Zimbabwe: The Transitional Government and
Implications for U.S. Policy

Lauren Ploch
Analyst in African Affairs
May 10, 2010
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL34509
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress

Zimbabwe: The Transitional Government and Implications for U.S. Policy

Summary
Over a year after the establishment of a transitional government in Zimbabwe, economic and
humanitarian conditions are gradually improving, but concerns about the country’s political future
remain. In February 2009, after almost a year of uncertainty following March 2008 elections,
opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai was sworn as Prime Minister of a new coalition
government. His swearing-in came five months after a power-sharing agreement was signed in an
effort to resolve the political standoff resulting from the flawed elections. For the first time since
independence, the ruling party had lost its parliamentary majority. The results of the presidential
race, announced over a month late amid rising tensions, indicated that Tsvangirai had received
more votes than the incumbent, President Robert Mugabe, but had failed to gain the 50% needed
to avoid a runoff. Days before the runoff, in late June 2008, Tsvangirai pulled out of the race,
citing widespread political violence and the absence of conditions for a free and fair election.
Mugabe was declared the winner, but many observer missions suggest the poll did not reflect the
will of the people. In September, after weeks of negotiations, Tsvangirai and Mugabe reached an
agreement to form a unity government, with Mugabe remaining head of state, Tsvangirai
becoming Prime Minister, and cabinet and gubernatorial positions divided among the parties.
Disputes over key ministries delayed the agreement’s implementation for months.
The parties to the agreement face significant challenges in working together to promote political
reconciliation and to address serious economic and humanitarian needs. Politically motivated
violence and repression followed the 2008 elections, which were held amidst a deepening
economic crisis. Zimbabwe’s gross domestic product (GDP) had decreased over 50% in the last
decade, and the inflation rate rose to over 200 million percent in 2008. Following the
establishment of the transitional government, the economy has begun a slow recovery and
inflation has subsided, but the official unemployment rate remains over 90%. The adult HIV
prevalence rate of 15% has contributed to a sharp drop in life expectancy, and, although
humanitarian conditions have begun to improve, approximately three million required food aid in
early 2010. Over 4,300 died between August 2008 and July 2009 from a widespread cholera
outbreak that infected almost 100,000 and was attributed to poor water and sanitation conditions.
Deteriorating conditions in the country led many Zimbabweans to immigrate to neighboring
countries in recent years, creating a substantial burden on the region. International donors
welcomed the power sharing agreement and have begun to reengage with the Zimbabwean
government, but a resumption of significant assistance is expected to be predicated on more
substantial political reforms. Many remain skeptical that true power sharing exists within the
coalition government. Several officials from the previous administration, which had a poor
human rights record and was seen as autocratic and repressive by its critics, remain in the new
government. Reports of harassment of opposition and civil society activists continue, and many
question the ruling party’s commitment to reform. Foreign investors also remain wary.
The U.S. government has been critical of Mugabe and members of his former regime for their
lack of respect for human rights and the rule of law, and has enforced targeted sanctions against
top government officials and associates since 2002. Congress articulated its opposition to the
Mugabe government’s undemocratic policies in the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic
Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA; P.L. 107-99) and subsequent legislation. The Obama
Administration has expressed cautious support for the transitional government, but debate
continues within the government on how to proceed, and recent legislation, S. 3297, has proposed
policy changes. Some suggest that U.S. sanctions be modified to reflect Zimbabwe’s new political
construct, while others remain unconvinced that sufficient democratic reforms have occurred.
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Zimbabwe: The Transitional Government and Implications for U.S. Policy

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Background ................................................................................................................................ 1
March 2008 Elections ........................................................................................................... 2
Was ZANU-PF Planning for a Coalition Government? .......................................................... 4
Post-Election Violence .......................................................................................................... 4
The Power-Sharing Agreement.................................................................................................... 5
The Transitional Government ...................................................................................................... 6
Economic Reforms Made, but Challenges Remain ................................................................ 7
Humanitarian “Plus” Assistance and the Multi-Donor Trust Fund (MDTF)...................... 8
Public Finance Management and Reserve Bank Reforms................................................. 9
Efforts to Revive the Economy...................................................................................... 10
Calls for Political Reforms Continue ................................................................................... 12
The Security Sector and Possible Internal Struggles within ZANU-PF........................... 14
Human Rights Abuses ................................................................................................... 15
Justice Sector Reforms .................................................................................................. 16
Farm Invasions ............................................................................................................. 16
“Blood Diamonds”? ...................................................................................................... 17
Cholera Outbreak...................................................................................................................... 18
International Reactions.............................................................................................................. 19
The Southern African Development Community (SADC).................................................... 19
The African Union (AU) ..................................................................................................... 21
South Africa........................................................................................................................ 22
Xenophobic Attacks Against Immigrants....................................................................... 23
The United Nations ............................................................................................................. 23
The United Kingdom and the European Union .................................................................... 25
U.S. Policy on Zimbabwe.......................................................................................................... 25
Congressional Interest and Relevant Legislation.................................................................. 26
U.S. Assistance ................................................................................................................... 28
Current Restrictions on U.S. Assistance......................................................................... 28
Policy Options .......................................................................................................................... 31
Diplomatic Pressure ............................................................................................................ 32
Humanitarian Assistance ..................................................................................................... 32
Economic Recovery ............................................................................................................ 33
Accountability and Reform ................................................................................................. 36

Appendixes
Appendix. Members of Zimbabwe’s Inclusive Government....................................................... 37

Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 38
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Zimbabwe: The Transitional Government and Implications for U.S. Policy

Introduction
President Robert Mugabe, 86, and his party, the Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic
Front (ZANU-PF), have ruled Zimbabwe since its independence in 1980. Rising inflation and
unemployment rates contributed in the late 1990s to the creation of the opposition Movement for
Democratic Change (MDC). The MDC enjoyed initial success, campaigning against a
referendum in 2000 that would have expanded the president’s powers, made government officials
immune from prosecution, and allowed the uncompensated seizure of white-owned land for
redistribution to black farmers. The referendum failed, and the MDC won nearly half the
parliamentary seats in that year’s election. Members of ZANU-PF have since taken numerous,
often undemocratic actions to maintain power. After months of uncertainty following a power-
sharing agreement, known as the Global Political Agreement (GPA), negotiated in September
2008 between ZANU-PF and the opposition, the parties reached a final accord in January 2009
that has led to the creation of a coalition government with senior positions divided among the
parties. Given long-standing tensions between ZANU-PF and the MDC, many observers have
expressed skepticism that the parties can now truly share power. Initial reforms by the new
government stemmed Zimbabwe’s runaway inflation rate, but significant challenges to the
country’s recovery remain. In October 2009, citing “blatant” violations of the GPA by ZANU-PF,
the MDC announced that it was suspending cooperation with ZANU-PF, but would remain in the
coalition government while party leaders worked to address outstanding issues (see “Calls for
Political Reforms Continue”).1 Following a mediation effort by Southern African leaders the
MDC reengaged with their ZANU-PF counterparts the following month, but several of the party’s
demands for reform remain outstanding and negotiations between the parties continue.
Background
In January 2009, prior to the new government’s formation, Zimbabwe was considered by some
analysts to be a failed state.2 Dubbed “the world’s fastest shrinking economy,” Zimbabwe’s Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) had declined over 50% since 2000.3 After several years of
hyperinflation, the country’s official inflation rate had risen to a level at which prices doubled in
less than 24 hours. Zimbabwe’s economy had effectively collapsed.
Today, Zimbabwe continues to face serious political and economic challenges that critics suggest
stem from years of poor governance and mismanagement. Life expectancy for Zimbabweans fell
from an estimated 56 years in 1990 to 44 in 2008.4 Over 90% of the population lack formal
employment. Some seven million Zimbabweans reportedly required food aid in the first months
of 2009, and, while food security has since improved, an estimated three million required food aid

1 October 20, 2009, Interview with Prime Minister Tsvangirai available on http://www.zimbabweprimeminister.com.
2 Foreign Policy magazine ranked Zimbabwe third on its list of failed states in 2008, behind Somalia and Sudan. The
country ranked second in 2009, switching places with Sudan. The magazine uses 12 economic, social, political, and
military indicators to rank countries in order of their “vulnerability to violent internal conflict and social dysfunction.”
Zimbabwe’s rank on the index slid 14 points from 2005 to 2006, suggesting that the country’s situation had
deteriorated significantly. “The Failed States Index,” Foreign Policy, 2009.
3 Annual GDP growth has fallen on average by -5.9% since 2000. According to the IMF, it fell 40% from 2000-2007,
and a further 14% in 2008. In 2009, real GDP growth was estimated at -1.3%, but it is forecast to rise to 2.5% in 2010
and to 5% in 2011, according to the Economist Intelligence Unit.
4 UNAIDS, Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic, and CIA, CIA World Factbook.
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in early 2010.5 The breakdown of the country’s dilapidated water and sewage systems contributed
to an outbreak of cholera that, from August 2008 to July 2009, resulted in several thousand deaths
and infected almost 100,000.6 In 2009, an estimated six million people, over half the population,
had little or no access to safe drinking water or sanitation. International donors have subsequently
contributed over $54 million to begin to rehabilitate these systems, but the risks posed by
waterborne diseases remain high. An estimated 3-4 million Zimbabweans have emigrated in the
last decade, including up to half of the country’s doctors and nurses. Many hospitals and clinics
continue to lack basic medicines, supplies, and functioning equipment. The country’s public
education system has suffered a major decline in recent years; most public schools closed in late
2008 as teachers went on strike over unpaid salaries. Today, schools have reopened, but teachers
receive wages that are a fraction of those received by their regional counterparts. In February
2010, many teachers joined other civil servants to strike for higher wages. They threatened to
strike again as a new school term began in May 2010, but after negotiations agreed to give the
government more time to raise revenues.
Flawed elections in 2008 and subsequent months of widespread political violence left the country
bitterly divided in early 2009. At that time, the government of Zimbabwe, considered to be
authoritarian by the U.S. State Department and others, found few allies in the international
community; several countries, including Botswana, refused to recognize its legitimacy.
March 2008 Elections7
Following years of political tensions and a violent March 2007 assault by police on government
critics that drew widespread international criticism, then-South African President Thabo Mbeki
initiated a mediation effort between the government of Zimbabwe and the opposition to create
political conditions for free and fair elections, the results of which would be accepted by all
parties. Although the negotiations resulted in the amendment of some laws seen to restrict press
freedom and political activity, the talks were abandoned after Mugabe announced that elections
would be held on March 29, 2008. Human rights activists argue that the legislative changes were
cosmetic and that the talks failed to create a level playing field prior to the elections.8
The two factions of the main opposition party, the MDC, which split in 2005, remained divided
prior to the elections.9 Despite rumors of dissatisfaction with Mugabe’s continued rule from
within his own party, the party’s central committee nominated Mugabe to be their presidential
candidate. The committee also supported a resolution to hold all elections (presidential,

5 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Food Program, Special Report: Crop and
Food Security Assessment Mission to Zimbabwe
, June 22, 2009 and USAID, “Zimbabwe – Complex Emergency,”
Situation Report #1, Fiscal Year (FY) 2010, April 26, 2010.
6 Between August 2008 and July 2009, Zimbabwe’s cholera epidemic infected over 98,500 and killed almost 4,300,
according to UN sources. After significant international intervention, the rate of infection declined, and from
September 2009 to January 2010 there were approximately 150 cases reported and five deaths. A new outbreak began
in February 2010, but the percentage of confirmed cases since September 2009 remains less than 1 percent of cases
during the same period in 2008/2009.
7 For more details on the 2008 elections, see CRS Report RL32723, Zimbabwe, by Lauren Ploch.
8 See, for example, Human Rights Watch (HRW), All Over Again: Human Rights Abuses and Flawed Electoral
Conditions in Zimbabwe’s Coming General Elections,
Vol. 20, No. 2(A), March 2008, and International Crisis Group
(ICG), Africa Report No. 138, Zimbabwe: Prospects from a Flawed Election, March 20, 2008.
9 The MDC split in 2005 due to internal struggles; one faction, known as MDC-T, is led by Tsvangirai while the other,
MDC-M, is led by Arthur Mutambara.
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parliamentary, and local council) at the same time, and to reduce the terms for all public offices
from six to five years. In addition, they voted to back efforts to increase the number of
parliamentarians. Critics contend that these proposals were an effort to manipulate the electoral
process through gerrymandering, with the new constituencies created in rural areas where the
ruling party had stronger support.10 The proposals were included in a controversial Constitutional
Amendment Bill, which, to the surprise of many observers, was passed by the parliament in 2007
with the support of MDC Members of Parliament (MPs). The final version of the legislation, did,
however, include some changes seen as concessions to the opposition, and reports suggest that the
MDC supported the legislation because of progress in the South Africa negotiations.
In February 2008, a senior member of ZANU-PF, Simba Makoni, announced his intention to run
against President Mugabe in the upcoming elections. He was subsequently expelled from the
party and ran as an independent, although he was rumored to have the support of several
unnamed senior party officials. Makoni, 57, served as Finance Minister from 2000 to 2002 and
was reportedly dismissed after criticizing the administration’s economic policies. Opposition
leader Tsvangirai dismissed Makoni as “old wine in a new bottle,” but rival MDC leader Arthur
Mutambara withdrew as a presidential candidate and expressed his support for Makoni.
In the pre-election period, civic activists reported significant pre-election irregularities. The
Zimbabwean government invited election observers from over 40 countries and regional
organizations, including SADC, but allegedly barred observers from countries considered to be
critical of its policies.11 Western media organizations and journalists were also reportedly denied
permission to cover the elections.12
Zimbabwe’s first “harmonized” elections were held on March 29, 2008.13 The Zimbabwe
Electoral Commission (ZEC), widely criticized for its delayed release of the electoral results,
announced the National Assembly results four days after the election. For the first time since
independence, ZANU-PF lost its majority in the National Assembly. The MDC factions, known
as MDC-Tsvangirai (MDC-T) and MDC-Mutambara (MDC-M) for their respective leaders,
which reunited on April 28, won 109 seats in the 220-seat National Assembly, over ZANU-PF’s
97. After a month of rising tensions, the results of the presidential race were belatedly announced
on May 2. They indicated that Morgan Tsvangirai had received more votes than Mugabe, but had
failed to garner the 50% needed to avoid a runoff.14
Although the opposition accused the government of manipulating the results and initially objected
to participating in a runoff, Morgan Tsvangirai agreed to stand against President Mugabe in a
second round of voting. While electoral law requires the government to hold a runoff election
within 21 days of announcing the initial results, the ZEC declared that the runoff would not be
held until June 27, three months after the first round. During the following weeks, reports of
political violence increased dramatically, in what many critics contend was a government-
orchestrated attempt to punish opposition supporters and ensure a Mugabe victory in the runoff.

