Organized Retail Crime
Kristin M. Finklea
Analyst in Domestic Security
June 16, 2010
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R41118
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress

Organized Retail Crime

Summary
Organized retail crime (ORC) involves the large-scale theft of everyday consumer items and
potentially has much broader implications. Organized groups of professional shoplifters, or
“boosters,” steal or fraudulently obtain merchandise that is then sold, or “fenced,” to individuals
and retailers through a variety of venues. In an increasingly globalized society, more and more
transactions take place online rather than face-to-face. As such, in addition to relying on physical
resale markets, organized retail thieves have turned to online marketplaces as means to fence their
ill-gotten goods.
ORC exposes the United States to costs and harms in the economic, public health, and domestic
security arenas. The exact loss from ORC to the retail industry is unknown, but an often-cited
estimate of this loss is $15 billion to $30 billion annually. The economic impact, however,
extends beyond the manufacturing and retail industry and includes costs incurred by consumers
and taxes lost by the states. The theft and resale of stolen consumable or health and beauty
products such as infant formula (that may have been repackaged, relabeled, and subjected to
altered expiration dates) poses potential safety concerns for individuals purchasing such goods
from ORC fences. In addition, some industry experts and policy makers have expressed concern
about the possibility that proceeds from ORC may be used to fund terrorist activities.
Current efforts to combat ORC largely come from retailers, online marketplaces, and law
enforcement alike. Retailers responding to the 2008 National Retail Security Survey spent an
average of 0.34% of their annual sales on loss prevention measures. These loss prevention costs
are ultimately born by the consumers in the form of higher prices on goods. Also, online
marketplaces report taking various measures to combat the sale of stolen and fraudulently
obtained goods on their websites, including educating sellers and consumers, monitoring
suspicious activity, and partnering with retailers and law enforcement. Combating retail theft has
traditionally been handled by state law enforcement under state criminal laws. Some, however,
have begun to question whether state laws—which vary in the quantity of monetary losses that
constitute major theft—are adequate to combat ORC.
While many agree that ORC is a national problem, there is debate over the federal government’s
role in deterring ORC and sanctioning various actors that may be involved in committing or
aiding these crimes. One policy issue facing Congress is whether criminalizing organized retail
crime in the U.S. Code would allow for more effective investigation and prosecution of these
criminals. Congress may also wish to consider whether regulating resale marketplaces (online
markets, in particular), to require such entities to increase information sharing with retailers and
law enforcement, would strengthen investigations and prosecutions of ORC as well as decrease
the prevalence of retail thieves relying on legitimate online marketplaces to fence stolen goods.
Several pieces of legislation have been introduced in the 111th Congress that would address these
issues.
This report will be updated as needed.

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Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Challenges in Defining of Organized Retail Crime ...................................................................... 2
Federal Definition ................................................................................................................. 3
Operation of Organized Retail Crime Groups .............................................................................. 4
Targeted Products.................................................................................................................. 4
Methods Used by Boosters.................................................................................................... 5
Employee Collusion........................................................................................................ 6
Fraud Schemes................................................................................................................ 7
Cargo Theft..................................................................................................................... 7
Methods Used by Fences....................................................................................................... 8
Impact of Globalization and Technology ......................................................................... 8
Domestic Impact of Organized Retail Crime ............................................................................... 9
Economic Impact: A Lack of Consensus................................................................................ 9
Public Health and Safety Risks............................................................................................ 12
Potential Links to Terrorism ................................................................................................ 12
Current Domestic Efforts to Combat ORC................................................................................. 14
Retailers.............................................................................................................................. 14
Online Marketplaces ........................................................................................................... 15
Federal Law Enforcement ................................................................................................... 16
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) ........................................................................... 17
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) ....................................................... 18
U.S. Secret Service (USSS)........................................................................................... 18
U.S. Postal Inspection Service (USPIS)......................................................................... 19
Issues for Consideration ............................................................................................................ 20
Are Retailers Doing Enough? .............................................................................................. 20
Federally Criminalizing ORC.............................................................................................. 21
Regulation of Online and Physical Marketplaces ................................................................. 23

Figures
Figure 1. 2008 Retail Shrinkage Costs....................................................................................... 11

Tables
Table A-1. State Felony Theft Levels......................................................................................... 24

Appendixes
Appendix. State Felony Theft Levels......................................................................................... 24

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Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 25

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Introduction
Organized retail crime (ORC), often referred to as organized retail theft, typically refers to large-
scale retail theft and fraud by organized groups of professional shoplifters, or “boosters.”1 It is an
umbrella term encompassing a variety of retail crimes, including theft, gift card fraud, receipt
fraud, ticket switching,2 and cargo theft, just to name a few. Stolen and fraudulently obtained
goods may be taken not only from retailers, but from manufacturers and distributors as well. The
organized crime rings resell this illegally acquired merchandise via a variety of “fencing”
operations such as flea markets, swap meets, pawn shops, and online marketplaces; these goods
are sold to both individual buyers as well as retailers—potentially the very retailers from where
the merchandise was originally stolen. ORC differs fundamentally from shoplifting in that
amateur shoplifters tend to steal merchandise for personal consumption. Boosters, on the other
hand, are professional thieves who make money by stealing merchandise from retail and other
venues and reselling it to fences who in turn sell the goods—through legal or illegal economic
outlets—for a fraction of the retail cost.
Organized retail crime exposes the United States to economic, public health, and domestic
security dangers. It is a national problem, not only for retailers, but for manufacturers, consumers,
taxpayers, and the states as well. According to one industry survey, about 90% of retailers
surveyed in 2010 reported having been victimized by ORC in the previous 12 months. This is a
decrease from the 92% that reported victimization in 2009 but still greater than the 85% that
reported victimization in 2008.3 Estimates of retail losses to ORC range from as low as $15
billion to as high as $37 billion annually.4 And this is the loss to retailers alone. The monetary
loss, however, extends beyond the retail industry to the taxpayers and states. Consumers pay for
these losses in the form of higher prices on goods, and states lose the tax revenue that would
otherwise be generated from the sale of these goods by legitimate retailers.
In addition to the economic impact of ORC, the theft and resale of stolen consumable or health
and beauty products, such as infant formula, may pose safety risks to individuals purchasing such
goods from ORC fences. This is because such products may have been repackaged, relabeled,
subjected to altered expiration dates, or stored improperly before being reentered into commerce.
In addition, industry experts, law enforcement, and policy makers have expressed concern about
the possibility that proceeds from ORC may be used to fund terrorist activities.5 In particular,

1 A “booster” is someone who steals merchandise and then sells it to a fence for a profit. A “fence” is someone who
knowingly buys illegally obtained goods from a “booster” and then sells the goods for a profit.
2 Ticket switching involves thieves utilizing devices that create fake barcodes that they adhere to packages, covering
the original barcodes. When scanned, these new barcodes ring up items at lower prices than their retail values.
3 See the National Retail Federation, 2010 Organized Retail Crime Survey, 2010, p. 5. The percentage of surveyed
retailers who reported victimization generally increased between 2005 and 2009 and then decreased slightly in 2010.
4 Issues involved in determining the exact losses are discussed later in the report. The National Retail Federation (NRF)
has estimated that losses amass to between $15 billion and $30 billion annually. The Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) has provided varying estimates. In 2005, the FBI cited losses as between $15 billion and $30 billion annually.
See testimony of Chris Swecker, Assistant Director, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation
before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland
Security, Responding to Organized Crimes Against Manufacturers and Retailers, 109th Cong., 1st sess., March 17,
2005. As of 2007, the FBI estimated losses as between $30 billion and $37 billion annually. See the Federal Bureau of
Investigation, Organized Retail Theft: New Initiative to Tackle the Problem, April 6, 2007, http://www.fbi.gov/page2/
april07/retail040607.htm.
5 See testimony of Chris Swecker, Assistant Director, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation
(continued...)
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federal law enforcement has reputedly traced the illicit proceeds from the theft and resale of
infant formula to terrorist organizations and insurgent groups, including Hamas and Hezbollah.6
Combating retail theft has traditionally been handled by state law enforcement under state
criminal laws.7 Some, however, have begun to question whether state laws—which vary in the
quantity of monetary losses that constitute major theft8—are adequate to combat ORC. While
many agree that ORC is a national problem, there is debate over the federal government’s role in
deterring ORC and sanctioning various actors that may be involved in committing or aiding these
crimes. One policy issue facing Congress is whether criminalizing organized retail crime in the
U.S. Code would allow for more effective investigation and prosecution of these criminals.
Another related issue that Congress may wish to consider is whether regulating resale
marketplaces (online markets, in particular), to require such entities to increase information
sharing with retailers and law enforcement, would strengthen investigations and prosecutions of
ORC as well as decrease the prevalence of retail thieves relying on legitimate online marketplaces
to fence stolen goods.
This report provides an overview of organized retail crime rings, their operations, and goods
targeted. It then examines the domestic impact of ORC in the arenas of the economy, public
health and safety, and domestic security. The report also outlines current efforts by retailers,
resale markets, and the federal government to combat ORC. It then analyzes various policy issues
that the 111th Congress may wish to consider, including whether current federal resources
provided for the investigation of ORC are adequate, whether to amend the U.S. Code to
criminalize ORC, and whether to regulate resale marketplaces that may be utilized as fences for
criminals to sell stolen goods.
Challenges in Defining of Organized Retail Crime
The concept of organized retail crime tends to be discussed in terms of criminal networks
engaged in large-scale theft. Descriptions of ORC also generally entail criminals fraudulently
obtaining goods in quantities beyond what would normally be intended for personal consumption;
reselling these ill-gotten goods; receiving, concealing, transporting, or disposing of these goods;
or coordinating individuals to commit these retail crimes.9 There is a lack of consensus, however,

