kayonga and Brig. General Jack Nziza.
These cases were triggered after a French judge issued an arrest warrant for several senior
Rwandese government officials.
In March 2009, the United States imposed a travel ban and asset freeze on five FDLR leaders:
Sylvestre Mudacumura, Callixte Mbarushimana, Pacifique Ntawunguka, Leopold Mujyambere,
and Stanislas Nzeyimana. The FDLR is a group led by former Rwandan military officers and
militia leaders who are accused of being the masterminds of the 1994 Rwandan genocide. The
United Nations imposed similar measures against four of the five FDLR members. In August
2009, Congolese authorities arrested genocide suspect Gregoire Ndahimana in eastern Congo. Mr.
Ndahimana was mayor of Kivumu and is accused of killing Tutsi civilians at the Nyange parish.
He is expected to be transferred to the ICTR soon. Meanwhile, in August 2009, the ICTR
sentenced former Governor of Kigali Tharcisse Renzaho to life in prison. The three-judge panel
2 The Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU), May 2008.
3 http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/
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found Renzaho guilty of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. In October 2009,
Ugandan authorities arrested a top genocide suspect, Idelphonse Nizeyimana. He was later
transferred to Tanzania to stand trial at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.
Nizeyimana was wanted for orchestrating the killings of tens of thousands of civilians during the
Rwandan genocide in 1994. The United States had offered a $5 million reward for his arrest.
On November 4, 2008, German authorities released the Secretary General of the FDLR, Callixte
Mbarushimana, who was arrested in Frankfurt in July 2008. The State Department criticized the
release of the FDLR official and blamed the group as the “root cause of instability in eastern
Congo.”4 A week after the release of the FDLR official, German authorities arrested a senior
Rwandese government official, Rose Kabuye. She was arrested because a French judge had issued an
arrest warrant for nine senior Rwandese leaders he accused of shooting down the plane that carried
the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi in 1994. Rose Kabuye was a liberation fighter with the RPF,
the group that ended the 1994 genocide, and served in different government positions over the past
decade, including as mayor of Kigali and personal secretary of President Kagame.5 The government
of Rwanda condemned the arrest and later expelled the German ambassador to Rwanda. On
November 19, 2008, Kabuye was transferred to France to stand trial.
Economic Conditions
Rwanda’s economy is market-based and primarily driven by the agricultural sector. More than
85% of the labor force is engaged in subsistence agriculture. In 2007, agriculture accounted for
36.2% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and 40.2% of exports.6 The Economic Intelligence
Unit (EIU) forecasts a 6% growth for 2010 and 7.5% for 2011. The inflation rate for 2010-2011 is
expected to reach 8.5%. In February 2008, Rwanda’s economic performance was given IMF’s
approval under the poverty reduction and growth facility (PRGF). In August 2009, Rwanda
received a positive review from the IMF. The government of Rwanda has carried out a number of
economic reform programs in the past several years, especially in privatization and banking. A
number of government-owned companies were sold to the private sector, including Rwanda’s
mobile phone company.
Rwanda in Congo and Regional Issues
Insecurity in the Great Lakes region has been a major concern since the mid-1990s, although in the
past year conditions have improved significantly. Relations between Rwanda and the DRC have
improved in recent years, and the two countries cooperate on a wide range of issues, including on
security matters. Rwanda helped facilitate dialogue between the Kabila government and some
political groups in the DRC on issues related to the 2006 elections. In November 2007, the
governments of the DRC and Rwanda signed an agreement in Kenya “on a common approach to end
the threat posed to peace and stability” in the Great Lakes region. The parties agreed to end political
and material support to armed groups in the region. The government of the DRC agreed to disarm the
ex-FAR (former Rwandan Armed Forces) and Interhamwe militia and to hand over those individuals
4 State Department Press Release, November 13, 2008.
5 CRS interview with senior Rwandan government official, November 2008.
6 State Department Background Note for Rwanda, February 2008.
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wanted by the government of Rwanda and ICTR. According to the agreement, those who do not wish
to return to Rwanda will be placed in a camp away from the border until a solution is found.