10 “Zimbabwe Ruling Party Accused of Manipulating Electoral Process,” Voice of America, April 18, 2007.
11 See “First Poll Observers in Zimbabwe,” BBC, March 11, 2008.
12 “CNN Denied Permission to Cover Elections in Zimbabwe,” CNN, March 25, 2008.
13 The 2008 “harmonized” elections were held for all levels of government (local, National Assembly, Senate, and
presidential) simultaneously.
14 The ZEC declared that Tsvangirai received 47.9% of the votes, Mugabe 43.2% and Makoni 8.3%. Some independent
tallies, including the MDC’s, suggest that Tsvangirai may have actually received over 50% of the votes.
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Several of the country’s security service chiefs, including the heads of the army and the police,
publicly announced that they would not recognize an electoral victory by anyone other that
Mugabe.15 Citing the high number of attacks against MDC supporters and the lack of a level
playing field, Tsvangirai withdrew from the race days before the election. Despite public
comments from African observer missions and a presidential statement from the United Nations
Security Council arguing that conditions for a free and fair election did not exist, the government
held the runoff as scheduled. Mugabe was declared the winner with over 85% of the vote and
inaugurated on June 29, 2008. His electoral victory in the runoff election was declared
illegitimate by several countries, including the United States and Botswana.
Was ZANU-PF Planning for a Coalition Government?
Prior to the runoff, Zimbabwe’s state-controlled media sent mixed signals about the regime’s
post-election plans. On April 23, the government-owned Herald newspaper printed an editorial
that suggested SADC should mediate between the parties to create a transitional coalition
government, led by President Mugabe, that would organize new elections.16 The following day
the paper announced on its website that a unity government was “not feasible.” According to a
May 2008 International Crisis Group report, some senior ZANU-PF members, including Vice
President Joyce Mujuru and Reserve Bank governor Gideon Gono, tried to convince the president
to accept a unity government, but were overruled by senior security officials.17 Central to the
concerns of ZANU-PF hardliners, critics assert, are questions regarding immunity for serious
human rights abuses committed since independence. Both parties issued public statements after
the elections indicating a willingness to negotiate, but ZANU-PF declared that Tsvangirai must
acknowledge Mugabe's victory as a prerequisite. Tsvangirai refused to do so. Some believe
ZANU-PF had planned to negotiate even before the runoff, but wanted to enter the talks from a
position of power, with Mugabe having won the second round.
Post-Election Violence
As noted above, although observers suggest that the March 29 election day was largely peaceful,
reports of politically motivated violence subsequently increased to a level not seen in two
decades, according to advocacy groups. The MDC has alleged that over 500 of its supporters
were killed in the months after the election.18 U.S. Ambassador James McGee implicated the
ruling party in orchestrating the attacks (see “U.S. Policy on Zimbabwe” below).19
ZANU-PF and the Zimbabwean army have denied involvement with the violence, although the
army, police; intelligence service; “war veterans;”20 and Zimbabwe’s National Youth Service, also
known as the “Green Bombers,” have all been implicated. One week after the elections, self-
styled war veteran leader Jabuli Sibanda warned, “It has come to our realization that the elections
were used as another war front to prepare for the reinvasion of our country.... As freedom fighters,

15 “Zim Prisons Chief Orders Officers to Vote Mugabe,” Reuters, February 29, 2008.
16 “West Should Stop Blocking Zimbabwe’s Way Forward,” The Herald (Harare), April 23, 2008.
17 International Crisis Group, “Zimbabwe: Prospects from a Flawed Election,” Africa Report No. 138, March 20, 2008.
18 “Zimbabwe’s Former Opposition MDC Says 500 Died in 2008 Political Violence,” VOA, August 9, 2009.
19Statement by Ambassador James McGee, “Breaking the Silence on Political Violence in Zimbabwe,” May 8, 2008.
20Among those calling themselves “war veterans,” some have questionable credentials, and some are too young to have
participated in the liberation struggle. Some other veterans disagree with ZANU-PF’s policies.
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we feel compelled to repel the invasion,” echoing a frequent Mugabe refrain that an opposition
victory would be tantamount to the British reinstating colonial rule. The state-owned Herald
newspaper, contributed to fears of a white takeover in the wake of the election, reporting, “an
increasing number of white former commercial farmers are reportedly threatening resettled black
farmers throughout the country with eviction from their farms or face the wrath of an anticipated
‘incoming MDC government.’”21 These pronouncements coincided with farm invasions
throughout the country, and by mid-April 2008 the Commercial Farmers Union reported that over
100 of the estimated remaining 400 white farmers had been forced off their lands. Further
evictions in 2009 may have reduced the number to less than 250.
Zimbabwe’s rural areas appear to have been the hardest hit by the post-election violence; the U.S.
Embassy in Harare documented thousands who fled the countryside for urban areas in the months
after the March elections. Most Harare medical clinics were at full capacity during the height of
the violence, according to the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Zimbabwe’s
largest farmers’ union reported that militias displaced over 40,000 farm workers, and there were
widespread reports of burned homes, granaries, and livestock.22 The United Nations’ resident
representative in Zimbabwe stated at the time, “there is an emerging pattern of political violence
inflicted mainly, but not exclusively, on suspected followers of the MDC.” The level of violence
was confirmed by an eight-person SADC mission: “we have seen it, there are people in hospital
who said they have been tortured, you have seen pictures, you have seen pictures of houses that
have been destroyed and so on.”23
Some Zimbabwean officials, including the police chief, have accused the MDC of rigging and
inciting violence. More than 10 newly elected MDC legislators were arrested in the wake of the
March elections. Sixteen other MDC officials and human rights activists were charged with
terrorism and sabotage. Over 100 election officers were arrested on charges of committing fraud
and abusing public office in favor of the MDC. Independent reports suggest that teachers, who
held many of the election officer positions, were specifically targeted by government supporters.
The Power-Sharing Agreement
Questions surrounding the legitimacy of the Zimbabwe government in the wake of the March and
June 2008 elections left the country mired in political uncertainty for much of 2008. President
Mugabe delayed the swearing in of the new parliament and the naming of a new cabinet as Mbeki
and other international leaders pressed for talks between the parties. When the parliament was
sworn in on August 25, 2008, Lovemore Moyo, an MP from the MDC Tsvangirai faction, was
elected as Speaker. He received 110 votes, beating MDC-M MP Paul Themba-Nyathi, who had
received 98 votes, including those of most ZANU-PF members of parliament. Two MDC-T MPs
were arrested prior to the swearing in, but were later released.
On September 15, after several weeks of negotiations overseen by Mbeki, Mugabe and Tsvangirai
signed a power-sharing arrangement aimed at resolving the political standoff. The agreement,
known as the Global Political Agreement (GPA), outlined a time frame for the drafting and

21 “White Former Farmers Threaten Blacks with Eviction,” The Herald, May 7, 2008.
22 “Hunger Drives Post-Election Violence, Deepens Poverty,” IRIN, May 9, 2008.
23 “Call for State of Emergency Over Zim Violence,” Mail & Guardian, May 14, 2008.
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adoption of a new constitution.24 As part of the deal, Tsvangirai would become Prime Minister in
a new unity government, and cabinet positions would be divided among the parties. The MDC
factions would take 16 ministerial positions, three of which would come from the MDC-M
faction, and ZANU-PF would take 15 positions. Mugabe, who remains head of state under the
arrangement, would lead the cabinet, but Tsvangirai, who would chair a Council of Ministers,
would be responsible for the day-to-day management of government affairs.25 Early reports
claimed that Tsvangirai would gain control of the police force, while Mugabe would retain
control of the armed forces. The text of the agreement, however, left the oversight of the police,
which falls under the Ministry of Home Affairs, undetermined, and ZANU-PF refused to
relinquish the position.
In the months after the agreement was signed, the MDC accused the government of abducting and
torturing over forty opposition and civil society leaders, including human rights activist Jestina
Mukuko. Mukuko’s whereabouts were unknown for three weeks before she was presented in
court on charges of treason (see “Human Rights Abuses” below).26 Southern African leaders
continued to call on the parties to implement the agreement, and for the parties to share the Home
Affairs ministry, but Tsvangirai, citing the continued harassment of his colleagues, declared the
deal to be unworkable. After Mugabe announced plans to name a new cabinet with or without
Tsvangirai’s participation, SADC leaders renewed efforts to bring the parties together, and on
January 31, amid reports of significant internal debate among the MDC leadership, Morgan
Tsvangirai announced that he would join Mugabe in a transitional coalition government.
The Transitional Government
On February 11, 2009, Morgan Tsvangirai was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Zimbabwe.
Arthur Mutambara was sworn in as a Deputy Prime Minister, as was MDC vice-president
Thokozani Khupe. The positions were created as part of a constitutional amendment approved
unanimously by the legislature on February 5 that formalized the coalition government and the
GPA.27 The new ministers were sworn in on February 13 (see Appendix for a list of cabinet
members). The controversial Ministry of Home Affairs is co-chaired by an MDC and a ZANU-PF
Minister, but the MDC’s ability to affect change within the police service, still led by a ZANU-PF
loyalist, remains in question. The MDC factions gained control of several other key ministries,
including Finance, Public Service, Water, Energy and Power Development, Public Works, Health,
Education, Commerce, and State Enterprises, which oversees parastatals. The party has expressed
its intention to use the Ministry of Constitutional and Parliamentary Affairs to press for its goal of
constitutional reform. The GPA, now enshrined in Zimbabwe’s constitution, outlines a time frame
of eighteen months for the drafting of a new constitution and a nationwide referendum on the
document. Some expect elections to be held several months after the referendum, but a timeline
for elections is not provided in the GPA. According to reports, as of February 2010, the review
process was several months behind schedule, which may affect the timing of the referendum.

24 The text of the agreement is available online at http://www.nimd.org/document/807/zimbabwe-agreement.
25“Zimbabwe Rivals Sign Power-Sharing Deal,” Reuters, September 15, 2008.
26 Mukoko was reportedly abducted from her home at night and was beaten and forced to kneel on gravel while
unknown individuals tried to force her to act as a state witness to an alleged MDC terrorist plot or be killed.
27 The GPA was incorporated into Zimbabwe’s constitution through constitutional amendment no. 19.
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Despite the MDC’s new role in government, many observers remain skeptical that the parties can
work together effectively to implement reforms deemed necessary by international donors. Critics
of the previous regime suggest that Mugabe and his allies have not entered into this new
government in good faith, and some suggest that Zimbabwe now has, in fact, two parallel
governments.28 International donors have repeatedly stated that a resumption of significant aid
will depend on both economic and democratic reforms, the restoration of the rule of law, and a
demonstrated respect for human rights. Without an influx of considerable foreign funds,
economic and social indicators are expected to continue their downward slide.
Economic Reforms Made, but Challenges Remain
Zimbabwe’s new Finance Minister, MDC Secretary-General Tendai Biti, who was arrested in
June 2008 on charges of treason and incarcerated for several weeks, has been credited with
initiating a series of critical economic reforms that have brought a renewed sense of optimism to
many Zimbabweans. Initial reports by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and others suggest
that reforms made by the new government on the macroeconomic front are encouraging, but the
situation remains fragile. The adoption of hard currencies (the U.S. dollar and the South African
rand) has stabilized prices and stemmed Zimbabwe’s rampant inflation rate, which fluctuated
between -3% and 1% in 2009, according to the Finance Ministry. The local currency has become
effectively worthless. The “dollarization” of the economy, combined with the elimination of price
controls, has allowed shopkeepers to restock their shelves with basic goods, although the cost of
living remains high. Some retailers are again offering credit facilities, suspended since 2007. The
Zimbabwe Stock Exchange began trading again, in U.S. dollars, on February 18, 2009, after
months of inactivity.
In late September 2008, Zimbabwe began officially trading in foreign currency in an attempt to
lower prices, and, in early February 2009, Zimbabwe adopted hard currencies for transactions.
Later that month, under the direction of Minister Biti, the government began issuing government
“salaries” in vouchers good for $100 U.S. dollars, regardless of seniority. Biti and Prime Minister
Tsvangirai pledged to pay these allowances in foreign currency in an effort to get Zimbabweans
to return to work. Absenteeism within the civil service reportedly reached 50% in the latter half of
2008. The allowances encouraged many civil servants to return, including, notably, the country’s
teachers, who had been on strike for months. The allowances are low by regional salary
standards, however, and the country’s unions have repeatedly pressed the government for salary
increases. Teachers threatened to strike again at the beginning of the school term in May 2009,
but Education Minister David Coltart (MDC-M) reportedly persuaded them to stay on with a
pledge to cut school fees and to secure additional funds for salaries through an appeal to donors
by UNICEF. In July 2009, the Finance Ministry announced a 20% increase in the public service
wage bill, some of which has been used to introduce some progression into the salary structure,
from $150 to $250 per month, according to the Ministry. With the cost of living for an urban
family of six estimated at almost $500 a month and food costs rising, the unions announced in
early February 2010 that civil servants would strike until wages were raised again. There were
reports of armed ZANU-PF supporters forcing teachers and others to join the strike. The strike
affected schools, hospitals, government departments, and the courts, but most civil servants
returned to work within two weeks. Teachers threatened another strike in May 2010, but after
negotiations they conceded to give the government more time to raise revenues.