(...continued)
before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland
Security, Responding to Organized Crimes Against Manufacturers and Retailers, 109th Cong., 1st sess., March 17,
2005.
6 Charles I. Miller, Organized Retail Theft: Raising Awareness, Offering Solutions, National Retail Federation
Foundation, 2005, p. 4. See also Food Marketing Institute, Media Reports—Middle East Connection: Organized Retail
Crime
, http://www.fmi.org/docs/loss/ORCMiddleEast.pdf. See also testimony by David Johnson, Section Chief,
Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the
Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, Combating Organized Retail Crime: The Role
of Federal Law Enforcement
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November 5, 2009.
7 From a statement by Representative Robert C. “Bobby” Scott before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the
Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, E-Fencing Enforcement Act of 2008, The
Organized Retail Crime Act of 2008, and The Combating Organized Retail Crime Act of 2008
, 110th Cong., 2nd sess.,
September 22, 2008.
8 See Appendix for a table displaying felony theft levels by state.
9 Walter E. Palmer and Chris Richardson, Organized Retail Crime: Assessing the Risk and Developing Effective
Strategies
, ASIS Foundation Research Council, 2009, p. 4.
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on the specific activities—particularly of boosters—that constitute ORC. On the one hand, most
agree that ORC involves store theft or fraud schemes designed to obtain retail merchandise at a
cost significantly below retail value or for free. However, some also include specific activities,
such as cargo theft,10 in the definition of ORC,11 while others either omit certain activities or do
not specify the range of ORC activities.12 For example, federal law enforcement agencies, such as
the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), tend to constrain discussions of ORC to situations in
which boosters steal merchandise from retail establishments and resell it for profit. Similarly,
retail organizations have generally focused on store theft when describing the problem of ORC.
One possible explanation for this focus on store theft is that, although ORC may encompass
multiple activities, including store theft and cargo theft, store theft has been cited as the most
common.13 Because retail organizations, scholars, industry experts, and law enforcement have
provided varying definitions of ORC, this complicates analysts’ abilities to evaluate the exact
impact of ORC.14
Federal Definition
Currently, ORC is not a federal crime. Issues surrounding the debate over whether it should be
included in the federal criminal code are analyzed later in this report. For data collection
purposes, however, Congress has defined ORC as
• violating a state ban against shoplifting or retail merchandise theft—if the
quantities of items stolen are of the amount that would not normally be purchased
for personal use or consumption—and stealing for the purposes of reselling the
items or reentering them into commerce;
• receiving, possessing, concealing, bartering, selling, transporting, or disposing of
any property that is known to have been taken in the violation outlined above; or
• coordinating, organizing, or recruiting persons to undertake either of the two
violations outlined above.15

10 For statistical purposes, the FBI defines cargo theft as “the criminal taking of any cargo including, but not limited to,
goods, chattels, money, or baggage that constitutes, in whole or in part, a commercial shipment of freight moving in
commerce, from any pipeline system, railroad car, motortruck, or other vehicle, or from any tank or storage facility,
station house, platform, or depot, or from any vessel or wharf, or from any aircraft, air terminal, airport, aircraft
terminal or air navigation facility, or from any intermodal container, intermodal chassis, trailer, container freight
station, warehouse, freight distribution facility, or freight consolidation facility. For purposes of this definition, cargo
shall be deemed as moving in commerce at all points between the point of origin and the final destination, regardless of
any temporary stop while awaiting transshipment or otherwise.” U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of
Investigation, Criminal Justice Information Services Division, Uniform Crime Reporting Program, National Incident-
Based Reporting System Addendum for Submitting Cargo Theft Data
, January 2010, p. iii, http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/
nibrs/downloadables/nibrs_cargo_theft_downloadable.pdf.
11 See, for example, Read Hayes, Organized Retail Crime Annual Report 2008: Describing a Major Problem, Loss
Prevention Research Council, 2008, hereafter Organized Retail Crime Annual Report 2008: Describing a Major
Problem.
The issue of cargo theft will be discussed in more detail in the section, “Methods Used by Boosters.”
12 See, for example, Walter E. Palmer and Chris Richardson, Organized Retail Crime: Assessing the Risk and
Developing Effective Strategies
, ASIS Foundation Research Council, 2009.
13 Organized Retail Crime Annual Report 2008: Describing a Major Problem.
14 This issue is discussed further in the section “Domestic Impact of Organized Retail Crime.”
15 P.L. 109-162, § 1105, codified at 28 U.S.C. § 509 note. In the Violence Against Women and Department of Justice
Reauthorization Act of 2005, Congress defined organized retail theft and directed the Attorney General and FBI to
establish a task force to combat organized retail theft as well as a clearinghouse within the private sector for
(continued...)
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Operation of Organized Retail Crime Groups
As mentioned, organized retail crime rings generally include individuals serving in one of two
main capacities: boosters or fences. Generally, boosters act as professional shoplifters who steal
or illegally obtain merchandise. Fences pay boosters for stolen goods and then resell them to
witting or unwitting consumers and businesses.
Boosters work either alone or in groups to steal goods that they will later sell to fences for about
10% to 25% of the ticket value.16 They often carry “fence sheets,” or shopping lists provided to
boosters by fences. These shopping lists itemize the goods fences desire, the amounts fences will
pay for each item, and retail store locations where each item may be.17 In some cases, boosters
may travel across state lines to target specific establishments in multiple states. Consequently,
many boosters will at some point transport stolen merchandise across state lines, either when
shipping stolen goods to a fence or when physically delivering merchandise to a fence after
stealing it in another state.
Fencing operations can be very straightforward or can involve multiple stages and a degree of
operational sophistication. Most stolen merchandise is sold to a low-level fence, commonly called
a “street fence.” Street fences will either sell these goods directly to the public—through flea
markets, swap meets, or the Internet—or will sell the merchandise to mid-level fences who run
“cleaning operations.” Cleaning operations remove security tags and store labels as well as
repackage stolen goods so they appear as though they came directly from the manufacturer. A
notable concern for public health and safety, this cleaning process may even involve changing the
expiration date on perishable goods.18 The “clean” goods may then be sold to the public or to
higher-level fences, who often operate illegitimate wholesale businesses. Through these
businesses, the fences can supply merchandise to retailers, often mixing stolen merchandise with
legitimate goods. The illegal activities of fences may be of concern for policy makers and federal
law enforcement because—like boosters—fences’ activities may cross state lines. They may, for
instance, purchase stolen goods from boosters in one state and send them to another state to be
cleaned; they may then sell this “clean” merchandise to illegitimate wholesalers in another state.
In addition, fences selling goods via online marketplaces may ship stolen goods across state or
national lines.
Targeted Products
Investigations of organized retail crime rings have uncovered a wide variety of goods targeted to
be stolen and resold on the black market. One researcher has noted that CRAVED items (meaning
those goods that are Concealable, Removable, Available, Valuable, Enjoyable, and Disposable)
are more often targeted because of the ease with which criminals can remove these items from

(...continued)
information sharing between retailers and law enforcement.
16 Charles I. Miller, Organized Retail Theft: Raising Awareness, Offering Solutions, National Retail Federation
Foundation, 2005, p. 17.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid., pp. 17-20. The public health and safety risks and possible repercussions of these cleaning operations are
discussed elsewhere in this report.
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stores and convert them into cash or other valuables.19 On the one hand, some desirable—or
“hot”20—products, such as cigarettes and alcohol, may always be popular products for thieves.
The desirability of other products may be based on their current popularity (such as new movies,
video games, and music titles) or on their use in drug manufacturing activities (such as ephedrine-
based cold medications and lithium batteries). In addition, the popularity of products may also be
brand-specific. For example, while certain brands of razor blades, printer cartridges, and designer
clothing may be frequently targeted for theft, competing brands may be ignored.21 Current
desirable items, in no specific order, include
• tobacco products;
• premium razor blades;
• face creams;
• analgesics;
• smoking cessation products;
• designer, logo, and leather apparel and shoes (particularly athletic);
• name-brand power tools;
• vacuum cleaners;
• printer ink cartridges;
• steaks;
• film;
• coffee;
• consumer electronics (such as DVD players and GPS units);
• fragrances;
• infant formula;
• batteries;
• music and game DVDs; and
• over-the-counter (OTC) medications and test kits.22
Methods Used by Boosters
Boosters working in groups rather than alone often have at least one member of the group act as a
lookout who scouts for employees, plain clothes security officers, or cameras. These lookouts