Recent Developments
In late 2008, the governments of Rwanda and Congo agreed on a wide range of issues. The two
governments agreed to launch a joint military offensive against the National Congress for the Defense
of the Congolese People (CNDP) and the FDLR. They also agreed to restore full diplomatic relations
and to activate economic cooperation. In January 2009, Rwanda and Congo launched the joint
military operation in eastern Congo. The military operation dislodged and seriously weakened the
CNDP forces. In January, the leader of the CNDP, General Laurent Nkunda, was arrested inside
Rwanda, after he fled eastern Congo. The FDLR forces were also dislodged from their stronghold in
north Kivu and forced to retreat. More than 20,000 Rwandese refugees returned home since late
2008, including an estimated 5,000 ex-combatants, according to United Nations officials. In late
February 2009, Rwandese troops pulled out of Congo as part of the agreement with the Kabila
government. The government of Congo has requested the extradition of General Nkunda. Nkunda
still remains under arrest in Rwanda as of May 2010. Congolese forces continue to go after the
remaining CNDP and FDLR forces. As part of an earlier agreement, those CNDP forces willing to
join the Congolese army are being integrated. Rwanda is also welcoming FDLR forces willing to
return home. Meanwhile, remnants of the FDLR continue to target Congolese civilians. In late April
2009, United Nations officials accused the FDLR of committing serious atrocities against civilians in
Luofu, a town north of Goma.
In October 2008, the forces of the CNDP launched a major offensive against the Democratic
Republic of Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) in eastern Congo. General Nkunda is considered an
ally of Rwanda, and argues he is there to protect his community against the FDLR and Congolese
forces. Within days, the CNDP captured a number of small towns and Congolese forces retreated
in large numbers. The U.N. Mission in Congo (MONUC) also withdrew from some areas and
pulled most of its forces into Goma. In late October, General Nkunda declared a unilateral cease-
fire and ordered his forces to remain outside Goma. The cease-fire has been violated in recent
weeks by both sides, although fighting has not spread to other parts of Congo.
The DRC government initially accused Rwanda of supporting General Nkunda, although a few
days later the government seemed to back off from that position. Rwanda has consistently argued
that its forces, while deployed along the Rwanda-DRC border, have not crossed into Congolese
territory, a position supported by U.S. and United Nations officials.7 In late October, at the height
of the crisis, the Congolese foreign minister paid a visit to Kigali and met with President Kagame
and other Rwandese leaders. At that meeting, the minister did not raise the issue of Rwanda’s
alleged involvement in support of Nkunda.8 A few days later, the Rwandese foreign minister
visited Kinshasa and met with Congolese officials as well as other foreign leaders.
7 Ted Dagne met with MONUC, Rwandese, and U.S. officials in Eastern Congo and Rwanda in August 2008.
8 CRS interview in late October 2008 with a senior Rwandese official in Kigali by phone.
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U.S.-Rwanda Relations
Relations between Rwanda and the United States are considered warm. In August 2009, Secretary of
State Hilary Clinton praised Rwanda’s economic performance during a speech at the Africa Growth
and Opportunity Act (AGOA) Forum in Nairobi, Kenya. Secretary Clinton stated that
progress sometimes comes so slowly. But in a country that had been ravaged by genocidal
conflict, the progress is amazing. It has one of the fastest growing economies in Africa, even
in the midst of the global recession. Health indicators are improving. The Rwandan people
believed in themselves. And their leaders, led by President Kagame, believed in policies
based on evidence and measurable results, including a nationwide emphasis on family
planning, cross-cutting partnerships with donors and NGOs, a greater premium on
professionalism in the government and the health sector.
In October 2007, in her testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, then-Assistant
Secretary of State Jendayi Frazer stated that “Rwanda has become a very reliable partner in the
promotion of economic growth in Central Africa and an important contributor to African
peacekeeping.”9 In February 2008, President Bush visited Rwanda and opened the new U.S.
Embassy in Kigali. In his speech, President Bush stated that “in many nations, women have
exercised the right to vote and run for office. Rwanda now has the highest percentage of female
legislators in the world.” President Bush praised Rwanda’s peacekeeping efforts in Darfur.
Rwanda also is seen as an important partner in the war against terror. The Bush Administration
credited Rwanda for taking a number of measures, including combating terrorist financing.
The United States provides significant assistance to Rwanda, especially in the health care sector.
The United States provided $140.4 million to Rwanda in FY2007 and $158.6 million in FY2008.
In FY2009, Rwanda received $195.8 million and in FY2010 an estimated $208.1 million. The
Obama Administration has requested $240.2 million for FY2011. In addition, Rwanda receives
assistance under the President’s Malaria Initiative (PMI) and is also a focus country of the
President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). In November 2006, Rwanda was named
eligible for Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) Threshold Program. In October 2008, the
Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) signed a $24.7 million Threshold Program with
Rwanda.10 The Threshold Program will focus on political rights, civil liberties, and support
ongoing Rwandan reform efforts.
Author Contact Information
Ted Dagne
Specialist in African Affairs
tdagne@crs.loc.gov, 7-7646
9 Exploring the U.S. Role in Consolidating Peace and Democracy in the Great Lakes Region, October 2007.
10 http://www.mcc.gov/press/releases.
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