28 Interviews by the author in Zimbabwe in April 2009.
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The cash budgeting policy implemented by Finance Minister Tendai Biti has restored fiscal
discipline, although revenue shortfalls are expected to continue in 2010. Biti initially cut the
government’s 2009 budget almost in half, from $1.9 billion to $1 billion, and he allowed the
government to spend only what it collected in revenue.29 By mid-2009, aid pledges had provided
Minister Biti with the flexibility to increase government spending for the year from his initial
estimate of $1 billion to $1.4 billion. However, as of June 2009, the government’s revenues were
estimated at $30 million per month, which barely covered the $100 allowances for an estimated
250,000 government employees and allowed almost nothing for public services or infrastructure
repairs.30 Revenue generation improved during the year, from $72 million in the first quarter of
2009, $213 million and $283 million in the second and third quarters respectively, to $362 million
in the fourth quarter, according to the Finance Ministry. In total, the government’s 2009 revenues
of $934 million were six percent below the Ministry’s budget estimate of $1 billion, and over
60% went to the government’s employment bill.
Finance Ministry officials have warned that without a more significant influx of foreign currency,
they will be unable to meet basic needs or address demands for wage increases.31 The
government’s 2010 budget of $2.25 billion assumed an economic growth rate of over seven
percent in 2010 and revenues of $1.44 billion, with the remainder, $810 million, to be filled by
drawing down on IMF credits or through new foreign grants or loans. In April 2010, the Finance
Ministry downgraded its GDP growth rate estimate from 7.7 percent to an estimated 4.8 percent,
due in part to decreased investor confidence and reduced mining output as a result of power
shortages, and announced that it had only been able to attract $2.9 million to date in donor
financing.32 The IMF has recommended that the government reduce its public wage expenditures,
a proposal that has drawn considerable criticism from the labor unions.33
Humanitarian “Plus” Assistance and the Multi-Donor Trust Fund (MDTF)
Given restrictions by many international donors against direct budget support to the government
of Zimbabwe, the Finance Ministry has struggled to find other sources of revenue to pay salaries
and provide public services. Some donors have promoted the concept of “humanitarian plus”
assistance, through which donors could provide assistance for certain sectors without fear of
contributing to the country’s entrenched patronage system. The Finance Ministry is coordinating
with these donors to identify certain budget lines (water, education, sanitation, etc.) for which
donors might assume payouts. Such a strategy requires strong donor coordination, and to that end
the World Bank, the African Development Bank, and the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) developed the scope and parameters for a multi-donor trust fund (MDTF) in
coordination with the Finance Ministry and donors. The World Bank has been expected to be the

29 According to Minister Biti, income and other direct taxes composed almost 56% of the country’s tax revenue
between 1996 and 2004. In January 2009, direct taxes composed less than 18% of tax revenue, reflecting the high level
of unemployment and informal business.
30 With the assistance of the World Bank, the Finance Ministry has initiated a payroll audit to determine how many
“ghost workers” may be collecting salaries. The results of that audit are expected to be released in mid-2010.
31 The Government of Zimbabwe reportedly generated approximately $1.4 billion in tax revenues in 2007, but revenues
in 2008 totalled only an estimated $300 million, due in large part to rampant hyperinflation. Finance Minister Biti
hoped to raise $1 billion in revenues in 2009, but failed to meet that target.
32 Lance Guma, “Stock Exchange Suffers Big Losses Over Indigenization Law,” SW Radio Africa, March 5. 2010.
33 IMF, Statement at the Conclusion of the 2010 Article IV Consultation Mission to Zimbabwe, March 23, 2010.
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trustee and manager of the fund, but implementation has been delayed because donor countries’
targeted sanctions against specific Zimbabwean individuals and companies contradict current
World Bank policy.34 The World Bank has indicated that it can presently only follow and enforce
U.N. Security Council sanctions (there are no U.N. sanctions against Zimbabwe); it cannot, under
current Bank policy, enforce the targeted restrictive measures currently imposed by donors
considering contributions to the MDTF- EU member states, the European Community, Australia,
Canada, Norway, and the United States. If the MDTF is unable to accommodate donors’ legal
restrictions against procurements from sanctioned Zimbabwean companies, for example, donors
would likely have to withdraw funding for the MDTF. The World Bank, donors, and Zimbabwe’s
Finance Ministry are now exploring options to address this issue so that implementation can
commence.
Public Finance Management and Reserve Bank Reforms
Many see “humanitarian plus” assistance as a short-term measure until Zimbabwe can establish
donor confidence and improve its public finance management, an area in which the World Bank
is providing technical support. In December 2009, parliament passed legislation introduced by
Biti’s ministry on public finance management and the government’s audit office; the latter would
require every ministry to publish a monthly account of its spending. President Mugabe signed
these bills into law in April 2010.
Central bank governance remains an issue of primary concern to donors. According to the IMF,
the quasi-fiscal activities of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ), under the management of
RBZ Governor Gideon Gono, were primarily responsible for the surge in the country’s money
supply in recent years. These activities included monetary operations to absorb excess liquidity;
subsidized credit; sustained foreign exchange losses through subsidized exchange rates for
selected government purchases and multiple currency practices; and financial sector restructuring.
After the government implemented its price control policy in June 2007, cutting prices of basic
commodities by 50% in an effort to stem inflation, manufacturing output fell more than 50%
within six months and many firms were forced to close. Gono’s price controls also resulted in a
shortage of basic goods and contributed to worsening social indicators. In April 2009, Gono
admitted to having “borrowed” over $1 billion from private foreign exchange accounts in the
Reserve Bank to pay government expenses. Among the accounts raided was that of the Global
Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; unlike many of the private accounts raided, the
Global Fund’s money has reportedly been returned. The IMF has requested an independent audit
of the Reserve Bank. The MDC has pressed for Gono’s replacement, but, in the interim, U.S.
officials suggest that Biti’s reforms have managed to largely marginalize him. The new Reserve
Bank Act, passed by parliament in March with amendments and signed into law in April, reflects
recommendations made by the IMF for strengthening RBZ governance and refocusing the RBZ’s
activities on its core tasks of monetary policy formulation, currency stabilization, and supervision
of financial institutions. Finance Minister Biti appointed a new board for the RBZ in May in
accordance with the new law. Among other responsibilities, the board is expected to explore new
strategies for resuming the Bank’s operational viability as the lender of last resort.

34 According to World Bank sources, the MDTF would allow the World Bank to reengage with Zimbabwe despite
outstanding arrears.
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Efforts to Revive the Economy
In March 2009, the transitional government introduced the Short Term Emergency Recovery
Program (STERP), designed to rehabilitate Zimbabwe’s economy.35 Introduced by the Finance
Ministry, the STERP identified the following priority areas as targets for policy reforms and
donor assistance:
a) Political and Governance Issues: the constitution and constitution-making processes; the
media and media reforms; and legislative reforms aimed at strengthening governance and
accountability, promoting the rule of law, and promoting equality and fairness, including
gender equality;
b) Social Protection: food and humanitarian assistance, education, health, and strategically
targeted vulnerable sectors; and
c) Stabilization: implementation of a growth oriented recovery program; restoration of the
value of local currency and the guarantee of its stability; increased capacity utilization in all
sectors of the economy and job creation; assured availability of essential commodities such
as food, fuel, and electricity; rehabilitation of collapsed social, health, and education sectors;
and assured availability of water supply and safe sanitation.
The document also identified key areas of the economy, including agriculture, mining,
manufacturing, and tourism, as anchors of the stabilization program and stresses the need to
promote production and increase capacity in those sectors. According to the government’s
estimates, outputs from the agriculture, manufacturing, and mining sectors declined by 7.3%,
73.3% and 53.9% respectively in 2008. The Finance Ministry reported in its 2010 budget
documents that each of those sectors grew in 2009: agriculture by 10%, manufacturing by 8%,
mining by 2%, and tourism by 6.5%. However, long-overdue domestic electricity infrastructure
upgrades, regional electricity shortages, and unpaid debts to neighboring power producers
continue to compound economic woes, causing frequent power outages and significantly reducing
the productivity of the manufacturing and mining sectors. The MDC Minister for Energy and
Power Development has asserted that Zimbabwe’s power infrastructure is in disrepair and that up
to $1 billion will be needed to fix the crumbling energy sector.36 Economists suggest Zimbabwe
will also require a combination of donor assistance, direct foreign investment, and domestic
policy reforms to restore productivity in these key sectors. In late 2009, Minister Biti introduced a
new three-year medium-term policy framework, STERP II, which is expected to anchor the
government’s budgets from 2010 to 2012. According to Minister Biti’s projections, an estimated
$45 billion may be needed for the economy to fully recover.
The Mining Sector and the Indigenization Law
Mining accounts for almost half of Zimbabwe’s total foreign currency revenues. Zimbabwe has
the world’s second-largest reserves of platinum, behind South Africa.37 In 2006, the government
announced plans to take a 51% share of all foreign-owned mines for local black investors; 25% of
that share would be acquired at no cost to the government, and mines that refused to part with

35 STERP and STERP II available online at http://www.zimtreasury.org/.
36 “Mudzuri Says $1 Billion Needed to Revamp Energy Sector,” SW Radio Africa, February 25, 2009.
37 The largest mining operations in the country are controlled by Impala Platinum and Anglo Platinum, respectively.
These South African-owned companies are the world’s largest platinum producers.
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their shares would be expropriated. After industry officials cautioned that the plan would deter
foreign investment, the proposal was modified, allowing firms that invested in community
projects to keep their majority share. Parliament voted to approve similar plans to take a majority
share in all foreign-owned businesses in 2007; the legislation became law in March 2008. The
government insisted that it would not expropriate foreign-owned companies and that the law
would not be applied to every company, but rather “on the basis of capital (investment) and
employment levels.”38 In early 2010, however, a ZANU-PF minister announced new regulations,
demanding that all foreign and locally owned businesses valued at $500,000 or greater transfer at
least 51% ownership to black Zimbabweans, in accordance with the law. According to these
regulations, which Prime Minister Tsvangirai dismissed as “null and void” because they were
introduced without MDC approval, thousands of companies were to submit plans for compliance
by March 1, 2010; the ZANU-PF minister subsequently agreed to extend the deadline to May 15
and reexamine the directive, and the government’s position on the regulations remains under
dispute. Among the larger companies that could be affected are local subsidiaries of the British
banks Barclays and Standard Chartered, and mining companies such as Impala Platinum,
AngloPlatinum, and Rio Tinto. As of late April 2010, over 400 companies had reportedly
complied with the regulations. Critics argue that indigenization law further deters much-needed
foreign investment and suggest that it be repealed by the new government.
The coalition government has taken some measures to encourage new investment in the mining
sector. Under the previous administration, gold miners were required to sell their product to the
Reserve Bank. As the Bank’s foreign currency reserves dwindled, it reportedly ceased to pay
miners for the gold, and many of the country’s gold mines closed. With current gold prices strong,
the new government has allowed the mines to market their own gold and accept payment in
foreign currency. It has also cut the tax on gold export revenues.
The Agriculture Sector
Several Southern African countries have suffered from chronic food insecurity in recent years,
stemming from a combination of weather-related and man-made factors, including prolonged
drought, floods, poor economic performance, and the impact of HIV/AIDS. Although these
factors are partly to blame for Zimbabwe’s food shortages, analysts believe that disruptions to the
farming sector resulting from Mugabe’s land seizure program (see “Farm Invasions” below), are
the main reason for reduced food production. Nearly all of the country’s 4,500 commercial farms
have now been taken over, but the land redistribution program is reportedly plagued by
inefficiencies, with large portions of redistributed land not being actively farmed. Tractors and
other inputs to production are in short supply. Thousands of experienced farm workers were
reportedly forced to flee seized farms, and many of those who now hold farmland have no
agricultural expertise. The government’s introduction of price controls in 2007 may have further
restricted production. The country’s seed and fertilizer producers reported that the controls
created “unrealistic prices,” which in turn caused supply shortages.39 The new coalition
government has liberalized grain marketing, formerly tightly controlled by a parastatal; removed
import duties; and requested significant assistance for the agriculture sector from donors.

38 “Zimbabwe Clarifies Nationalization Legislation,” Financial Times, March 11, 2008.
39 “Zimbabwe: The Mother of All Farming Seasons,” IRIN, October 25, 2007.
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In the near term, the country’s agriculture industry shows little sign of recovery. The issues of
property rights and land reform will be among the most difficult for the government to address.
One of the unintended side effects of Mugabe’s land reform strategy, which resulted in the
abolition of land tenure, was that farmers were unable to use their land as collateral to obtain bank
loans to invest in their farms. As a result, few commercial farmers have been able to find the
capital to maintain productivity.40 In the STERP documents, the government has pledged to
conduct a comprehensive land audit consistent with agreements made in the GPA. The Finance
Ministry has allocated $30 million in the 2010 budget for the audit, but many analysts expect the
land audit to be a slow and contentious process.
Calls for Political Reforms Continue
Despite measurable progress on economic reforms, the inclusive government has yet to meet
many of the benchmarks for political reform outlined in the Global Political Agreement. Among
the outstanding issues are
• a halt to police harassment, continued detention, or onerous bail requirements
placed on several opposition and civic activists;
• the repeal of repressive legislation that restricts media, NGO, and opposition
activities;
• the appointment of MDC provincial governors and Deputy Agriculture Minister
Roy Bennett, and the lack of consensus among the parties on the current Reserve
Bank Governor and the Attorney General;
• a halt to ongoing invasions and seizures of commercial farms; and
• security sector reform.
Speaking at an MDC rally in September 2009, Prime Minister Tsvangirai noted progress in some
areas of GPA implementation, but he told supporters, “They continue to violate the law, persecute
our people, spread the language of hate, invade productive farms, ignore our international treaties
and continue to loot of our national resources.”41 Several international donors have expressed
similar concerns.42
The parties reportedly resolved their disagreements on several political appointments in June
2009, and several MDC-appointed ambassadors took their posts at embassies abroad in early
2010. However, President Mugabe has yet to accept the MDC appointees for the provincial
governor posts, and he has refused to replace the Reserve Bank Governor and Attorney General,
despite MDC protests. Laws restricting the freedoms of speech and association continue to be
used to harass independent media (despite the formation of a new media commission), to levy