19 Ronald V. Clarke, “Hot Products: Understanding, Anticipating, and Reducing Demand for Stolen Goods,” Police
Research Series
, Paper 112 (1999), p. 23.
20 Ibid., p. 1.
21 Organized Retail Crime Annual Report 2008: Describing a Major Problem, p. 20. Benadryl, for instance, has been
identified as one of the over-the-counter medications targeted by ORC groups, where competing brands of
antihistamines have not.
22 Ibid.
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may create diversions or distract employees to facilitate the work of the boosters actually stealing
the merchandise.23
To help prevent thieves from stealing these goods, many retailers place electronic detection tags
on merchandise. Boosters often circumvent detection systems by cutting off or melting the tags,
covering the tags in foil or concealing the merchandise in foil-lined bags (often referred to as
“magic” bags), or lifting goods over the antennas of the electronic detection systems.24 In some
instances, boosters take shopping bags directly from the store, fill them with merchandise, and
walk out of the store, appearing as though they are carrying purchased goods. Store employees
may be less likely to stop and question boosters carrying shopping bags from the store because
they incorrectly assume that the merchandise has indeed been paid for.25
In addition, boosters do not always steal merchandise from retailers during business hours. Some
may hide in stores and wait for all employees to leave before removing large amounts of goods
through emergency exits. Others conduct “smash-and-grab” burglaries, in which they steal trucks
and vans to ram through store walls and windows, load the vehicles with merchandise, and drive
away.26
Employee Collusion
At times, boosters also conspire with current or former store employees. Employees may take
goods from storage rooms or receiving areas in stores and provide them directly to boosters. They
may also help thieves by disabling store alarms, leaving doors unlocked, or providing information
about computer passwords, alarm codes, keys, and management and security schedules.27
Industry studies estimated the proportion of inventory loss due to employee theft.28 However, it is
currently unknown how often employee theft or fraud is directly implicated in cases of organized
retail crime. For example, the 2008 National Retail Security Survey reports that retailers estimate
about 42.7% of retail losses are due to employee theft. They further estimate that about 14.4% of
these internal losses involve employees colluding with individuals outside of the given retail
store. Of this 14.4% of internal loss cases, an unknown proportion may be attributed to employees
working with organized retail criminals.29

23 Read Hayes and King Rogers, “Catch Them if You Can: This Study of Organized Retail Crime Looks at How These
Criminal Groups Operate and What Measures Might Help Stores Fight Back,” Security Management, vol. 47, no. 10
(2003), hereafter “Catch Them if You Can.”
24 Ibid.
25 From information provided to CRS during an organized retail crime briefing by members of the Retail Leaders
Industry Association and the Coalition Against Organized Retail Crime, June 4, 2009.
26 “Catch Them if You Can.”
27 Ibid.
28 Richard C. Hollinger and Amanda Adams, 2008 National Retail Security Survey Final Report, Security Research
Project, Department of Sociology and Criminology & Law, University of Florida, 2009, p. 7, hereafter 2008 National
Retail Security Survey Final Report.

29 Ibid., pp. 7-8. In addition to employees colluding with ORC thieves, they may also conspire with individuals to steal
merchandise for personal use—either for the employees’ own use or for the co-conspirators’ use.
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Fraud Schemes
Not all organized retail crime involves traditional theft from retail stores. ORC groups have
employed numerous tactics to defraud retailers and obtain merchandise. Take, for instance,
receipt fraud. In these cases, thieves steal merchandise, create counterfeit receipts for the stolen
goods, return these stolen goods to the retailers using the counterfeit receipts, and collect money
off of the fraudulent returns.30 This cuts out the fence altogether, potentially netting a higher
return.
Another method by which ORC groups defraud retailers is through gift card fraud, of which there
are several forms. For one, thieves may purchase legitimate gift cards using stolen credit cards
and then sell the gift cards to the highest bidder using an online auction website. In other
instances, thieves may purchase low-value gift cards, electronically reprogram the cards to
contain a higher value, and resell these reprogrammed cards.31
Similarly, ORC thieves may use ticket-switching scams to fraudulently obtain high-value items at
a relatively low cost. Thieves use devices that create fake barcodes that they adhere to packages,
covering the original barcodes; when scanned, these new barcodes ring up the items at lower
costs. If, at check-out, a retail employee scanning the barcodes is not paying close attention or
does not have a strong knowledge of items’ values, the thief may get away with paying the price
indicated by the counterfeit barcode. Criminals can then resell, or fence, the goods at prices
higher than those which they paid, but still lower than their retail values.32
Cargo Theft
As mentioned, some scholars and experts include cargo theft as an element of organized retail
crime while others do not. It is nonetheless of value to note how retail goods are vulnerable to
criminals at various points throughout the supply chain. Further, goods that are stolen from either
cargo trucks or from retail stores may be fenced by criminals for a profit, and both affect society’s
economy, public health, and domestic security.
Because trains and trucks of cargo often travel with large quantities of desirable products, some
have suggested that this presents a low-risk, high-reward situation appealing to criminals.33
Thieves use a variety of methods to obtain merchandise from cargo, from hijacking entire trucks
to colluding with current or former employees. These criminals may break or compromise
security locks on trucks (possibly with the aid of security codes provided by dishonest
employees) to remove entire boxes of desired goods. Other times, they may pilfer cargo boxes of
their goods and then reseal them so the boxes appear as though they have not been tampered
with.34

30 From information provided to CRS during an organized retail crime briefing by members of the Retail Leaders
Industry Association and the Coalition Against Organized Retail Crime, June 4, 2009.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 Organized Retail Crime Annual Report 2008: Describing a Major Problem, pp. 17-18.
34 Ibid., Walter E. Palmer and Chris Richardson, Organized Retail Crime: Assessing the Risk and Developing Effective
Strategies
, ASIS Foundation Research Council, 2009, p. 14.
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Methods Used by Fences
Fences use various methods to sell stolen goods that they purchase from boosters. As mentioned,
some fences may sell stolen merchandise back to retailers through illegitimate wholesale
operations. They may also operate legitimate business, such as pawn shops, convenience stores,
repair shops, second-hand stores, and salvage yards, that serve as fronts for their illegal fencing
operations.35 In addition, fences may sell their goods at a variety of resale marketplaces, including
flea markets. At flea markets, illegitimate wholesalers are able to sell stolen goods that have been
damaged and cannot be resold to retailers. Also, flea markets have been known to serve as
recruiting grounds for fences looking for boosters, and vice-versa.36
Impact of Globalization and Technology
In an increasingly globalized society, more and more transactions take place online rather than
face-to-face. As such, in addition to relying on physical resale markets, organized retail thieves
have turned to the Internet and online marketplaces as means to fence their ill-gotten goods.37
This practice of fencing via the Internet is commonly referred to as “e-fencing.” According to the
most recent National Retail Federation survey of retailers, about 66% of surveyed retailers
indicated that they had identified or recovered stolen merchandise (including gift cards) that was
being fenced online.38 Further, over one-quarter of the retailers indicated that more than half of
the “new in box” items sold on auction websites may be stolen or fraudulently obtained.39
E-fencing has affected organized retail crime in several arenas, including criminal anonymity,
global reach, and profitability. Whereas criminals fencing goods at physical locations (such as
flea markets) must have face-to-face interactions, those who rely on e-fencing are better able to
remain anonymous to customers, victimized retailers, and law enforcement alike. Further, the use
of online markets has allowed criminals to more easily distribute stolen goods not only within the
metropolitan areas where they were originally obtained, but throughout the United States and
across the globe. E-fencing has also proven to be more profitable to criminals than has fencing at
physical locations; while criminals may profit about 30 cents on the dollar (30% of the retail
price) by selling goods at physical fencing locations, they can make about 70 cents on the dollar
via e-fencing.40 It has been suggested that the face-to-face nature of physical marketplaces allows
consumers to recognize the questionable legality of goods, and thus consumers are willing to pay
less for goods in these physical markets than online.41