40 The government began to distribute 99-year leases in November 2006. Some suggest financial institutions have been
reluctant to accept the new leases as collateral, given that the government reserves the right to cancel the lease if it
deems the farm unproductive.
41 “Tsvangirai Accuses Zanu-PF of Law-Breaking, Hate, Land Invasions,” AllAfrica.com, September 14, 2009.
42 The MDC and ZANU-PF have differed on a number of cabinet positions. In April 2009, President Mugabe
transferred the communications technology portfolio from the Ministry of Information and Communications
Technology, held by MDC Spokesperson Nelson Chamisa, to the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure
Development, held by Nicholas Goche, a ZANU-PF official considered by many to be a hardliner.
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charges against political opponents, and to support police action to break up public gatherings. A
number of MDC officials were arrested in the latter half of 2009, including several members of
parliament; some suggest the arrests were part of an effort to overturn the party’s parliamentary
majority. Four of the seven MDC MPs convicted of crimes had been suspended from parliament
by August 2009.43 Four others were acquitted of the charges against them in late 2009.
An executive committee composed of President Mugabe, Prime Minister Tsvangirai, the vice
presidents and the deputy prime ministers, has met on multiple occasions to discuss the
outstanding issues between them. Under the terms of the GPA, the agreement is being monitored
by a Joint Monitoring and Implementation Committee (“JOMIC”), composed of four senior
members from ZANU-PF and four senior members from each of the two MDC factions. The
JOMIC can receive reports and complaints, provide assessments, and consider steps to ensure
compliance with the agreement, but it lacks enforcement authority.
As guarantors and facilitators of the agreement, SADC and the African Union can be called upon
by the parties to intervene. On October 16, 2009, citing the outstanding issues as areas in which
ZANU-PF “continued to frustrate the implementation of the GPA,” the MDC announced that it
was suspending cooperation with ZANU-PF. While the MDC remained in government, the
Tsvangirai faction disengaged from executive branch forums, such as the Cabinet and Council of
Ministers, in which the MDC interacts with ZANU-PF. The MDC announcement followed the
October 14, 2009 arrest of a senior MDC official, Roy Bennett, but many observers also suggest
that the decision reflected the growing pressure within the party over the lack of political progress
in recent months.44 Following the MDC decision, Prime Minister Tsvangirai began a tour of the
region to request intervention from SADC leaders, including Jacob Zuma, South Africa’s new
president, to place renewed pressure on the parties to resolve their disputes and fully implement
the GPA. In mid-October 2009, after Tsvangirai’s visit, Zuma publicly expressed concern with the
situation, saying “Zimbabwe should not be allowed to slide back into instability.” Botswana’s
President Ian Khama announced that he would not recognize Robert Mugabe as President of
Zimbabwe outside the transitional government.45 Following a mediation effort by Zuma and other
southern African leaders in Mozambique, the MDC ministers reengaged with their ZANU-PF
counterparts the following month, but several of the party’s demands for reform remain
outstanding and, to date, negotiations, while ongoing, have yet to result in any major concessions
by Mugabe and his party.
Prime Minister Tsvangirai has expressed his appreciation for President Zuma’s mediation effort
and noted some progress, but in late March 2010 told supporters,
After the most recent round of negotiations it appears that the issues that have stalled
progress for more than a year are still being used to avoid creating the open, free and
prosperous society that our people demand and deserve…If this situation continues, I will
ask President Zuma to call upon SADC to break the deadlock once and for all. We cannot

43 Zimbabwe’s laws require MPs sentenced to six or more months of imprisonment to be immediately suspended.
44 Bennett, an MDC MP and Deputy Minister of Agriculture nominee, was initially arrested on terrorism charges on
February 10, as the new coalition cabinet was being sworn in, and was held for over a month before being released on
bail on a Supreme Court order. He was rearrested on October 14, and held for two nights in jail before a High Court
justice ordered his release on bail, based on the original Supreme Court ruling. The Attorney General's office initially
ordered that his trial begin in October, but Bennett's lawyers were able to have the trial postponed until November, to
allow time to prepare his case. The trial was moved from Mutare to the High Court in Harare.
45 “Zimbabwe PM Begins Regional Tour,” VOA News, October 20, 2009.
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allow our nation to be trapped indefinitely by the failed policies of the past, while countries
around us prioritize people's rights, economic development and the rule of law.46
On May 10, 2010, Zimbabwe’s High Court acquitted Roy Bennett of the charges against him,
ruling that the prosecution had failed to make its case and had failed to prove that the evidence
against Bennett, including emails written by a state witness who later testified that they were
obtained under torture, was genuine. MDC officials are now pressing President Mugabe to swear
Bennett in as Deputy Agriculture Minister.
The Security Sector and Possible Internal Struggles within ZANU-PF
Reports suggest that hardline elements within ZANU-PF may be actively trying to undermine the
transitional government. Some suggest that the recent farm invasions and the detention of MDC
officials and civic activists may be part of that effort. Mugabe and ZANU-PF officials remain
largely in control of the security sector. Several of the security service chiefs, including the heads
of the army and the police, publicly announced in 2008 that they would not recognize an electoral
victory by anyone other that Mugabe.47 According to reports, some continue to refuse to
recognize Prime Minister Tsvangirai’s authority in the new government, but the army and air
force chiefs appeared to break ranks with their colleagues in August 2009, when they saluted the
Prime Minister. Tsvangirai now sits on a new National Security Council, as mandated by the
GPA, but the new organ was not created until August, and its meetings have been infrequent.
In view of Mugabe’s advanced age and reports of power struggles within his party, the question
of presidential succession has led some analysts to raise concerns over the possibility of a violent
succession struggle or a possible military coup in the event of his death in office.48 Under the
constitution, the president may designate one of the country’s two vice presidents to serve as
acting president until the next election, should he leave office, but Mugabe has never done so. In
2004, Joice Mujuru, a veteran of the liberation struggle and women’s movement leader, beat
Emmerson Mnangagwa, then speaker of the parliament and long touted as Mugabe’s heir, for the
position of ZANU-PF’s second vice president. Some suggest that Mnangagwa, now Minister of
Defense and considered to be among the party’s most influential hardliners, has lobbied since
then to have Mujuru replaced. Mnangagwa’s national popularity has been hampered by
accusations that he led the purge of alleged regime opponents in Matabeleland in the 1980s.
Vice President Joseph Msika died in August 2009 at age 86. According to some reports,
Mnangagwa tried, but failed, in the following months to have Joice Mujuru replaced as vice
president with a candidate of his own as the party reconsidered its leadership slate. In December
2009, delegates at ZANU-PF’s party congress reelected Mujuru as vice president and chose then-
party national chairman John Nkomo, 75, to replace Msika. Both Msika and Nkomo are from the
Ndebele minority.

46 The Prime Minister’s Newsletter, “PM Tsvangirai Calls for Tolerance and Freedom of Choice,” March 31, 2010,
available at http://www.zimbabweprimeminister.org.
47 “Zim Prisons Chief Orders Officers to Vote Mugabe,” Reuters, February 29, 2008.
48 For more information on succession issues, see International Crisis Group, “Zimbabwe: Engaging the Inclusive
Government,” Africa Briefing No. 59, April, 20 2009.
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Human Rights Abuses
Under the former ZANU-PF government, Zimbabwe was considered by some to be among the
world’s most repressive states.49 The State Department has repeatedly accused the government of
the pervasive and systemic abuse of human rights, including the state-sanctioned use of excessive
force, torture, and unlawful killings.50 In 2008, the Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum
recorded 723 incidents of torture; 6 politically motivated rape cases; 107 murders; 137
abductions/kidnappings; 1,913 cases of assault; 19 cases of disappearance; 629 of displacements
and 2,532 violations on freedoms of association and expression. Several MDC activists reportedly
abducted in October 2008 remain missing. According to the Human Rights Forum, the number of
monthly violations reported decreased substantially after the coalition government was formed in
2009, although reports of retributive violence between ZANU-PF and MDC supporters has
continued.51 The number of violent incidents against MDC activists has reportedly begun to rise
again in early 2010, possibly related to the ongoing constitutional review process, according to
USAID.52 Some reports also suggest that ZANU-PF supporters may continue to operate alleged
“torture centers” throughout the country.53
The MDC’s Tendai Biti has repeatedly asserted that the biggest achievement of the new
government has been the restoration of peace and security.54 He suggested that harassment of
opposition supporters and civic activists had declined significantly since February 2009; several
local human rights groups have corroborated his claim.55 Nevertheless, abuses have continued. In
May 2009, a magistrate remanded to prison thirteen activists, including Jestina Mukoko, who had
been released two months earlier after having been jailed for three months on charges of sabotage
and terrorism; the Attorney-General reportedly consented to release them on bail again the
following day, after an emergency meeting of the President, the Prime Minister, and other
principals.56 Several accused the government of torture during their initial incarceration. Their
lawyer was also later arrested for obstruction of justice and then released; his case was dropped.
The editor and a journalist of the Zimbabwe Independent newspaper were arrested in May 2009
for publishing an article naming police officers and state intelligence agents implicated in the
abductions of the above activists. They were later released on bail, but their arrest and more
recent reports of media harassment highlight restrictions on press freedom that have yet to be
addressed by the government.
Human Rights Watch has suggested that the MDC lacks effective power in the power sharing
arrangement, and has charged that “the MDC has not forcefully insisted on justice and

49 See, for example, Freedom House, “Country Report: Zimbabwe,” Freedom in the World 2006: The Annual Survey of
Political Rights and Civil Liberties
.
50 The U.S. Department of State, “Zimbabwe,” 2008 Human Rights Report, February 25, 2009.
51 Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum, Monthly Political Violence Reports, at http://www.hrforumzim.com. The
organization suspended publication of its monthly reports after June 2009, the most recent month for which data is
available.
52 USAID, “Zimbabwe – Complex Emergency,” Situation Report #1, Fiscal Year (FY) 2010, April 26, 2010.
53 Human Rights Watch, False Dawn: The Zimbabwe Power-Sharing Government’s Failure to Deliver Human Rights
Improvements
, August 2009.
54 Comments made by Biti at an event hosted by the National Endowment for Democracy and Freedom House in
Washington, DC, on April 27, 2009. Similar comments were made by Biti during an April 2010 visit to Washington.
55 Interviews with human rights groups by the author in Zimbabwe on April 8, 2009.
56 “Zimbabwe Unity Government Principals Said to Resolve Crisis Over Arrests,” VOA, May 6, 2009.
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accountability for human rights abuses, nor has it attempted to bring the perpetrators of those
abuses to book.”57 A decision by Zimbabwe’s Supreme Court on September 28, 2009, however,
indicates that victims of state abuses may begin to find recourse through the justice sector. In that
ruling, the chief justice granted Jestina Mukoko, mentioned above, and nine of her fellow
defendants a permanent stay of prosecution after Mukoko testified that their confessions had been
obtained by security forces through torture. The court found that “the state, through its agents,
violated the applicant's constitutional rights.”58
Justice Sector Reforms
Several laws enacted under the previous ZANU-PF-dominated parliament continue to raise
concerns with respect to the protection of human rights in Zimbabwe. Laws that critics contend
have been used to quiet dissent and influence political developments include, but are not limited
to, the following: the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA), the Public
Order and Security Act (POSA), the Criminal Law (Codification and Reform) Act, and the
Miscellaneous Offences Act (MOA).59 The ZANU-PF parliament also passed several
controversial constitutional amendments which some analysts contend breach international
human rights standards. The South African-led SADC negotiations led in January 2008 to
amendments to both AIPPA and POSA. Critics suggest the amendments did not adequately
address human rights concerns and have not been fully implemented.60 Parliament is currently
undertaking a public review of POSA.
Civic activists have also called for reforms within the judiciary. The MDC Home Affairs co-
minister has ordered police to compile complaints of political violence committed since the
March 2008 election, and several thousand reports have been collected. However the government
has yet to prosecute cases of alleged violence associated with the 2008 elections, or to prosecute
those who might be responsible for crimes related to the government’s Operation Murambatsvina
(the demolition of informal urban settlements in 2005) or subsequent evictions.61 The ability of
the judicial system to protect its citizens or their property, or to provide due process to those
seeking remedy or compensation, will be a critical step toward the restoration of the rule of law in
Zimbabwe.
Farm Invasions
At the time of Zimbabwe’s independence in 1980, the country’s white minority, which composed
less than 5% of the population, owned the vast majority of arable land. Many observers
considered the country’s commercial farms crucial to the country’s economy, although there was
a general recognition that reforms were necessary to provide greater equity in land distribution.
Britain initially funded a “willing buyer, willing seller” program to redistribute commercial
farmland, offering compensation to white farmers amenable to leaving their lands. Dissatisfaction

57 Human Rights Watch, False Dawn: The Zimbabwe Power-Sharing Government’s Failure to Deliver Human Rights
Improvements
, August 2009.
58 “Zimbabwe Drops Activist Charges,” BBC, September 28, 2009.
59 For more information on these laws, see CRS Report RL32723, Zimbabwe, by Lauren Ploch.
60 Human Rights Watch, All Over Again: Human Rights Abuses and Flawed Electoral Conditions in Zimbabwe’s
Coming Elections,
Vol. 20, No. 2(A), March 2008.
61 For more information on Murambatsvina, see
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with the pace of land reform grew and led in the 1990s to spontaneous and often violent farm
invasions. Facing rising political and economic challenges, the government of Zimbabwe began
to implement aggressive land expropriation policies, leading Britain and other donors to begin
withdrawing financial support for resettlement. In 2000, the government held a referendum to
approve changes to the constitution that would allow land seizures without compensation. The
referendum was rejected by 55% of voters. Within days of the vote, however, so-called veterans
of the independence struggle and ruling party supporters moved onto an estimated 1,000 white-
owned farms, and, months later, the President invoked emergency powers to expropriate land
without compensation. There were numerous attacks against white farmers and their employees.
Farm invasions have continued sporadically since 2000, but reports suggest a renewed and
coordinated effort to remove the remaining white farmers may have begun in 2009.62 The looting
and violence associated with these invasions has affected not only the commercial farmers, but
also often black Zimbabwean farm workers and their families.63 President Mugabe, at his 85th
birthday celebration, declared that “the few remaining white farmers should quickly vacate their
farms, as they have no place there.... I am still in control and hold executive authority.”64 He and
ZANU-PF ministers have dismissed a 2008 ruling by SADC regional tribunal that found
Zimbabwe’s land redistribution program to be illegal, in part because it was based on racial
discrimination.65 The invasions also have continued in spite of a pledge in the STERP document
that the government would “uphold the rule of law as well as enforce law and order on farms,
including arresting any further farm invasions, which disrupt farming activities.” Prime Minister
Tsvangirai has called the evictions acts of theft and ordered police to arrest violators, but police
compliance with his order remains in question. Deputy Prime Minister Arthur Mutambara led a
ministerial fact-finding mission on the invasions in April 2009. He reportedly tabled a report on
the mission with the cabinet, who referred the matter to the President and Prime Minister. Human
rights activists suggest that the government has yet to take any action on the invasions.66
“Blood Diamonds”?
The World Diamond Council (WDC), a diamond industry organization that aims to prevent the
trade of conflict diamonds, raised concerns in December 2008 that rough diamonds from
Zimbabwe were being exported illegally, rather than through the Kimberly Process (KP), an
international government certification scheme designed to prevent the “blood diamond” trade.
Rough stones from Zimbabwe have reportedly been confiscated in India and Dubai. According to
civil society reports, Zimbabwean security forces in the Marange diamond fields have forced

62 International Crisis Group, “Zimbabwe: Engaging the Inclusive Government,” Africa Briefing No. 59, 20 April 2009.
63 Press Statement by the General Agriculture and Plantation Workers Union of Zimbabwe, “Zimbabwe Farm-Workers
Bear the Brunt of Invasions,” 1 April 2009, available at http://www.citizenjournalismafrica.org/node/1406.
64 “Who’s Land?” The Economist, March 5, 2009.
65 The case was brought before the regional court by 78 white farmers. The ruling, delivered on November 28, 2008,
found that their evictions had violated the government’s obligation to the rule of law under the SADC treaty. In a
separate case, the International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) sitting in Paris ruled on 22
April 2009, in favor of 13 Dutch farmers against the Government of Zimbabwe. According to the ruling, the
government broke a bilateral investment agreement with the Netherlands by seizing the farms without providing just
compensation. The ICSID awarded the farmers approximately $21 million, including interest, in compensation.
Whether the ruling could lead to the seizure of government assets overseas is not yet clear.
66 Human Rights Watch, False Dawn: The Zimbabwe Power-Sharing Government’s Failure to Deliver Human Rights
Improvements
, August 2009.
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villagers to labor in the mines and then smuggled the stones from the country.67 By some
accounts, security forces may have executed several hundred illegal miners in the Marange
fields.68 The European Union pressed for an investigation into Zimbabwe’s compliance with its
Kimberly obligations in early 2009, and a high level KP delegation visited Zimbabwe in March to
express the group’s concern with reports of violence and smuggling from the Marange area. The
KP Secretariat refrained from suspending Zimbabwe from the certification scheme at that time,
but its investigation has continued.69 An interim report by a KP review team released in July
reportedly documented “unacceptable and horrific violence against civilians by authorities in and
around Chiadzwa,” one of the diamond fields in Marange.70 During a KP Plenary meeting in
November 2009, the KP called for stringent export controls on diamonds from Marange. The U.S.
government and others have called for Zimbabwe to be suspended from the Process if the
controls are not implemented. The Zimbabwean government reported later that month that
security forces had begun withdrawing from the area. International diamond dealers announced
that they would not deal in Marange diamonds until the controls were fully in place; Zimbabwe
has been given until June 2010 to make the suggested changes.
The Kimberly Process had previously investigated allegations that “blood diamonds” from the
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) were being smuggled along with rough stones from
Zimbabwe into South Africa for export. The Mugabe government dismissed those claims as a
western attempt to promote regime change. Zimbabwe has been previously linked to conflict
diamonds; senior officials were named in a 2003 U.N. report for profiting from illicit trade during
Zimbabwe’s military operations in the DRC.
Cholera Outbreak
A nationwide cholera outbreak resulted in over 4,300 deaths and almost 100,000 infections
between August 2008 and July 2009, according to the U.N. World Health Organization. During
that time, several neighboring countries reported confirmed cases in border areas. Cholera, an
acute diarrhoeal infection, is spread by contaminated food and water, and the severity of
Zimbabwe’s outbreak has been attributed to the collapse of the country’s water and sanitation
infrastructure and its health system.71 In Zimbabwe, the reported case fatality rate (CFR) reached
almost 6% at its peak in January 2009, much higher than the normal 1% CFR rate for cholera
cases globally. Interventions to improve access to clean water and sanitation appear to have
mitigated the effects of more recent outbreaks, but aid agencies’ estimates suggest that half the
population still lacks sustainable access to an improved drinking water source.

67 World Diamond Council, “WDC Calls for Concerted International Action to Halt Theft of Natural Resources in
Zimbabwe,” December 10, 2008; “Soldiers are the New Illegal Diamond Miners,” IRIN, January 20, 2009.
68 Parternship Africa Canada, “Zimbabwe, Diamonds, and the Wrong Side of History,” Occasional Paper No. 18,
March 2009; Human Rights Watch, Diamonds in the Rough, June 26, 2009.
69 Zimbabwe is a signatory of the Kimberly Process. Kimberly Process Certification Scheme Secretariat, “Public
Statement on the Situation in the Marange Diamond Fields, Zimbabwe,” March 2009.
70 “Kimberly Process Team Cites “Horrific” Violence in Zimbabwe Diamond Field,” VOA, July 9, 2009.
71USAID, “Zimbabwe—Cholera Outbreak,” Fact Sheet #2, Fiscal Year (FY) 2009, December 19, 2008.
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International Reactions
The international community was divided over how to respond to Zimbabwe’s political crisis in
2008, and, as the coalition government enters its second year, donors remain cautious about
when, and under what conditions, international lending should resume. Western governments like
the United States and the United Kingdom have been highly critical of ZANU-PF policies,
particularly in the wake of the 2008 elections. These governments have welcomed the reform
agenda of the new government but remain reluctant to release significant funds. African
governments, particularly those in the sub-region, have expressed support for the transitional
government, and several have offered either bilateral loans or credit lines to help Zimbabwe’s
economic revival. Zimbabwe remains in arrears to the major international financial institutions,
including the IMF and World Bank, and thus remains ineligible for new loans.
Many analysts suggest that the coalition government will require a significant influx of foreign
donor assistance to stabilize the economy and address the many humanitarian needs of the
population. In 2009, the IMF warned that “in the absence of cash budget support, higher
humanitarian assistance, and wage restraint, the economic and social situation could deteriorate
significantly.”72 However, donors appear wary to commit large-scale funding until they can assess
whether members of the previous administration will adhere to the intent of the power sharing
agreement, working with the MDC to implement reforms necessary to instill donor confidence
and move the country toward a new round of free and fair elections. In early 2010, Mugabe and
other ZANU-PF officials publicly indicated that the party would not make further political
concessions until “Tsvangirai and his western allies remove their sanctions.”73 The reactions of
various international organizations and foreign governments to Zimbabwe’s 2008 elections and to
its new transitional government are discussed below.
The Southern African Development Community (SADC)
Many critics of Mugabe’s leadership in Zimbabwe have faulted the regional body SADC for
inaction in recent years as Zimbabwe’s political and economic crisis worsened. However, some
within the organization advocated for a stronger position to be taken, among them Zambia’s now-
deceased President, Levy Mwanawasa, who in 2007 called Zimbabwe “a sinking Titanic whose
passengers are jumping out to save their lives.”74 Mwanawasa, who served as the head of SADC
before his death, convened an extraordinary meeting of the Southern African heads of state in
April 2008 to discuss Zimbabwe’s elections. He had convened a similar emergency summit in
late March 2007, following the beating and arrest of opposition officials earlier that month.
Although the SADC leaders reportedly chastised President Mugabe privately at that time, they
did not publicly condemn the regime’s actions and instead appointed South African President
Thabo Mbeki to mediate between the ZANU-PF government and the opposition.
During the April 2008 summit, attended by Tsvangirai and Makoni but not Mugabe, the SADC
leaders declined to call the situation in Zimbabwe a crisis. They did, however, publicly urge the
government to release the electoral results “expeditiously,” allow opposition representatives to be

72 IMF, “Zimbabwe: 2009 Article IV Consultation—Staff Report,” IMF Country Report No. 09/139, April 20, 2009.
73 “Zimbabwe: Little to Celebrate After a Year,” IRIN, February 11, 2010.
74 “Zimbabwe ‘A Sinking Titanic,’”Financial Times, March 22, 2007.
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present when vote tabulations were verified, and ensure that a runoff, if needed, would be held in
a “secure environment.” The SADC leaders also called on Mbeki to continue his role as
mediator.75 Mwanawasa reportedly asked the leaders to seek solutions that would allow “the
people’s verdict” to be heard so that Zimbabweans could “turn [over] a new leaf in their history.”
Zimbabwe civil society groups were supportive of SADC’s statements on the electoral results, but
critical of its continued support for Mbeki’s mediation. Mugabe reportedly called the meeting “a
show staged by Britain.”76
Following Tsvangirai's withdrawal from the runoff, President Mwanawasa reportedly commented
that “elections held in such an environment will not only be undemocratic but will also bring
embarrassment to the region.”77 President Mwanawasa suffered a stroke on the eve of the 2008
African Union summit and passed away in August 2008. After the runoff, Botswana took the
strongest stance on Zimbabwe, declaring on July 4 that it would not recognize Mugabe as
president. President Ian Khama reportedly called on other SADC leaders to do the same, and he
boycotted an August 2008 SADC summit attended by Mugabe.78 In November 2008, Botswana’s
foreign minister called on the international community to isolate Mugabe and urged neighboring
countries to close their borders. Several other international leaders became increasingly critical of
the SADC response to the Zimbabwe crisis—former U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan declared
in late 2008, “It’s obvious that SADC could have and should have done more.”79
Reportedly frustrated by the lack of progress on the implementation of the power sharing
agreement and amidst growing criticism from within the region, the SADC heads of state
convened in late January 2009 for another push to mediate a final settlement on Zimbabwe.80
President Khama attended, as did President Mugabe, and the MDC objected to his being seated
with the other heads of state during the deliberations. South African President Kgalema Motlanthe
announced that a deal had been reached on January 27.
On March 30, 2009, the SADC heads of state voted to support a plan to help raise $8 billion for
Zimbabwe’s economic recovery, including $2 billion in short term aid. Much of that funding is
expected to be sourced from outside the region, however. Botswana and South Africa have
publicly pledged aid and credit lines, and African banks have reportedly given Zimbabwe some
$500 million in credit lines for the mining and agriculture industries, and to provide liquidity to
the financial sector.81 According to press reports, the government of Botswana has warned that it
may rescind its assistance offer if political detentions and farm invasions continue.82
During a SADC summit in early September 2009, regional heads of state expressed concern over
outstanding political issues in Zimbabwe, but ignored calls for a special summit on the topic; the

75SADC Communique, “2008 First Extra-ordinary SADC Summit of Heads of State and Government Issued on April
13, 2008, in Lusaka, Zambia.”
76Fiona Forde, “Summit on Zim ‘Coup’ Crisis Stalls,” Sunday Independent, April 13, 2008.
77 Cris Chinaka, “Tsvangirai’s Risky Gamble Needs Regional Backing,” Reuters, June 22, 2008.
78“Botswana Refuses to Recognize Mugabe as President,” BBC, July 8, 2008.
79 “Barred from Zimbabwe, but Not Silent,” The New York Times, November 26, 2008.
80 “A Growing Chorus in S. Africa Urges Action on Mugabe,” Washington Post, January 26, 2009.
81 According to press reports, Botswana pledged $70 million in bilateral credit lines, while South Africa pledged $30
million in agricultural inputs, $30 million in direct budget support, and a $50 million credit line for Zimbabwe’s
commercial banks.
82 “Watch Out, Botswana Tells Mugabe,” The Nation (Nairobi), May 11, 2009.
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SADC leaders instead determined that disputes be addressed by a smaller panel of three SADC
heads of state known as the “Troika”. South African President Jacob Zuma, who is among those
three, is reported to be pushing for further reforms. During the September summit he urged the
parties to remove unspecified obstacles in the implementation the GPA. Zuma took over from
Thabo Mbeki as SADC’s mediator on the Zimbabwe situation in November, following a Troika
summit in Mozambique at which SADC leaders convinced the MDC to reengage their ZANU-PF
counterparts in the government. Zuma named a three-person team, led by his political advisor and
former defense minister Charles Nquakula, to manage the effort.
The African Union (AU)
The African Union was critical of the violence in Zimbabwe in 2008, but lacked consensus on
how to address the issue. In a communiqué on April 17, 2008, the African Union expressed
concern over the delayed election results, “which creates an atmosphere of tension that is not in
the least conducive to the consolidation of the democratic process that was so felicitously
launched through the organization of the elections.”83 In early May 2008, Chairman of the AU
Commission Jean Ping led an AU mission to Zimbabwe, Zambia, and South Africa. He called for
Zimbabwe’s political actors to
conduct their activities in a free, transparent, tolerant, and non-violent manner to enable
eligible Zimbabweans [to] exercise their democratic rights. It is essential also that peace and
security be maintained, and that the will of the people be respected by all stakeholders once
the results are announced.84
At the June 29-July 1, 2008, AU Summit in Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt, Botswana's vice president
joined leaders from Kenya, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Ghana in calling for punitive measures
against the Mugabe regime. The AU ultimately failed to reach agreement on sanctions, but issued
a public call for talks toward a unity government.
While the AU has traditionally deferred to sub-regional mediation efforts, reports suggest the AU
Chairman at the time, Tanzanian President Jakaya Kikwete (who is also a member of SADC),
encouraged a greater role on Zimbabwe by the United Nations. Kenya’s prime minister, Raila
Odinga, and former U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan commented that Southern African
leaders could do more to resolve the crisis. Odinga received widespread attention for his
comments on Zimbabwe, and he called on AU leaders not to allow Mugabe to attend the Sharm
el-Sheikh summit. Odinga also called for peacekeepers to be sent to Zimbabwe.
The African Union has some precedent for intervening in support of democracy within its
member countries, should it chose to do so.85 The intervention of AU leaders in the early days of