35 Tracy Johnson and Read Hayes, “Behind the Fence: Buying and Selling Stolen Merchandise,” Security Journal, vol.
16, no. 4 (2003).
36 Organized Retail Crime Annual Report 2008: Describing a Major Problem.
37 King Rogers, “Organized Retail Theft,” in Retail Crime, Security, and Loss Prevention: An Encyclopedic Reference,
ed. Charles A. Sennewald and John H. Christman (Elseiver Inc., 2008).
38 National Retail Federation, 2010 Organized Retail Crime Survey, 2010, p. 7.
39 Ibid., p. 9.
40 National Retail Federation, 2009 Organized Retail Crime Survey, 2009, p. 8.
41 See, for example, testimony of Brad Brekke, Vice President of Assets Protection, Target Corporation, before the U.S.
Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, Organized
Retail Theft Prevention: Fostering a Comprehensive Public-Private Response
, 110th Cong., 1st sess., October 25, 2007,
H.Hrg. 110-122.
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Domestic Impact of Organized Retail Crime
At first glance, the impact of organized retail crime may appear to be limited to monetary losses
to retailers. The economic impact, however, extends beyond the manufacturing and retail industry
and affects costs incurred by consumers and taxes lost by the states. Beyond the economic
impact, the theft of stolen consumable or health and beauty products may pose safety risks to
individuals purchasing such goods from ORC fences. In addition, some industry experts and
policy makers have expressed concern about the possibility that proceeds from ORC may be used
to fund terrorist activities.
Economic Impact: A Lack of Consensus
The exact loss from organized retail crime to the retail industry is unknown.42 An often-cited
estimate of this loss is $15 billion to $30 billion annually.43 The original source of this figure,
however, has not been identified; while the FBI cites this figure as coming from retail industry
estimates,44 industry experts cite the FBI.45 As of 2007, the FBI revised the estimated annual loss
from ORC and placed it between $30 billion and $37 billion.46 Of note, these ranges are broad
estimates, and it is not precisely evident what the estimated loss includes. On one hand, it may
include only the retail value of the merchandise stolen. Alternatively, it may include collateral
costs, such as replacement costs or costs for implementing and maintaining various loss
prevention measures.
Another unanswered question is whether estimates of losses from ORC include or overlap with
estimates of losses from cargo theft. The FBI estimates that cargo theft costs $15 billion to $30
billion annually in the United States.47 It is not specified, however, what proportion—if any—of
cargo theft losses may be attributed to ORC groups. Other estimates have placed the losses from
cargo theft at $30 billion to $50 billion annually, with about half of these losses (roughly $15
billion to $25 billion annually) attributed to ORC. 48 If these data are correct, it suggests that the
FBI’s estimate of cargo theft losses may be largely attributed to either the proportion of cargo
theft committed by ORC groups or the proportion of cargo theft not committed by ORC groups.
Another explanation may be that industry estimates of losses may differ from law enforcement
estimates based on differing criterion for counting an incident as a loss.

42 Walter E. Palmer and Chris Richardson, Organized Retail Crime: Assessing the Risk and Developing Effective
Strategies
, ASIS Foundation Research Council, 2009, p. 5.
43 See, for example, testimony of Chris Swecker, Assistant Director, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of
Investigation before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and
Homeland Security, Responding to Organized Crimes Against Manufacturers and Retailers, 109th Cong., 1st sess.,
March 17, 2005.
44 Ibid.
45 Testimony of Karl Langhorst, Director of Loss Prevention, Randall’s/Tom Thumb, a Safeway Company before the
U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security,
Organized Retail Theft: Fostering a Comprehensive Public-Private Response, 111th Cong., 2nd sess., October 25, 2007.
46 Federal Bureau of Investigation, Organized Retail Theft: New Initiative to Tackle the Problem, April 6, 2007,
http://www.fbi.gov/page2/april07/retail040607.htm.
47 Federal Bureau of Investigation, Cargo Theft’s High Cost: Thieves Stealing Billions Annually, July 21, 2006,
http://www.fbi.gov/page2/july06/cargo_theft072106.htm.
48 As cited by Claire Mayhew, “The Detection and Prevention of Cargo Theft,” Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal
Justice
, no. 214 (September 2001), p. 1.
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The National Retail Security Survey (NRSS) collects data on the levels and causes of inventory
“shrinkage”—the reduction in physical inventory caused by shoplifting, employee and vendor
theft, and administrative error—as well as data on loss prevention budgets, personnel, and
strategies, and responses to shoplifting and employee theft.49 For the retail sectors surveyed by
the NRSS, total sales for 2008 were estimated at $2.4 trillion50—about 52% of the total $4.6
trillion annual sales estimated for the entire retail industry.51 As outlined in the NRSS, not all
retailers are equally susceptible to “shrinkage,” and therefore, the NRSS surveys only those
sectors that are able to generate “shrinkage” data. 52 Therefore, any conclusions drawn from the
NRSS are only generalizable to those retail sectors included in the survey—comprising about
52% of total retail sales.
As illustrated in Figure 1, data from the 2008 NRSS indicate that total inventory shrinkage costs
amounted to about $36.3 billion in 2008.53 Of this shrinkage, theft (both internal/employee theft
and shoplifting) cost retailers $28.4 billion. In other words, theft accounted for about 78.3% of
overall 2008 shrinkage.54 Within the broad category of theft, internal/employee theft accounted
for about $15.5 billion in losses to retailers, and shoplifting led to about $12.9 billion in losses. As
mentioned, although retailers estimate that 14.4% of internal theft cases involve collusion with
outsiders, it is unknown what proportion (if any) of these involve collusion with organized retail
crime groups. With respect to shoplifting cases, retailers have estimated that about 27.5% of
shoplifting cases are perpetrated by members of organized retail crime groups. Retailers also
indicated that they experienced almost six ORC cases per every $100 million in sales and that the
average loss per ORC theft incident averaged to slightly over $5,000.55

49 2008 National Retail Security Survey Final Report.
50 2008 National Retail Security Survey Final Report, p. 6.
51 National Retail Federation, 2009 Organized Retail Crime Survey, 2009, p. 2.
52 The NRSS surveyed retailers from the following sectors: optical; children’s apparel; strip center; women’s apparel;
discount store; crafts and hobbies; men’s and women’s apparel; entertainment, media, games, video, and music;
sporting goods and recreational products; shoes; department store; accessories; supermarket and grocery; household
furnishings and housewares; cards, gifts, floral, and novelties; office supplies; stationery; books, magazines, and music;
drug store; homecenter, hardware, lumber, and garden; electronics, computers, and appliances; and furniture. Of note,
the NRSS does not include data from retailers such as restaurants, bars, motor vehicle dealers, auto service stations,
direct catalog sale outlets, and Internet “e-tailers” because these sectors do not produce comparable “shrinkage” data to
the other retailers that are included in the survey.
53 2008 National Retail Security Survey Final Report, p. 6.
54 The other known sources of shrinkage were administrative errors and vendor fraud.
55 2008 National Retail Security Survey Final Report, p. 30.
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Figure 1. 2008 Retail Shrinkage Costs
Costs to retailers participating in the 2008 National Retail Security Survey

Source: CRS presentation of data from the 2008 National Retail Security Survey Final Report.
Note: This does not include losses to ORC as a result of cargo theft.
As a direct result of retailers’ losses to ORC, retailers may take various measures to strengthen
retail security and mitigate any financial deficit from the lost revenue. In order to increase
merchandise security, prevent future losses, and recoup the lost profits from the retail crime,
retailers take measures such as hiring additional loss prevention personnel or increasing the price
of goods. These costs are then born by consumers. The price increase may result in some
consumers declining to purchase a given product, which may then have a circular effect and result
in a loss in sales (and revenue) for the retailers. Retailers may also lock up “hot” products, which,
in addition to making the products harder to steal, makes it more difficult for consumers to find
and purchase the merchandise. In other cases, the products are simply not available for the
customer to purchase because the entire inventory of the product has been stolen.56
In addition to the cost of organized retail crime to retailers and consumers, ORC can negatively
affect state tax revenue. When goods are stolen rather than purchased, the state does not collect
sales tax on the merchandise. The Food Marketing Institute (on behalf of the Coalition Against

56 From information provided to CRS during an organized retail crime briefing by members of the Retail Leaders
Industry Association and the Coalition Against Organized Retail Crime, June 4, 2009.
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Organized Retail Crime) estimated that for 2007, the loss of sales tax revenue across the United
States totaled about $1.6 billion.57
Public Health and Safety Risks
Several of the goods targeted by organized retail crime groups are consumable items or health and
beauty products—infant formula, diabetic test strips, and over-the-counter and prescription
medications, to name a few. There are public health and safety issues associated with the theft and
resale of this merchandise by ORC rings. For instance, after boosters steal perishable goods, these
goods may be sold to fencing operations that “clean” the products; as mentioned, this cleaning
process may involve repackaging goods (sometimes incorrectly relabeling them) and altering
expiration dates before selling the merchandise back to retailers or to the general public. Further,
these goods may be stored for indefinite periods of time in trucks or warehouses that are not
climate-controlled. These factors may pose risks to the health of people who consume perishable
goods that they believe to be safe, but have actually been tampered with or expired.
Potential Links to Terrorism
In addition to the economic and potential public health risks associated with ORC, law
enforcement and policy makers have expressed concern that proceeds from organized retail crime
may be used to finance terrorist activities.58 In fact, federal concern over the link between ORC
and terrorism was present even before the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.59 Federal law
enforcement has traced the illicit proceeds from retail crime, specifically from the theft and resale
of infant formula, to terrorist organizations and insurgent groups, including Hamas and
Hezbollah.60 For instance, following the terrorist attacks of 2001, the former U.S. Customs
Service established Operation Green Quest—a now-defunct, multi-agency terrorist financing task
force—to combat the various sources of terrorist financing; one such source was identified as the
“theft, adulteration, and resale of infant formula.”61
While there may be suspicions that profits from ORC rings have been sent to certain countries to
support terrorist activities, it is important to note that no members of ORC rings discussed in the
organized retail crime literature have been convicted of providing material support to terrorist