83 AU Division of Communication and Information, “Communiqué on the Situation in Zimbabwe,” April 17, 2008.
84Statement by the Chairman of the AU Commission on the Situation in Zimbabwe on May 6, 2008, available at
http://www.africa-union.org.
85In 2005, after the death of the President of Togo, the Togolese army installed his son as president. The AU declared
the intervention to be a coup, and the AU Peace and Security Council demanded the resignation of the new president
and urged members to impose sanctions until elections were held. The president stepped down the following day. It is
notable in the case of Togo, that the relevant regional body, the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) played an important role in denouncing the coup and leading the campaign for sanctions. In the second
instance of AU intervention, the AU suspended Mauritania from all organizational activities after the country’s military
led a successful coup against the president, in office for 21 years. Reports suggest that most Mauritanians supported the
(continued...)
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the 2007/2008 Kenyan election crisis is viewed by many as having helped move the two opposed
parties toward negotiations and an eventual post-election agreement. Both SADC and the AU are
identified as guarantors of Zimbabwe’s power sharing agreement, but some analysts suggest that
the new AU Chairman, Malawian President Bingu wa Mutharika may be reluctant to apply
pressure. Mutharika named a major road in his country after Mugabe and reportedly called him a
“true democrat” in 2006.86
South Africa
Thabo Mbeki, who resigned from his position as President of South Africa in September 2008,
drew substantial criticism at home from opposition parties, trade unions, and civil society groups
for his reaction to Zimbabwe’s 2008 elections. Tsvangirai had criticized Mbeki for his “quiet
support for the dictatorship,” and called for him to step down as mediator prior to the elections.87
According to reports, Mbeki wrote President Bush a letter in mid-2008 warning the United States
not to interfere in the Zimbabwe situation.88 In the months following Zimbabwe’s general
elections, domestic public pressure may ultimately have forced Mbeki to take a stronger position
on the violence there: Mbeki visited the country several times and in May 2008 dispatched six
retired generals to investigate reports of attacks on the opposition. The generals reportedly
expressed shock at the level of violence.89
Several senior officials within the ruling African National Congress (ANC) party have been more
outspoken on Zimbabwe. “In resolving the problem of Zimbabwe, Thabo Mbeki is not speaking
on behalf of the ANC,” a spokesman for the ANC youth wing declared in April 2008.90 Baleka
Mbete, then-speaker of parliament, called the delayed release of the 2008 results a “democratic
process gone wrong.” In a gathering of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, she urged representatives
of 147 countries not to remain silent on the issue.91 The ANC issued a public statement in reaction
to the June 2008 runoff noting the effect Zimbabwe's instability has had on the SADC region and
accusing the Zimbabwe government of “riding roughshod over the hard-won democratic rights of
the people.” The statement cited “compelling evidence of violence, intimidation and outright
terror; the studied harassment of the leadership of the MDC, including its Presidential candidate,
by the security organs of the Zimbabwean government.” The ANC warned outside players not to
try to impose regime change, however, and expressed continued support for President Mbeki's
mediation efforts.92 According to local press reports, Mbeki declared in July 2008 that there was
no legitimate government in Harare and that the creation of a unity government was necessary.93

(...continued)
military’s actions. Nevertheless, the AU upheld the suspension because it opposed the unconstitutional overthrow of a
civilian regime. Following an investigation, the AU decided against sanctions, but held the suspension until elections
were held in 2007. Mauritania was suspended from the AU again in August 2008 following another coup, and the West
African country of Guinea has received similar treatment after a December 2008 coup.
86 See, for example, “Mugabe Defends Malawi Road Naming, BBC, May 4, 2006.
87Barry Bearak, “Zimbabwe Opponent Criticizes Mbeki,” New York Times, February 14, 2008.
88Michael Gerson, “The Despots' Democracy,” Washington Post, May 28, 2008.
89 “Anxiety Grows for Kidnaped Zimbabwe Activist,” Voice of America, May 18, 2008.
90 “Zimbabwe’s Political Crisis Enters South Africa Domestic Politics,” Voice of America, April 17, 2008.
91Statement by Speaker Baleka Mbete in Cape Town, 13 April 2008, available at http://www.parliament.gov.za.
92 “South Africa: Finding a Workable Solution to the Crisis,” Press Release issued by the ANC on 27 June 2008.
93 “Mbeki Brands Mugabe's Rule Illegitimate,” Pretoria News, July 8, 2008.
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South Africa’s current President, Jacob Zuma, who defeated Mbeki in December 2007 for the
ANC party presidency, was publicly critical of Zimbabwe’s 2008 elections. He openly criticized
the delayed announcement of the March results, saying, “there is a crisis in Zimbabwe. We ought
to stand up and do something about it.” While not directly charging the Mugabe administration
with rigging, he distanced himself from Mbeki’s “quiet diplomacy” approach. In late April 2008,
he told reporters, “Definitely there is something wrong with those elections.... I think the manner
in which the electoral commission has acted has discredited itself, and therefore that is
tantamount to sabotaging the elections.”94 Zuma did not call for Mbeki to step down as mediator,
but said “I imagine that the leaders in Africa should really move in to unlock this logjam,”95 and
called for African leaders to “assist” Mbeki as mediator, “given the gravity of the situation.”96
Many analysts have predicted that South African policy toward Zimbabwe, and Mugabe in
particular, could change under the Zuma administration if the coalition government collapses or
fails to abide by the GPA.97 Zuma has criticized western governments, however, for withholding
financial assistance from the coalition government.98
President Zuma, following a meeting with Prime Minister Tsvangirai in late July and a visit to
Harare in August 2009, has stressed the need for the parties to hasten the pace of reforms, but he
has refrained from publicly criticizing Mugabe. Other ANC officials have been more
outspoken—ANC secretary-general Gwede Mantashe told reporters during Zuma’s Harare visit
that President Zuma would be critical of Mugabe’s “deviant behavior” in his meetings there.99
Xenophobic Attacks Against Immigrants
An outbreak of xenophobic violence in South Africa in May 2008 highlights tensions created by
the immigration of large numbers of Zimbabweans to neighboring countries in recent years. In
May and June 2008, Zimbabweans and other foreign nationals were targeted by mobs in several
South African townships; at least 60 were killed and over 25,000 fled their homes. South Africa is
home to some 3-5 million illegal immigrants, most from Zimbabwe, and some South Africans
blame them for the country’s high crime and unemployment rates and rising food prices.
President Mbeki condemned the attacks, but the opposition criticized the government for not
addressing tensions earlier. On May 21, Mbeki deployed the army internally for the first time
since the end of apartheid to stem the violence. Under Mbeki’s successor, President Kgalema
Motlanthe, the South African government announced that it would revise its immigration policy,
lifting visa restrictions for Zimbabweans visiting the country for less than 90 days.100
The United Nations
In the wake of the March 2008 elections, U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon joined the United
States, Great Britain, and France in calling on the U.N. Security Council to address the Zimbabwe
situation. In remarks to the Security Council on April 16, 2008, Ban expressed his deep concern

94 “Zimbabwe Crisis at Critical Level, Warns Zuma,” CNN, April 24, 2008.
95 “Africa Shows Impatience on Zimbabwe Crisis,” Reuters, April 22, 2008.
96 “Zuma Ratchets Up Rhetoric Over Zimbabwe,” Financial Times, April 22, 2008.
97 CRS Report RL31697, South Africa: Current Issues and U.S. Relations, by Lauren Ploch.
98 “S. Africa’s Zuma Criticizes West over Zimbabwe,” Reuters, March 26, 2009.
99 “Mugabe Faces Tougher Scrutiny, Says ANC,” Business Day (South Africa), August 27, 2009.
100 South African Department of Home Affairs, “SA Signs MOU With Zimbabwe,” Media Release on May 7, 2009.
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with the delayed release of the electoral results, warning that “the credibility of the democratic
process in Africa could be at stake.” The Secretary-General, who declared the runoff election
illegitimate, engaged world leaders to determine how the international community could “help the
Zimbabwean people and authorities to resolve this issue.”101 His concern was echoed by the UN
High Commissioner for Human Rights, who called the runoff a “perversion of democracy.”102
Thabo Mbeki chaired the April 16 Security Council meeting, which was originally called by
South Africa, as rotating chairman of the Council, to discuss cooperation between the United
Nations and the African Union. The U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations recommended that a
U.N.-AU mission visit the country. The only African representative to address the Zimbabwe
issue at the meeting was Tanzanian President Kikwete, who praised SADC for working to “ensure
that the will of the people of Zimbabwe is respected.”103
The U.N. Security Council held a special session on April 29, 2008, to discuss Zimbabwe,
reportedly at the behest of incoming Security Council chair Britain. European and Latin American
members pressed for a U.N. envoy to visit the country, while other delegations, including South
Africa’s, rejected the proposal. President Mugabe denounced the closed session as “sinister,
racist, and colonial.”104 On June 22, the Council issued a Presidential Statement condemning the
violence and acts of political repression by the government of Zimbabwe.
On July 8, 2008, the Group of Eight (G8) nations, many of whom already have bilateral sanctions
in place, agreed to impose sanctions against the Mugabe regime due to the ongoing violence. The
G8's announcement set the stage for a U.S.-sponsored resolution in the U.N. Security Council.
The resolution (S/2008/447) called for targeted sanctions on 14 members of the Mugabe regime,
and an international arms embargo. It also requested the appointment of a U.N. Special
Representative on Zimbabwe, and the creation of a Panel of Experts to monitor and evaluate the
situation and the effects of the sanctions. On July 11, Russia and China vetoed the resolution. The
vote was nine, including Burkina Faso, in favor, and five against, with South Africa joining
Russia, China, Vietnam, and Libya in opposition. The United States expressed its disappointment
with the two vetoes, particularly that of Russia, which had supported the G8 agreement earlier
that week.105
South Africa's Ambassador to the U.N. repeatedly expressed reservations about imposing
sanctions on Zimbabwe, arguing that the situation in Zimbabwe did not pose a threat to
international security and thus should not be considered to be a matter for the U.N. Security
Council. Some criticized South Africa's position, suggesting that the xenophobic violence against
Zimbabwean immigrants in South Africa was only one of several examples of how the political
and economic crisis in Zimbabwe has affected the neighboring region. Some analysts suggest that
the African Union acknowledged the threat to regional security in a July 2 resolution issued
during its Sharm el-Sheikh summit, which noted the “urgent need to prevent further worsening of
the situation and with a view to avoid the spread of the conflict with the consequential negative
impact on the country and the subregion.” South Africa’s term as a rotating member of the
Security Council expired in January 2009.

101 “U.N. Council and AU to debate Zimbabwe,” Reuters, April 16, 2008.
102 “Elections Won't Be Delayed, Zimbabwe Insists,” International Herald Tribune, June 27, 2008.
103 “Spotlight Turned on Zimbabwe at UN Council,” Reuters, April 16, 2008.
104 “Zimbabwe Dismisses U.N. Talks,” Reuters, April 30, 2008.
105Testimony of Assistant Secretary of State Jendayi Frazer before the Senate Africa Subcommittee on July 15, 2008.
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The United Kingdom and the European Union
The European Union (EU) maintains targeted sanctions against members of Zimbabwe's former
administration, many of whom remain in office under the coalition government, and EU sanctions
prohibit member states from selling weapons to the country. Amidst the political violence that
followed the 2008 elections, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, in a speech to the House of
Commons, called for an international arms embargo against Zimbabwe, accusing the government
of rigging the elections and calling the political situation “completely unacceptable.” The United
States, which also prohibits weapons sales to Zimbabwe and maintains targeted sanctions,
expressed support for Brown's proposal, which was included in a U.S.-sponsored draft of a U.N.
Security Council resolution. Britain's Queen Elizabeth stripped Mugabe of an honorable
Knighthood he received in 1994.
In early September 2009, the EU sent its first high level delegation to Zimbabwe in seven years.
EU officials stressed that the visit was intended to renew diplomatic engagement, but that the EU
would not consider lifting its targeted sanctions until the GPA was fully implemented. In January
2010, Foreign Secretary David Miliband drew criticism for comments made at the World
Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, that appeared to imply that the EU would consider
easing its sanctions on Zimbabwe only upon the recommendation of Prime Minister Tsvangirai.
MDC officials called Miliband’s comments unhelpful and suggested that they undermined
Tsvangirai’s position in negotiations with Mugabe. The British Foreign Office later clarified the
UK’s position, stating that any change in its stance on sanctions would be determined by the
British government based on progress on political reforms. In February 2010, the EU renewed its
targeted sanctions, but removed several individuals and entities from the sanctions list.106
U.S. Policy on Zimbabwe
The U.S. government has been critical of President Mugabe and members of his former regime
for their poor human rights record and lack of respect for the rule of law. For much of the past
decade, the United States has imposed targeted sanctions against the government, including
financial and visa sanctions against select individuals;107 banned transfers of defense items and
services; and suspended non-humanitarian assistance to the government. At the same time, the
United States has remained one of the largest donors of humanitarian assistance to the people of
Zimbabwe. With the exception of defense items, the United States has not imposed trade
sanctions on the country.108
The George W. Bush Administration was highly critical of the ZANU-PF government’s role in
the 2008 post-election violence. Prior to the runoff, then Assistant Secretary of State Jendayi

106 Among those removed from the list was Dumiso Dabengwa, a former ZANU-PF minister who left the party and has
been publicly critical of its policies, several other individuals removed from the list died in 2009. Nine companies were
removed from the list, including Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Company.
107President Bush imposed these sanctions through Executive Order 13288, issued in March 2003. The Order prohibits
transactions with persons, entities, or organizations found to be undermining democratic institutions and processes in
Zimbabwe, who are included in a Specially Designated Nationals(SDN) list maintained by the U.S. Treasury
Department’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC).
108 Zimbabwe is not eligible for trade benefits under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) because of its
poor record of economic management and human rights abuses.
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Frazer accused Mugabe of “trying to steal the election,” saying, “My preferred option would be
that the will of the people be accepted. That Mr. Mugabe does the honorable thing and steps
down.”109 In May 2008, a State Department spokesman urged Mugabe to “call off his dogs,”110
and the U.S. Ambassador publicly condemned what he referred to as a “systematic campaign of
violence designed to block this vote for change ... orchestrated at the highest levels of the ruling
party.”111 American diplomats and officials from other foreign embassies report that they were
repeatedly harassed by elements of the Mugabe regime, in violation of the Vienna Convention.
In the months following the elections, the Bush Administration repeated its calls for African
governments to play a greater role in resolving the political impasse. During a visit by the British
Prime Minister to Washington, President Bush told the media, “The United Nations and the A.U.
must play an active role in resolving the situation in Zimbabwe.”112 Former Secretary of State
Condoleezza Rice said more bluntly, “It is time for Africa to step up.”113 In December, she called
the power sharing talks a “sham.”114
In the early days of his administration, President Barack Obama reached out to then-South
African President Kgalema Motlanthe to express his concern regarding Zimbabwe and to stress
South Africa’s role in resolving the political crisis.115 President Obama repeated his concerns to
President Jacob Zuma on the occasion of his inauguration and again during an April 2010 visit by
Zuma to Washington, DC. The Obama Administration has expressed support for the new coalition
government, but Administration officials continue to press for the full implementation of the
GPA. Both President Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton met with Prime
Minister Tsvangirai during a visit to Washington, DC, in June 2009. In late 2009, President
Obama presented the human rights group Women of Zimbabwe Arise (WOZA) with the annual
Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award.
Congressional Interest and Relevant Legislation
Congress has played a key role in the shaping of U.S. policy toward Zimbabwe. In 2008, several
Members of the 110th Congress issued statements highly critical of the Mugabe Administration,
the delayed release of the 2008 election results, and the political violence in Zimbabwe. Some
wrote letters to Administration officials or African leaders. In April 2008, the Senate passed
S.Res. 533, introduced by Senator John Kerry, calling for the immediate release of the
presidential results, an end to the political violence and intimidation, and a peaceful transition to
democratic rule. The resolution also supported calls for an international arms embargo and other
targeted sanctions against the Mugabe regime, and encouraged the creation of a comprehensive
political and economic recovery package in the event a democratic government is installed. The
House of Representatives passed H.Res. 1230, sponsored by Representative Donald Payne and all