57 Food Marketing Institute, on behalf of the Coalition Against Organized Retail Crime, Organized Retail Crime:
Estimated Lost Sales Tax Revenue by State (2007)
, September 2009. The most recent data available comes from 2007.
58 See testimony of Chris Swecker, Assistant Director, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation
before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland
Security, Responding to Organized Crimes Against Manufacturers and Retailers, 109th Cong., 1st sess., March 17,
2005.
59 Karen E. Thuermer, “Retailers Organize Against Crime,” Security Management, July 2007.
60 Charles I. Miller, Organized Retail Theft: Raising Awareness, Offering Solutions, National Retail Federation
Foundation, 2005, p. 4. See also Food Marketing Institute, Media Reports—Middle East Connection: Organized Retail
Crime
, http://www.fmi.org/docs/loss/ORCMiddleEast.pdf. See also testimony by David Johnson, Section Chief,
Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the
Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, Combating Organized Retail Crime: The Role
of Federal Law Enforcement
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November 5, 2009.
61 U.S. Department of the Treasury, U.S. Customs Service, Office of Investigations, Green Quest, Customs Publication
No. 0000-0171, October 2002, p. 2,
http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/document/437021/green_quest_brochure_pdf.
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organizations. Nevertheless, there are instances in which profits—often from the sale of stolen
infant formula—have been transferred to certain countries known to support terrorists, though it
has not been determined whether these profits have ultimately been transferred to terrorist
organizations.
Three notable investigations of large organized retail crime rings uncovered evidence that the
ORC ringleaders had transferred profits from their fencing operations to several countries known
to support terrorists. In one case, an investigation into the Jamal Trading Company in Phoenix,
AZ, uncovered a money-laundering operation that allegedly funneled the illicit proceeds to
countries where several members of the crime ring had ties, such as Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon.
The ringleader, Samih Fadl Jamal, and 15 co-conspirators had been profiting on the sale of stolen
infant formula worth $22 million.62 Another case involved the Ghali organized retail crime ring,
led by Mohammed Khalil Ghali, which was involved in the sale of stolen infant formula and
other “hot” products, as well as the laundering of the proceeds. An investigation into the Ghali
organization found that some of the profits were wired to financial institutions in Jordan, Egypt,
and Palestine, and some were smuggled out of the United States on international flights. Further,
the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) has indicated that several members of the Ghali
organization allegedly had direct ties to terrorist acts and/or organizations.63 In a third case, an
investigation by the FBI’s Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) revealed that the Hamed
Organization was a criminal enterprise involved in purchasing and selling stolen and contraband
goods, including infant formula, computers, Global Positioning System devices, and cigarettes.64
Members of the Hamed Organization used convenience stores in which they worked or managed
to fence stolen goods and then illegally transferred the proceeds to the Palestinian territories.
None of these investigations, however, resulted in defendants being charged with providing
material support to terrorists.
There have also been reports of Hamas receiving material support from non-government
organizations (NGOs) in the United States, some of which may have received funds from
criminal activities such as the sale of stolen infant formula.65 For instance, it has been suggested
that one Muslim charity organization previously operating in the United States, the Holy Land
Foundation of Relief and Development (HLF), may have been supported in part by proceeds
generated by ORC rings.66 In 2001, the federal government seized HLF’s assets and ordered the

62 Charles I. Miller, Organized Retail Theft: Raising Awareness, Offering Solutions, National Retail Federation
Foundation, 2005, pp. 25 - 27.
63 Testimony by Janice Ayala, Assistant Director for Investigative Programs, Office of Investigations, U.S.
Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Department of Homeland Security, before the U.S. Congress, House
Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, Combating Organized Retail
Crime: The Role of Federal Law Enforcement
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November 5, 2009.
64 United States Attorney’s Office Eastern District of Missouri, “Eight Area Men Plead Guilty to Federal Racketeering
Charges Involving Conspiracy to Transfer Cash and Checks to the Palestinian Territories,” press release, November 24,
2009, http://stlouis.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/pressrel09/sl112409a.htm.
65 From testimony by John S. Pistole, Assistant Director, Counterterrorism Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation,
before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Financial Services, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations,
Hamas Asset Freeze and Other Government Efforts To Stop Terrorist Funding, 108th Cong., 1st sess., September 24,
2003.
66 Charles I. Miller, Organized Retail Theft: Raising Awareness, Offering Solutions, National Retail Federation
Foundation, 2005, pp. 12 – 13.
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organization closed. Five members of HLF were convicted of providing funding, over a period of
six years, to Hamas—a specially designated terrorist organization.67
As policy makers continue to consider the potential nexus between organized retail crime and
terrorism, one important note is that, similar to other organized crime groups, ORC rings are
motivated by money. Although this differs from the ideological motivation of terrorist
organizations, both organized criminals and terrorists require money.68 As a means of bringing in
this needed income, terrorist groups may model their money-generating criminal activities after
those of organized crime groups—including ORC rings. Indeed, federal law enforcement
continues to be concerned that organized crime groups may form short-term business partnerships
with terrorist organizations if offered enough money.69
Current Domestic Efforts to Combat ORC
Retailers
There is a growing awareness among retailers about the consequences of organized retail crime.
In its 2010 survey of organized retail crime, the National Retail Federation (NRF) reported that
about 90% of the retailers surveyed indicated that their companies had been victimized by ORC, a
decrease from the 92% that reported victimization in 2009 but still greater than the 85% that
reported victimization in 2008. While the percentage of retailers reporting victimization
decreased in 2010, about 59% of all retailers surveyed still reported an increase in ORC activity
over the previous year. 70 Further, of the retailers responding to the NRF’s 2010 survey, nearly
half indicated that they were allocating additional resources to combating ORC.71 It is unknown,
however, whether these trends in reported victimization and in reported ORC activity levels are
clear reflections of actual ORC activity or whether these reports are a reflection of the level of
attention that retailers pay to ORC.
With the increased knowledge about ORC, nearly 80% of retailers report tracking ORC
statistics.72 Despite this knowledge, however, special ORC task forces have been established only
in about 21% of loss prevention departments. Further, even though retailers report an increasing
awareness of ORC, the proportion of retailers’ funds allocated to loss prevention budgets actually

67 In November, 2008, a federal jury returned convictions for five members of the HLF accused of providing about
$12.4 million in material support to Hamas. For more information, see http://www.fbi.gov/page2/nov08/
hlf_112508.html and http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2008/November/08-nsd-1046.html.
68 For more information on the potential links between organized crime in the United States and terrorist organizations,
see CRS Report R40525, Organized Crime in the United States: Trends and Issues for Congress, by Kristin M.
Finklea.
69 Pat Milton, “FBI Worries About an Osama-Sopranos Link,” Associated Press, October 1, 2006,
http://www.redorbit.com/news/general/676652/fbi_worries_about_an_osamasopranos_link/index.html. See also
Mapping the Global Structure, National Intelligence Council, Report of the National Intelligence Council’s 2020
Project, Based on consultations with nongovernmental experts around the world, Washington, D.C., December 2004, p.
96.
70 National Retail Federation, 2010 Organized Retail Crime Survey, 2010, p. 5.
71 Ibid., p. 6. Of the retailers responding to the NRF’s 2009 survey, the average annual labor costs spent to combat ORC
was $215,000, and 6% of these retailers spent over $1 million annually.
72 2008 National Retail Security Survey Final Report, p. 30.
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appears to be decreasing; retailers responding to the 2008 NRSS spent an average of 0.34% of
their annual sales on loss prevention—a proportion that, prior to 2004, had generally remained
above 0.50%.73
Retailers’ loss prevention strategies can take various different forms, including pre-employment
integrity screening measures, employee awareness programs, asset control policies, and loss
prevention systems. Data from the 2008 NRSS indicate that over half of retailers use the
following loss prevention systems or personnel:
• burglar alarms;
• digital video recording systems;
• live, visible closed circuit TV (CCTV);
• point of sale (POS) data mining software;
• armored car deposit pickups;
• check approval database screening systems;
• live, hidden CCTV;
• secured display fixtures;
• uniformed guards;
• acousto-magnetic, electronic security tags; and
• drop safes.74
However, data also indicate that less than half of retailers are using other available loss
prevention measures, such as Web-based case management and reporting; cables, locks,
and chains; remote CCTV video and audio; observation mirrors; plain-clothed store
detectives; and silent alarms.
In addition to their in-house loss prevention measures, some retailers and retail organizations also
partner with law enforcement to share information about potential cases of organized retail crime
(for more information on these partnerships, see the “Federal Law Enforcement” section).
Retailers responding to the 2008 NRSS indicated that almost 54% of ORC investigations were
coordinated with local, state, or federal law enforcement. As a result, about 48% of ORC cases
were prosecuted.75
Online Marketplaces
With an increase in the e-fencing of stolen merchandise, attention has recently turned to the role
of Internet marketplaces such as eBay and Overstock in combating ORC. These marketplaces

73 Ibid., p. 12. There are various explanations for the decrease in the proportion of sales spent on loss prevention. For
instance, one possibility is that an increase in total sales was not met with a relative increase in loss prevention
measures. While overall sales may have climbed (as is suggested by 2008 U.S. Department of Commerce Retail
Industry Census data), it is unknown whether loss prevention budgets increased, decreased, or remained the same.
74 Ibid., pp. 23-25.
75 2008 National Retail Security Survey Final Report, p. 30.
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take various measures to combat the sale of stolen and fraudulently obtained goods—not solely
by organized retail criminals—on their websites, including educating sellers and consumers,
monitoring suspicious activity, and partnering with retailers and law enforcement. For instance,
these marketplaces may provide guidelines for website use and require users to acknowledge
policies regarding goods that may or may not be sold through the website. In addition, online
markets may create filters to search for prohibited items up for auction. They may then take
actions such as removing the prohibited items, sanctioning the policy violator, or referring the
case to law enforcement. For example, eBay has created such filters based on input from
regulatory agencies, law enforcement agencies, the retail industry, and member reports.76
Another means by which Internet auction sites may combat the sale of stolen goods is to
collaborate with retailers and law enforcement. This could occur through the establishment of
investigative task forces or information sharing programs. Of the e-commerce websites most
commonly used by criminals to fence stolen goods, eBay claims to be the leader in working with
retailers and law enforcement to combat the online sale of stolen goods. For instance, in April
2008, eBay created PROACT (Partnering with Retailers Offensively to Attack Crime and Theft),
a program designed to combat the sale of stolen goods on eBay. In this program, retailers
voluntarily submit information about potentially stolen or fraudulently obtained goods being sold
on eBay. In the first nine months of 2009, retailers brought 415 cases to eBay through the
PROACT program.77 It is unknown, however, how many of these 415 cases may be directly
related to organized retail crime. In addition to creating its own programs to combat ORC, eBay
partnered with the NRF in March 2010 to fight this growing crime. The NRF/eBay partnership
will utilize PROACT and LERPnet technologies to help track ORC rings, collaborate with the
FBI to identify retail crime enterprises, and promote legislation to provide law enforcement with
adequate tools to combat ORC thieves.78
Federal Law Enforcement
As mentioned, state and local law enforcement have held the primary responsibility for
investigating and prosecuting organized retail crime. However, as the scope of the crime has
increased, so too has the involvement of federal law enforcement. Retail criminals are no longer
selling goods simply at local flea markets; rather, they are using interstate transportation routes to
move stolen goods, as well as the Internet to ship this merchandise across the country and around
the world.
Much like other forms of organized crime,79 organized retail crime is becoming increasingly
transnational. For law enforcement to effectively combat ORC, it must rely on multilateral
coordination, via both domestic and international task forces and partnerships. In addition to
expanding multilateral law enforcement partnerships, federal law enforcement has partnered with
the retail industry and online markets to combat the theft and illicit resale of stolen goods. Law
enforcement has also indicated that it has built cooperative relationships with retailers and online

76 From information provided to CRS during ORC briefing by representatives from eBay on July 27, 2009.
77 Information from correspondence between eBay and CRS, October 2, 2009.
78 National Retail Federation, “National Retail Federation, eBay Announce Partnership to Fight Organized Retail
Crime,” press release, March 22, 2010, http://www.nrf.com/modules.php?name=News&op=viewlive&sp_id=906.
79 For further information on organized crime, see CRS Report R40525, Organized Crime in the United States: Trends
and Issues for Congress
, by Kristin M. Finklea.
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markets and have generally not had trouble obtaining the needed information to investigate
potential cases of ORC.80
The following section provides a discussion of various federal law enforcement agencies’ current
efforts to combat organized retail crime.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
In December 2003, the FBI established an Organized Retail Theft (ORT) Initiative aimed at
identifying and dismantling multi-jurisdictional retail crime rings.81 The Initiative focuses on
information sharing between law enforcement and the private sector in order to investigate ORC
and develop a greater understanding of the nature and extent of ORC around the country. The
Initiative relies on federal statutes such as the Money Laundering,82 Interstate Transportation of
Stolen Property,83 and Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO)84 to investigate
and prosecute ORC rings. In addition to the Initiative, the FBI leads seven Major Theft Task
Forces around the country that are responsible for investigating a host of major theft areas,
including ORC. These task forces are composed of local, state, and federal law enforcement
agencies, as well as retail industry loss prevention experts. 85
In the Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005, Congress
directed the Attorney General and FBI to establish a clearinghouse within the private sector for
information sharing between retailers and law enforcement.86 The result was the Law
Enforcement Retail Partnership Network (LERPnet).87 LERPnet began as a partnership between
the FBI, ICE, various local police departments, individual retailers, and retail organizations
including the Food Marketing Institute (FMI), National Retail Federation (NRF), and Retail
Industry Leaders Association (RILA). As of January, 2010, LERPnet has been linked with the
FBI’s Law Enforcement Online (LEO) system, providing federal and local law enforcement a
direct link to retail industry crime reports.
Despite the establishment of the ORT Initiative, the use of the Major Theft Task Forces to
investigate ORC rings, and the creation of LERPnet, the FBI continues to focus most of its
resources on counterterrorism efforts. The FBI has indicated that the primary barrier to increasing
its involvement in ORC investigations is the lack of resources dedicated directly to combating

80 Testimony by law enforcement representatives from the FBI, ICE, USSS, and USPIS before the U.S. Congress,
House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, Combating
Organized Retail Crime: The Role of Federal Law Enforcement
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November 5, 2009. Also from
an ICE briefing for CRS, October 14, 2009 and a USSS briefing for CRS, November 13, 2009.
81 The FBI utilizes the term ORT rather than ORC so as not to create a confusion between organized retail crime and
traditional organized crime.
82 18 U.S.C. § 1956.
83 18 U.S.C. § 2314.
84 18 U.S.C., Chapter 96.
85 Testimony by David Johnson, Section Chief, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation,
before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland
Security, Combating Organized Retail Crime: The Role of Federal Law Enforcement, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November
5, 2009.
86 P.L. 109-162, § 1105, codified at 28 U.S.C. § 509 note.
87 For more information on LERPnet, see http://www.lerpnet.com/.
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retail crime. Although the FBI has reportedly requested this directed funding, it has yet to be
realized.88
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
Because ORC often involves interstate and international transportation of stolen goods and the
movement of illicit proceeds associated with the sale of these goods, ICE has become
increasingly involved in investigating ORC. Further, ICE may become ever more involved in
ORC investigations if reports indicating that ORC rings rely on unauthorized (illegal) aliens89
(particularly from Mexico) to act as boosters are true.90 Employing these aliens as low-level
boosters allows them to earn an income while protecting the higher-ups in the organization from
being apprehended while stealing; if apprehended, unauthorized aliens may be jailed and then
deported, saving higher-ups from the fines or jail time that they could otherwise face if arrested.
In July 2009, ICE launched an ORC Pilot Program. This program, originally slated to last for six
months in Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, and New York, focused on developing (1) an ORC
threat assessment, (2) a tracking system for ORC cases, (3) a database of retail industry contacts
to complement the LERPnet database, and (4) an investigation of how ORC groups exploit
vulnerabilities in the nation’s banking systems to launder illicit proceeds.91 ICE has indicated that
it intends to expand the pilot program into a nation-wide initiative if the results of the program
suggest that such an initiative would significantly improve the investigation and prosecution of
ORC rings. As of March 2010, the ORC Pilot Program had generated six ORC cases, six criminal
arrests, and five convictions.92 ICE has since extended the program to last an additional 12
months and expanded the program to the National Cyber Crimes Center.93
U.S. Secret Service (USSS)
The USSS is most well known for protecting the President and Vice President of the United
States, as well as visiting heads of state and government.94 However, it was originally established
as a law enforcement agency charged with investigating and preventing the counterfeiting of U.S.
currency. The USSS’s authorities have expanded, and the agency now investigates crimes ranging
from counterfeiting and financial institution fraud to identity crimes, computer crimes, and money