109News Briefing by State Department Spokesman Sean McCormack on April 15, 2008, and “Mugabe Trying to Steal
Elections, Says U.S. Official,” CNN, April 24, 2008.
110 Daily Press Briefing by State Department Spokesman Tom Casey, May 1, 2008.
111Statement by Ambassador James McGee, “Breaking the Silence on Political Violence in Zimbabwe,” May 8, 2008,
available at http://harare.usembassy.gov.
112Remarks by President Bush in a press conference with Prime Minister Brown at the White House, April 17, 2008.
113On-the-Record Briefing by Secretary Rice in Washington, DC, April 17, 2008.
114Roundtable with Secretary Rice and the Associated Press on December 15, 2008.
115 Office of the White House Press Secretary, “Readout on the President’s Call to South Africa’s President
Motlanthe,” January 27, 2009.
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the House Members of the Congressional Black Caucus, among others, condemning the violence
and calling for a peaceful resolution to the political crisis. The House also passed H.Res. 1270,
sponsored by Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, calling for an international arms embargo,
urging the United Nations to deploy a special envoy to Zimbabwe, and encouraging the parties to
discuss the creation of a government of national unity. Prior to the June runoff, Representative
Adam Schiff had introduced legislation calling on the Zimbabwe government to postpone the
election. Representative Tom Tancredo also introducted legislation, H.Con.Res. 387, calling for
the United States to sever diplomatic ties with Zimbabwe.
The 111th Congress continues to monitor the progress of the transitional government, and has
begun to review existing U.S. policy toward Zimbabwe. In March 2009, Representative Ros-
Lehtinen introduced H.Res. 238, declaring the economic and humanitarian crisis in Zimbabwe to
be a threat to international security. Seven months after the new government’s formation, the
Senate Foreign Relations Africa Subcommittee held a hearing, Exploring U.S. Policy Options
Toward Zimbabwe’s Transition
. Following that hearing, Subcommittee Chairman Russ Feingold
called the transition a “great opportunity ... to help advance real reform and recovery,” noting that
while transition remains incomplete and abuses in Zimbabwe continue, “we need to seize this
opportunity and look for ways that we can proactively engage and help strengthen the hands of
reformers in Zimbabwe’s transitional government.”116
President Mugabe has frequently claimed that Western sanctions are to blame for the collapse of
the country’s economy. He and other ZANU-PF officials often cite a U.S. law, the Zimbabwe
Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZDERA) (P.L. 107-99), passed by Congress in 2001.
This legislation is discussed further in “Current Restrictions on U.S. Assistance” below. On May
4, 2010, Senator Feingold, Senator Johnny Isakson, and Senator John Kerry introduced S. 3297,
the Zimbabwe Transition to Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2010. According to
Senator Feingold, S. 3297 “aims to update U.S. policy and to provide the necessary direction and
flexibility for the United States to proactively push for democracy and economic recovery in
Zimbabwe.”117 Specifically, it would:
• reaffirm U.S. policy to “support the people of Zimbabwe in their struggle to
affect peaceful democratic change, achieve broad-based and equitable economic
growth, and restore the rule of law” through various forms of assistance, the
promotion of trade, and the continuation of targeted sanctions;
• authorize technical assistance to the transitional government and to the
parliament to support reforms;
• express support for agricultural development and efforts to reestablish security of
land tenure to “lay the groundwork for economic recovery,”
• amend the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZDERA) of
2001 to “reflect new political conditions and opportunities created by the Global
Political Agreement,” to direct the Administration to examine options for
addressing Zimbabwe’s existing debt to international financial institutions, and to
define new conditions for U.S. support of any proposed assistance by such
institutions;

116 Statement of Senator Feingold on Zimbabwe’s Transition for the Congressional Record, October 5, 2009.
117 Statement of Senator Feingold Upon Introducing New Legislation on Zimbabwe for the Congressional Record, May
4, 2010.
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• amend the restrictions in the FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-
117) on assistance for the government of Zimbabwe to make exceptions in the
areas of health and education;
• direct the President to press for Zimbabwe’s suspension from the Kimberly
Process diamond certification scheme and to sanction persons funding efforts to
undermine democratic processes through illegal activities involving diamonds;
• express the Sense of Congress that the Administration should review and update
targeted sanctions related to Zimbabwe; and
• direct the U.S. government to work with regional and international partners to
begin preparations for future elections and develop a strategy for reducing the
risk of electoral violence and other related abuses.
U.S. Assistance
The United States is one of the largest donors of humanitarian assistance to Zimbabwe, having
provided an estimated $1 billion in aid since 2002. In FY2008, U.S. assistance included $271
million in food aid and $22 million in other humanitarian assistance, as well as over $22 million
in health programs and over $10 million for democracy and governance support. During President
Obama’s June 2009 meeting with Tsvangirai, President Obama pledged $73 million in new
governance, education, and health assistance to Zimbabwe; in total, the U.S. government
obligated over $292 million in foreign aid in FY2009. The U.S. government provided over $7.3
million in FY2009 specifically to address the cholera outbreak, in addition to $8.6 million for
other water and sanitation programs. The State Department estimates that $89 million will be
spent on Zimbabwe in FY2010, not including food aid, and has requested $99 million for
FY2011.118 The Administration has indicated that the provision of non-humanitarian assistance
directly to the government remains predicated on progress toward political reforms. Key elements
of current U.S. policy continue to include targeted sanctions against high-ranking members of
ZANU-PF and their affiliates, support for economic and democratic reforms, and the provision of
assistance intended to help the country’s poor and strengthen civil society.
According to the State Department’s FY2011 Congressional Budget Justification,
In 2009, the formation of the transitional government in Zimbabwe provided new
opportunities to work with reformers to consolidate democracy and address the country’s
dire humanitarian crisis and its collapsed health care system. Although the transitional
Government is still struggling with implementation of the Global Political Agreement
(GPA), some positive steps have been taken that suggest that meaningful change is
possible…. U.S. assistance will support reformers within the transitional Government to
build on the principles and provisions of the GPA more fully.
Current Restrictions on U.S. Assistance
Due to loan defaults, Zimbabwe is subject to the Brooke-Alexander Act and Section 620(q) of the
Foreign Assistance Act, both of which prohibit direct assistance to the government of Zimbabwe

118 The FY2009 figure includes food aid. Congress approved $40 million in supplemental appropriations for Zimbabwe
in FY2009, and $15 million in FY2008.
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based on past due indebtedness the United States. Sections 7088 and 7070(e) of the FY2009
Omnibus Appropriations Act also prohibit assistance to the government. In addition, the
Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA; P.L. 107-99) prohibits
U.S. support for loans to the government by international financial institutions.
Sanctions Against Individuals
The United States has enforced targeted sanctions against top government officials and associates
since 2002; these sanctions have been annually renewed by the White House. The sanctions are
intended to punish those responsible for Zimbabwe’s difficulties without harming the population
at large. The initial sanctions, imposed in 2003, ban travel to the United States by “senior
members of the government of Robert Mugabe and others ... who formulate, implement, or
benefit from policies that undermine or injure Zimbabwe’s democratic institutions or impede the
transition to a multi-party democracy.” Persons who benefit financially from business dealings
with such individuals are also banned, as are the spouses of people in either group. In 2003,
President George W. Bush also issued an executive order freezing assets held in the United States
by 75 high-ranking Zimbabwe officials and President Mugabe’s wife, Grace.119 Nine companies
and commercial farms were added in 2004, and the list was further expanded in November 2005
to block the assets of 128 individuals and 33 entities. The executive order also allows the
Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with the Secretary of State, to go beyond previous
authority and block the property of additional persons who “have engaged in actions or policies to
undermine Zimbabwe’s democratic processes or institutions,” their immediate family members,
and any persons assisting them.120 President Bush added additional names to the list in 2007 and
2008. President Barack Obama renewed the sanctions most recently in March 2010. The
European Union and Britain have imposed similar targeted sanctions on over 150 persons and
entities, as well an arms embargo and an asset freeze.
Some, but not all, ZANU-PF members serving in inclusive government positions are included in
the list of individuals sanctioned by the U.S. government (see list of cabinet members in
Appendix below). MDC officials in the government have not called for the sanctions against
individuals to be lifted, but some have argued that sanctions against certain entities, including
several local banks and parastatals, should be reexamined.121 Several of these entities were
removed from the EU sanctions list in February 2010.
Multilateral Financing Restrictions
Congress expressed its opposition to the Zimbabwe government’s “economic mismanagement”
and “undemocratic policies” and called for sanctions in the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic
Recovery Act of 2001. ZDERA, which was introduced by Senator Bill Frist in March 2001,122
became public law in December of that year. This legislation, which authorized U.S. bilateral aid
for land reform and governance programs, also called for consultations with allies on economic
sanctions and a travel ban. Under ZDERA, U.S. support for financial assistance to Zimbabwe by
international financial institutions is prohibited until the President has been able to certify that

119 Seventy-seven individuals were named in the executive order (EO 13288), but one of these had died.
120 The text of this annex to EO 13288 can be found at http://www.whitehouse.gov.
121 Interviews by the author with MDC officials and U.S. embassy personnel in Harare, Zimbabwe in April 2008.
122 ZDERA cosponsors included Senators Russ Feingold, Hillary Rodham Clinton, Jesse Helms, and Joseph Biden.
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certain conditions pertaining to the rule of law, democratic elections, and legal and transparent
land reform have been met.123 At the time of ZDERA’s passage, Zimbabwe was already ineligible
to receive loans from the IMF and the World Bank’s International Development Association
(IDA) because it was in arrears to those institutions for debt payments. If a presidential
certification is made that the conditions identified in ZDERA have been met, the legislation calls
upon the Secretary of the Treasury to review the feasibility of restructuring, rescheduling, or
eliminating Zimbabwe’s sovereign debt held by the U.S. government and to propose similar
reviews by the multilateral development banks.
Administration Policy on the Easing of Sanctions
Despite its support for the new government, the Obama Administration has noted, “We will not
consider providing additional development assistance or even easing sanctions until we see
effective governance,” and the State Department has reiterated “serious concerns about the
regime of Mr. Mugabe.”124 U.S. officials and representatives of like-minded donor governments
and institutions have agreed to increase humanitarian aid to the extent possible and to support the
goals of the power-sharing agreement, but have predicated the provision of most development
assistance on progress toward political and economic reforms.
The FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117) declares that no funding for bilateral
economic assistance or international security assistance shall be provided to Zimbabwe except as
provided through the regular notification procedures of the Appropriations Committees. Sec.
7070(i) of the Omnibus further instructs that:
(1) The Secretary of the Treasury shall instruct the United States executive director to each
international financial institution to vote against any extension by the respective institution of
any loans to the Government of Zimbabwe, except to meet basic human needs or to promote
democracy, unless the Secretary of State determines and reports in writing to the Committees
on Appropriations that the rule of law has been restored in Zimbabwe, including respect for
ownership and title to property, freedom of speech and association, and a transition
government has been established that reflects the will of the people as they voted in the
March 2008 elections.
(2) None of the funds appropriated by this Act shall be made available for assistance for the
central government of Zimbabwe, except for macroeconomic growth assistance, unless the
Secretary of State makes the determination pursuant to paragraph (1).
Similar language was included in the FY2009 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-32).