88 Testimony by David Johnson, Section Chief, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation,
before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland
Security, Combating Organized Retail Crime: The Role of Federal Law Enforcement, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November
5, 2009.
89 An alien is anyone who is not a citizen or national of the United States and is synonymous with non-citizen.
90 See, for example, Charles I. Miller, Organized Retail Theft: Raising Awareness, Offering Solutions, National Retail
Federation Foundation, 2005, p. 1. Some have suggested that unauthorized aliens may be particularly vulnerable to
being recruited by ORC groups because they are looking to earn money while in the United States and may be seen as
expendable by higher-ups in the organization.
91 Testimony by Janice Ayala, Assistant Director for Investigative Programs, Office of Investigations, U.S.
Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Department of Homeland Security, before the U.S. Congress, House
Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, Combating Organized Retail
Crime: The Role of Federal Law Enforcement
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November 5, 2009.
92 Information provided to CRS by ICE, March 19, 2010.
93 See the National Retail Federation, 2010 Organized Retail Crime Survey, 2010, p. 11. For more information on the
National Cyber Crimes Center, see http://www.ice.gov/partners/investigations/services/cyberbranch.htm.
94 See http://www.secretservice.gov/investigations.shtml.
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laundering.95 Through investigations into crimes such as credit card fraud,96 access device fraud97
and computer fraud,98 the USSS has occasionally become involved in investigating organized
retail crime groups who steal or fraudulently purchase merchandise from retailers (both
traditional and online) and then resell these goods for a profit online.99 The USSS receives ORC
case referrals from state and local law enforcement, retail industry investigators, and online
marketplaces fighting the sale of stolen goods.
The USSS has 28 Electronic Fraud Task Forces and 37 Financial Crimes Task Forces that
investigate various financial crimes, including ORC.100 In addition to state and local law
enforcement agencies, these task forces consist of investigators from retail stores, online auction
houses, and the banking and finance industries. There are an estimated 100 or more retail
investigators currently participating in the USSS task forces.
U.S. Postal Inspection Service (USPIS)
The USPIS works to prevent mail fraud as well as illegal substances, contraband, and dangerous
products from entering the mail system. When investigating cases of ORC, the USPIS
investigates individuals using the mail to ship stolen products or to transmit payment to a seller.
These ORC schemes tend to fall into the categories of Internet auction fraud and re-shipper
fraud.101 In cases of Internet auction fraud, the criminals sell stolen goods and ship them
domestically and internationally. In cases of re-shipper fraud, criminals may recruit individuals
(often unwitting accomplices102) to receive the stolen goods and then ship them (often
internationally) to other members of the criminal organization or to the buyer of the goods.103

95 According to the USSS, “investigations include counterfeiting of U.S. currency (to include coins); counterfeiting of
foreign currency (occurring domestically); identity crimes such as access device fraud, identity theft, false
identification fraud, bank fraud and check fraud; telemarketing fraud; telecommunications fraud (cellular and hard
wire); computer fraud; fraud targeting automated payment systems and teller machines; direct deposit fraud;
investigations of forgery, uttering, alterations, false impersonations or false claims involving U.S. Treasury Checks,
U.S. Saving Bonds, U.S. Treasury Notes, Bonds and Bills; electronic funds transfer (EFT) including Treasury
disbursements and fraud within the Treasury payment systems; Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation investigations;
Farm Credit Administration violations; and fictitious or fraudulent commercial instruments and foreign securities.” For
more information, see http://www.secretservice.gov/criminal.shtml.
96 18 U.S.C. § 1029(a)(10).
97 18 U.S.C. § 1029.
98 18 U.S.C. § 1030.
99 USSS briefing for CRS, November 13, 2009.
100 Ibid., See also testimony by John R. Large, Special Agent in Charge, Criminal Investigative Division, Office of
Investigations, U.S. Secret Service before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on
Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, Combating Organized Retail Crime: The Role of Federal Law Enforcement,
111th Cong., 1st sess., November 5, 2009.
101Testimony of Zane M. Hill, Deputy Chief Postal Inspector, U.S. Postal Inspection Service before the U.S. Congress,
House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, Combating
Organized Retail Crime: The Role of Federal Law Enforcement
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November 5, 2009.
102 One common method of recruiting these unwitting accomplices is through employment websites where the
criminals advertise work-from-home jobs as shippers.
103 For more information on re-shipping scams, see https://postalinspectors.uspis.gov/radDocs/consumer/
ReshippingScam.html.
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Issues for Consideration
When debating the federal government’s role in combating organized retail crime, including
sanctioning various actors that may be involved in committing or aiding these crimes, there are
several issues that policy makers may consider. One is whether retailers are taking sufficient
preventative measures to prevent retail theft. Another issue is whether criminalizing organized
retail crime at the federal level would allow for more effective investigation and prosecution of
these criminals. Yet another issue is whether regulating online marketplaces to require that such
entities increase information sharing with retailers and law enforcement would improve
investigations and prosecutions of ORC as well as decrease the prevalence of retail thieves
fencing stolen goods via legitimate online marketplaces.
Are Retailers Doing Enough?
The first line of defense against organized retail crime is preventing the crimes from ever
occurring. This involves security at the manufacturing sites, distribution centers, retail stores, and
in the transportation throughout this supply chain.104 The NRSS present trends in retail industry
loss prevention measures since 1991. The 2008 NRSS reports that retailers spent 0.34% of annual
sales on loss prevention measures such as contract services, security equipment, and loss
prevention personnel.105 This includes about 140 loss prevention employees for every $100
million in annual sales.106 As mentioned, prior to 2004, the percent of annual sales spent on loss
prevention was consistently above 0.50%, but that amount has been decreasing over the past
several years. Some experts explain this decrease in the loss prevention budget as a reaction to
declines in overall inventory shrinkage over the past several years.107 Despite this general decline
in shrinkage rates, 59% of retailers surveyed have seen an increase in ORC activity.108 Another
explanation for the average decline in loss prevention budgets may stem from the recent
economic downturn if retailers scaled back on loss prevention measures in order to save on costs.
CRS was unable to locate data, however, on whether retailers are not spending on loss prevention
because they cannot afford to or because they choose not to spend in this area.
For multiple reasons, it is difficult to empirically determine whether retailers are doing “enough”
to combat ORC. For one, retailers must strike a balance between protecting their merchandise
from thieves and creating an environment where honest consumers can easily find and purchase
the desired products. If retailers take every precaution to lock up “hot” products and install
security measures that make it difficult for consumers to get the desired product in a hassle-free
and timely fashion, they may risk losing customers to competitors who provide a more relaxed
shopping environment. If, on the other hand, retailers err on the side of being “customer friendly”
by keeping products out in the open, they may open themselves up to thieves.

104 Detailed information on retailers’ efforts to combat ORC is provided in the “Retailers” section of this report.
105 2008 National Retail Security Survey Final Report, p. 12.
106 Ibid., p. 15.
107 Ibid., p. 12.
108 As mentioned, the NRF’s 2010 survey of retailers reports that about 90% of the retailers surveyed indicated that
their companies had been victimized by ORC, a decrease over the 92% that reported victimization in 2009, but an
increase over the 85% that reported victimization in 2008. While the overall percentage of retailers reporting ORC
victimization decreased in 2010, a majority (59%) of surveyed retailers still reported an increase in ORC activity. See
National Retail Federation, 2010 Organized Retail Crime Survey, 2010.
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There are several policy options that may enhance retailers’ abilities to combat ORC that policy
makers may consider. In the literature, there appears to be a lack of research on the effectiveness
of various loss prevention strategies on combating retail theft in general and ORC in particular.
Understanding the strategies that have proven to reduce retail theft related to ORC may enhance
retailers’ abilities to secure their merchandise. Consequently, one option may be for Congress to
commission a national study to examine promising loss prevention strategies. A second option
may be for Congress to consider establishing a grant program that would provide funding to
retailers to install or upgrade security systems and loss prevention measures in their stores.
Congress could require that retailers comply with various benchmarks in order to receive grant
funding; for instance, a grant program may require that retailers work with law enforcement to
identify and apprehend members of ORC rings. Another potential requirement could be that
retailers join LERPnet in order to be eligible for grant funding. Yet another eligibility requirement
could be that retailers provide matching loss prevention funds.
Federally Criminalizing ORC
Combating retail theft has primarily been handled by state law enforcement under state criminal
laws. In particular, major theft laws are the statutes that states have relied upon most to
investigate and prosecute ORC. These major theft laws, however, vary from state to state with
respect to the monetary threshold that constitutes major theft.109 While some states, such as New
Jersey and Massachusetts, have relatively low thresholds, other states, such as Wisconsin and
Pennsylvania, have relatively higher thresholds. Over one-third of states have felony theft
thresholds that meet or exceed $1,000. With respect to organized retail crime, 16 states have
passed legislation criminalizing ORC, and 8 others have pending legislation.110
There is currently no federal law specifically prohibiting organized retail crime as such. There
are, however, provisions in the U.S. Code that federal law enforcement uses to bring forth cases
against ORC rings. Examples of such provisions include
• 18 U.S.C. § 1956, “Laundering of monetary instruments”;
• 18 U.S.C. § 1957, “Engaging in monetary transactions in property derived from
specified unlawful activity”;
• 18 U.S.C., Chapter 96, the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations
(RICO) provisions;
• 18 U.S.C. § 2314, “Transportation of stolen goods, securities, moneys, fraudulent
State tax stamps, or articles used in counterfeiting”; and
• 18 U.S.C. § 2315, “Sale or receipt of stolen goods, securities, moneys, or
fraudulent State tax stamps.”
Current federal law addressing theft does not criminalize the theft itself, but rather prohibits the
transportation of stolen goods across state lines111 as well as the sale or receipt of these goods.112

109 See the Appendix for a table displaying felony theft levels by state.
110 From an organized retail crime and felony theft level database maintained and provided to CRS by Frank Muscato,
ORC Investigations Supervisor, Organized Retail Crime Division, Walgreens, November 9, 2009.
111 18 U.S.C. § 2314.
112 18 U.S.C. § 2315.
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For these activities to be considered federal crimes, the monetary value of the stolen goods must
meet or exceed $5,000.
When debating the federal government’s role in combating organized retail crime, Congress may
consider whether current law should be amended to create new provisions that would provide
penalties for ORC. 113 Proponents of such legislation argue that criminalizing ORC may benefit
law enforcement in several ways, including (1) illuminating the growing problem of ORC and (2)
providing a statutory framework for tracking ORC case data rather than lumping these cases into
other categories for statistical purposes. Opponents of legislation criminalizing ORC argue that
already existing statutes allow for effective investigation and prosecution of ORC (as outlined
above) and that creating a separate provision for ORC would be redundant. Representatives from
federal law enforcement agencies have provided congressional testimony indicating that they
indeed have sufficient laws and procedural tools to investigate ORC.114 As mentioned,
impediments to investigating and prosecuting these cases may come more from a lack of
resources than from a need for better investigative and prosecutorial tools.
Another policy option that Congress may consider could be enacting provisions that would lower
the monetary threshold from $5,000 for the sale, receipt, or transportation of stolen goods across
state lines (18 U.S.C. § 2314 and 18 U.S.C. § 2315).115 Currently, the highest state felony theft
level is $2,500, and the average is slightly over $700.116 Savvy criminals know each state’s felony
theft level and steal merchandise valuing just under this level so as to avoid state felony charges if
caught. Federal investigators and prosecutors may rely upon the sum total of merchandise stolen
in various states and moved across state lines in order to prosecute these thieves. The average
value of goods transported, sold, or received by members of ORC rings is currently unknown. If
this value were under the current federal threshold of $5,000, the data may support legislation
decreasing the threshold. One issue that Congress may face if it amends the $5,000 limit for the
sale, receipt, or transportation of stolen goods across state lines may be whether such a policy
shift would also open the doors for the federal government to prosecute individuals not involved
in ORC rings.
If Congress determines that there are sufficient investigative and prosecutorial tools available for
law enforcement to combat ORC, one issue that policy makers may face is whether to provide
dedicated funding to law enforcement to enhance their ability to take on more ORC cases. Law
enforcement has suggested that although the investigative tools are available, it may prioritize and
utilize resources in higher-priority areas117—such as counterterrorism and fraud investigations.118

113 The Organized Retail Crime Act of 2009 (H.R. 1173) would, among other things, define and criminalize ORC. It
would also modify the transportation of stolen goods as well as the sale and receipt of stolen goods statutes to include
ORC. Similarly, the Organized Retail Crime Prevention and Enforcement Act of 2009 (H.R. 4011) would expand these
statutes to criminalize the transportation to and sale of goods (that were stolen or fraudulently obtained) on an online
marketplace.
114 Testimony by law enforcement representatives from the FBI, ICE, USSS, and USPIS before the U.S. Congress,
House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security, Combating
Organized Retail Crime: The Role of Federal Law Enforcement
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November 5, 2009.
115 The Organized Retail Crime Prevention and Enforcement Act of 2009 (H.R. 4011) would, among other things,
lower the monetary threshold to $1,000 for the sale, receipt, and transportation of stolen goods across state lines. The
Combating Organized Retail Crime Act of 2009 (S. 470) would amend the statutes to criminalize the sale, receipt, or
transportation of stolen goods having an aggregate value of $5,000 or more during any 12-month period.
116 See the Appendix for a table displaying felony theft levels by state.
117 Testimony by David Johnson, Section Chief, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation,
before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland
(continued...)
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Therefore, another policy option may be to provide directed resources to federal law enforcement
to investigate and prosecute ORC cases.
Regulation of Online and Physical Marketplaces
As mentioned, organized retail criminals use both physical and online marketplaces as fences to
sell stolen goods. With an increasingly globalized society, these criminals take advantage of the
Internet for their illegal activities. In an effort to curb sales of stolen goods online, one policy
option that Congress may consider is increased regulation of certain actions on the Internet. In the
past, Congress has regulated actions on the Internet that involve interstate commerce. For
example, Congress enacted legislation that prohibited unlawful Internet gambling.119 Among
other things, this legislation also included provisions holding certain computer services, Internet
websites, telecommunications services, and financial transaction providers liable for illegal
gambling if they aid or have knowledge of the Internet gambling.120 Along the same lines,
Congress may consider whether to regulate online auction websites to require them to document,
retain, and disclose—to designated law enforcement—information about specified sellers,
including those suspected of fencing stolen goods. Proponents of such regulation argue that this
could better enable law enforcement to track suspected fences and that it may act as a deterrent,
discouraging potential thieves from fencing stolen goods.121 Opponents of this type of regulation
argue that online marketplaces already share such information because it is in their best interests
to prevent the sale of stolen goods, promote the business of legitimate sellers, and ensure that
customers receive genuine and safe products.
Another policy option that policy makers may consider is the regulation of physical marketplaces,
such as flea markets. One the one hand, some may argue that flea markets should be regulated by
state laws because the face-to-face transactions at these markets do not directly involve interstate
commerce. Others, however, may contend that the federal government could regulate the goods
sold at flea markets because they were likely involved in interstate commerce before being sold at
the market. Further, it could be argued that the federal government could direct this regulation
toward the sale of certain, already-regulated products such as goods regulated by the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act.122

(...continued)
Security, Combating Organized Retail Crime: The Role of Federal Law Enforcement, 111th Cong., 1st sess., November
5, 2009.
118 Testimony by Robert S. Mueller, III, Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation, before the U.S. Congress, Senate
Committee on the Judiciary, Oversight of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, 111th Cong., 1st sess., September 16,
2009.
119 See 18 U.S.C. § 1084 and Title VIII of P.L. 109-347, Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement, codified at 31
U.S.C. § 5361 et seq.
120 See 31 U.S.C. § 5365 - 5366.
121 The E-fencing Enforcement Act of 2009 (H.R. 1166) would, among other things, require online marketplaces to
disclose to law enforcement the contact information of high volume sellers who are selling goods matching law
enforcement’s description of stolen goods. Also, the Organized Retail Crime Act of 2009 (H.R. 1173) would, among
other things, require online marketplaces to investigate credible claims of stolen goods (obtained and sold via ORC)
being sold on their websites. It would also necessitate such marketplaces to require that high-volume sellers make
available contact information and information about the source of the products sold.
122 21 U.S.C. § 301.
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Appendix. State Felony Theft Levels
Table A-1. State Felony Theft Levels
State
Felony Theft Level (in dollars)
Alabama 500
Alaska 500
Arizona 1,000
Arkansas 500
California 400
Colorado 500
Connecticut 1,000
Delaware 1,000
Florida 300
Georgia 300
Hawai 300
Idaho 1,000
Illinois 150
Indiana Anya
Iowa 1,000
Kansas 1,000
Kentucky 500
Louisiana 500
Maine 1,000
Maryland 1,000
Massachusetts 250
Michigan 1,000
Minnesota 500
Mississippi 500
Missouri 500
Montana 1,000
Nebraska 500
Nevada 250
New Hampshire
500
New Jersey
250
New Mexico
500
New York
1,000
North Carolina
1,000
North Dakota
500
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State
Felony Theft Level (in dollars)
Ohio 500
Oklahoma 500
Oregon 750
Pennsylvania 2,000
Rhode Island
500
South Carolina
1,000
South Dakota
500
Tennessee 500
Texas 1,500
Utah 1,000
Vermont 900
Virginia 200
Washington 750
Washington, DC
250
West Virginia
1,000
Wisconsin 2,500
Wyoming 1,000
Federalb 5,000
Source: CRS presentation of data provided by Frank Muscato, Walgreens ORC Investigations Supervisor,
November 9, 2009.
a. In Indiana, theft is always a Class D felony, regardless of amount.
b. The federal law addressing theft does not criminalize theft itself, but rather prohibits the transportation of
stolen goods across state lines (18 U.S.C. § 2314) as well as the sale or receipt of these goods (18 U.S.C. §
2315).

Author Contact Information

Kristin M. Finklea

Analyst in Domestic Security
kfinklea@crs.loc.gov, 7-6259





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