123 The conditions include the following: 1) restoration of the rule of law; 2) election or pre-election conditions; 3)
commitment to equitable, legal, and transparent land reform; 4) fulfillment of agreement ending war in the Democratic
Republic of Congo; and 5) military and national police subordinate to civilian government. Under the terms of the
Global Political Agreement between ZANU-PF and the MDC, which established the inclusive government, elections
are not expected to be held for at least 18 months, during which time the agreement stipulates that a constitutional
review take place. Under ZDERA, a presidential certification may be made before a presidential election takes place if
“the Government of Zimbabwe has sufficiently improved the pre-election environment to a degree consistent with
accepted international standards for security and freedom of movement and association.” ZDERA allows for a
presidential waiver of the multilateral financing restriction if it is determined to be in the U.S. national interest.
124 Daily Press Briefing by State Department Spokesman Robert Wood, February 11, 2009, and Daily Press Briefing by
State Department Spokesman Ian Kelly, August 28, 2009
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Policy Options125
Following the formation of Zimbabwe’s coalition government, U.S. policymakers are
reexamining how to approach President Mugabe and his new administration. As mentioned
above, President Obama’s Administration has taken a cautious approach and has made the return
of effective governance a prerequisite to the lifting sanctions or the provision of significant
financial support for Zimbabwe's economic recovery. Like-minded donor countries and
institutions expect certain economic and political policy changes to be made prior to a resumption
of financial assistance to the government; Britain’s initial response has been similar to that of the
United States.
The international donor community has generally expressed support for the new inclusive
government, but has predicated significant assistance on improvement in the following areas:
• the end of farm disruptions;
• the cessation of politically motivated violence;
• the establishment of a credible and transparent Reserve Bank team;
• an end to harassment and intimidation of the media and civil society; and
• a commitment of all stakeholders to holding credible elections in a timely
manner.126
As discussed, many of the economic reform conditions set by the IMF and other donors,
including price liberalization, the elimination of quasi-fiscal activities, and cash budgeting, have
already been met. Zimbabwe’s Finance Ministry has also taken initial steps to meet other reform
conditions, such as central bank transparency and reform, by calling for an audit of the Reserve
Bank’s financial statements and by initiating legislative reforms related to Reserve Bank
governance. Credible stewardship of the Reserve Bank and a full restoration of Zimbabwe’s
relationship with the IMF and the World Bank will take time.
Obama Administration officials have been reluctant to publicly specify their own benchmarks for
renewed assistance to the government of Zimbabwe, but Administration officials suggest that
many of the necessary conditions are already outlined in the GPA, and thus in Zimbabwe’s own
constitution. Broadly, U.S. officials expect “genuine progress on governance and democracy,” as
evidenced by continued movement toward constitutional reform and free and fair elections, but
they have also reiterated the importance of interim confidence-building measures such as those
listed above.127 If the installation of Tsvangirai and other MDC officials into government

125There have been a number of studies conducted on policy options to reengage Zimbabwe, including, Michelle D.
Gavin, Planning for Post-Mugabe Zimbabwe, Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) Special Report No. 31, October
2007; Todd Moss and Stewart Patrick, The Day After Comrade Bob: Applying Post-Conflict Recovery Lessons to
Zimbabwe
, Center for Global Development Working Paper no. 72, December 2005; and “After Mugabe: Applying
Post-Conflict Recovery Lessons to Zimbabwe,” Africa Policy Journal, John F. Kennedy School of Government,
Harvard University, vol. 1, Spring 2006.
126 Remarks by the German Ambassador to Zimbabwe, Dr. Albrecht Conze, as referenced in “Getting Zimbabwe to
Work Again,” The Zimbabwe Times, March 29, 2009.
127 See the Administration’s FY2009 Supplemental Justification for the Department of State and USAID.
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positions does not bring about a change in governance, some in the international community may
explore other avenues for addressing the country's political and economic problems.
Diplomatic Pressure
Certain countries, including the United States, declared the Mugabe Administration illegitimate
after the 2008 elections. Prior to the September 2008 agreement, some suggested that these
governments should officially recognize Tsvangirai as President, and allow him to establish a
government in exile. The MDC and others had called for the United Nations to deploy human
rights monitors to investigate the political violence. Although South Africa and SADC already
deployed inquiry teams, the deployment of U.N. monitors could be influential, particularly if the
Zimbabwe government takes no initiative to investigate or prosecute abuses. The Mugabe
government has, in the past, reportedly denied similar delegations entry. In November 2008, the
government refused to provide visas to several members of the group of world leaders known as
the Elders, including Kofi Annan and former U.S. President Jimmy Carter. Based on interviews in
South Africa, Carter declared the crisis there to be “much greater, much worse, than anything we
had ever imagined.”128 There have been calls for members of the Mugabe government to be
referred to international justice regimes, although some observers suggest such calls for justice
should be considered carefully as long as the coalition government remains intact.
Humanitarian Assistance
The food security situation in Zimbabwe remains unstable. An estimated 5 million people
required food assistance in 2008 and approximately 7 million were in need of food aid in early
2009. An estimated 3 million required food aid in early 2010. According to the United Nations,
one in three children under the age of five suffers from chronic malnutrition.129 The displacement
of farm workers and vandalism that has followed the March 2008 elections has also contributed
to food insecurity. In addition, according to U.N. reports, political violence and government
interference in 2008 impeded the delivery of NGO assistance. According to the government of
Zimbabwe, the country requires 2 million tons of maize and an estimated 500,000 tons of wheat
per year to feed its population. In recent years Zimbabwe’s farms have produced on average only
20% of these requirements.130 The 2008 crop production deficit in much of the country was
estimated at 75 to 100%, and the 2009 winter wheat crop did not meet government production
targets. Both government officials and humanitarian aid groups suggest that financing for farmers
in 2010 will be critical. The U.N. has requested $378 million in food aid and other assistance to
vulnerable groups, as well as “humanitarian plus” assistance, in its 2010 Consolidated Appeal
Process.
Poor sanitation and water shortages continue to pose serious health risks in Zimbabwe’s urban
centers, as the cholera epidemic highlights. In Harare and in the country’s second-largest city,
Bulawayo, service delivery, including garbage collection, declined severely in recent years
because of budget shortages, and reports suggest ambulances and fire trucks sit unused because
the city councils cannot afford fuel or spare parts. Severe water shortages have plagued Harare
and other urban areas.

128 “Carter Shocked by Zimbabwe Crisis,” BBC, November 24, 2008.
129 The United Nations, 2009 Consolidated Appeal Process, November 2008.
130 Zimbabwe Ministry of Finance, Short Term Emergency Recovery Program (STERP), March 2009.
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The Obama Administration’s FY2009 supplemental budget included funds to “protect the
vulnerable Zimbabwean population during the process of stabilization.” This assistance aimed to
support income-generating activities and employment opportunities; improve safety-net
structures; and assist returnees’ reintegration into society. In addition, this assistance aimed to
address the country’s collapsed health care system by providing emergency health interventions.
The Administration’s FY2010 request noted that economic stabilization programs are likely to
introduce new hardships for many in the short-term, and humanitarian assistance will continue to
be needed to address both food and non-food needs. The FY2011 request reiterates the
importance of supporting livelihood projects for vulnerable households as the economy recovers.
Economic Recovery
In April 2009, the IMF estimated that in addition to increased humanitarian assistance needs,
Zimbabwe would require approximately $200 million in official budget support from donors to
achieve positive economic growth during the year.131 The United States and other international
actors have discussed financial incentives and assistance to facilitate Zimbabwe’s economic
recovery. 132 Zimbabwe’s economy collapsed over the last decade, and every sector of the
economy has been affected. Annual outputs of wheat, maize, and tobacco, once Zimbabwe’s
largest foreign exchange earner, have plummeted. Manufacturing output declined by 73% in 2008
alone, according to government estimates.133 Zimbabwe’s mining sector has been similarly
affected, although the platinum industry remains a major income earner for the government.134
World Bank and IMF lending has been suspended for ten years due to nonpayment of arrears.
These factors have all contributed to increasing pressure on both the people of Zimbabwe and
members of the government. In a public display of dissatisfaction among the military, shortages
of cash caused rioting and looting by army soldiers in Harare in late November 2008, prior to the
formation of the coalition government.
According to the IMF, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe’s quasi-fiscal activities were primarily
responsible for the surge in the country’s money supply in recent years. Losses from such
activities were estimated to be 75% of GDP in 2006, for example. The government’s fast track
land reform and more recent policy changes such as the Indigenization and Economic
Empowerment Act, have created significant uncertainty over property rights, deterring foreign
direct investment and lowering consumer confidence. It remains unclear how much influence the
MDC will have in countering the entrenched patronage system that currently exists.
Western donors have met periodically in recent years to explore reconstruction options, and their
representatives meet regularly in Harare to coordinate existing aid programs. Britain has
maintained its willingness to release funds to pay for parts of an orderly land redistribution
program if Mugabe retires and the rule of law is returned. With Mugabe remaining in office under
the GPA, it is unclear whether Britain will concede to release such funds. Prime Minister Gordon
Brown has indicated that political prisoners must be released and restrictive laws repealed before
the UK can engage more fully. By Zimbabwean government estimates, the cost of Zimbabwe’s

131 IMF, “Zimbabwe: 2009 Article IV Consultation—Staff Report,” IMF Country Report No. 09/139, April 20, 2009.
132Information here draws such sources as David Coltart, “A Decade of Suffering in Zimbabwe: Economic Collapse
and Political Repression under Robert Mugabe,” CATO Institute Development Policy Analysis No. 5, 24 March 2008.
133 Zimbabwe Ministry of Finance, Short Term Emergency Recovery Program (STERP), March 2009.
134Zimbabwe has the world’s second largest reserves of platinum, behind South Africa. The largest mining operations
in the country are controlled by South African-owned Impala Platinum and Anglo Platinum.
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economic recovery may be almost $45 billion in the next decade, but the government is using a
more conservative figure in its discussions with donors of $8 billion over a three-year period to
cover food support, land reform, health services and education, infrastructure, balance of payment
and budget support, and emergency aid programs.
The World Bank and the IMF have developed strategies for Zimbabwe’s economic recovery.
Given the need to cut government spending to reduce the government deficit, significant donor
assistance will be required to rebuild the public health sector, which according to reports may
have lost over 70% of its skilled workforce. The education sector faces similar challenges. Save
the Children UK estimates that attendance at public schools in Zimbabwe dropped from 85% to
20% between 2007 the end of 2008, and that some 30,000 teachers had left the public education
system.135 According to reports, textbooks are in extremely short supply, with one for every ten
students. Reviving the country’s agriculture industry will require delicate handling to address
historical grievances against white Zimbabweans regarding land distribution and tenure.136
Congress authorized $20 million in its ZDERA legislation for land reform assistance for FY2002,
and some analysts suggest this level of annual assistance may still be appropriate, should
Zimbabwe’s government undertake a serious effort to address the issue.
Maintaining the flow of foreign currency to pay salary vouchers is particularly critical to ensuring
stability, but MDC officials have acknowledged donor concerns. Prime Minister Tsvangirai, in his
inaugural address to the parliament, warned MPs, “no donor country or institution is going to
offer any meaningful assistance unless our government projects a positive new image.”137
Australia and Sweden were among the first to offer initial aid packages, reportedly worth $10
million each, but those funds are being channeled through the United Nations and NGOs for
humanitarian assistance. To date, only Southern African governments and China have publicly
indicated a willingness to provide loans or aid directly to the government, and in February 2010,
China suggested that it would not provide new loans until Zimbabwe paid its existing debts.
Representatives from the IMF, the World Bank, and the Africa Development Bank (ADB) visited
the country in March 2009. The president of the ADB called Biti’s initial efforts “impressive,”
and “merit[ing] support,” but called on the country to meet its debt obligations.138 The IMF noted
positive steps toward fiscal discipline and offered to provide further policy advice, but warned
that IMF funding would not be renewed until Zimbabwe began to repay its debts and established
“a track record of sound policy implementation [and] donor support.”139
Zimbabwe’s debt is estimated at $5.2 billion, including over $3.6 billion in payment arrears,
according to the Finance Ministry. Zimbabwe owes over $1 billion to multilateral institutions,
including the IMF, the World Bank, and the African Development Bank. The government settled
other outstanding arrears with the IMF in 2005 and 2006 to avoid compulsory withdrawal from
the IMF. The source of the funds used to pay the IMF debt was a source of considerable

135 “Children and Teachers Unlikely to Return to School as Zimbabwe Term Begins,” Press Release from Save the
Children UK, January 27, 2009.
136The U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has suggested that raising the yields of communal farming
areas, which compose 50% of land, could guarantee food security. The FAO estimates that a $50 million investment
annually for three years to train farmers and provide seeds and fertilizer would significantly increase yields and cost
less than what Zimbabwe pays to import food. See “Zimbabwe: Small Scale Farmers Seen as Backbone of Food
Security,” IRIN, May 15, 2008.
137 Inaugural Address by Prime Minister Tsvangirai to the Seventh Parliament of Zimbabwe, March 4, 2009.
138 “ADB Praises Zimbabwe Recovery Plan,” Reuters, February 26,2009.
139 Tony Hawkins, “IMF Dampens Hopes of Aid to Zimbabwe,” Financial Times, March 25, 2009.
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speculation in the media. The ADB has predicated the resumption of lending to Zimbabwe on the
restoration of the credibility of the sovereign state and launching a set of economic, financial, and
institutional reforms. If these conditions are met, the ADB would classify the country as a fragile
state, which would permit access to grant resources.
Following the March 2009 consultation visit, the IMF noted positive steps toward fiscal
discipline and offered to provide further policy advice, but warned that IMF funding would not be
renewed until Zimbabwe begins to repay its debts and establishes “a track record of sound policy
implementation [and] donor support.”140 Following another consultation visit in March 2010, IMF
officials reiterated these conditions, noting that economic policies had “improved significantly”
but that the recovery remained fragile. Finance Minister Biti has said that Zimbabwe cannot
currently pay its remaining debts to international donors, and the IMF suggests that “Zimbabwe’s
external debt burden is unsustainable even if policies are improved and medium-term financing
gaps are filled by concessional financing.”141 In the interim, the IMF’s Executive Board met in
May 2009 to approve a “targeted lifting” of the Fund’s suspension of technical assistance to the
government. This resumption of assistance indicates that the IMF has judged Zimbabwe to be
cooperating with the Fund on policies and payments toward addressing its outstanding arrears.142
It allows IMF technical advisors to work with the Finance Ministry to improve its revenue
collection and bank payment system, particularly to process transactions in foreign exchange, as
well as on fiduciary control of the central bank.
In early September 2009, the IMF announced that it had transferred approximately $400 million
in Special Drawing Rights (SDR) to Zimbabwe to boost its foreign currency reserves, as part of
the Fund’s effort to improve liquidity in the global economic system. Finance Minister Biti
announced that these funds would used to help rebuild the country’s infrastructure. A further $100
million will reportedly be held in escrow by the IMF until Zimbabwe clears its arrears to the
Fund, currently worth over $130 million. In February 2010, with the support of the United States,
the Board voted to restore Zimbabwe’s voting rights, which were suspended in 2003 after a
determination that Zimbabwe had not sufficiently strengthened its cooperation with the IMF in
areas of policy implementation and payments.143 Several recent studies have explored options for
addressing Zimbabwe’s external debt arrears and pursuing comprehensive debt relief.144
The State Department’s FY2009 Supplemental request stated that “to be successful, Zimbabwe’s
transition will require a significant infusion of capital and program investment in both the short-
and long-term.” That request included funds to support the transitional government. The request
also included support for economic growth programs, including technical assistance for monetary
and fiscal policy reform and economic revitalization, especially for the agriculture sector. The
request suggested that further reforms would be needed before the international financial
institutions would support a broader macro-economic recovery program. The Department’s
FY2010 request included an expansion of technical assistance to the government on a range of
issues, such as trade policy and legal and regulatory reforms that affect businesses, and it aims to
reinforce technical assistance provided by the international financial institutions. The FY2011

140 Ibid.
141 IMF, “Zimbabwe: 2009 Article IV Consultation—Staff Report,” IMF Country Report No. 09/139, April 20, 2009.
142 IMF, “Request for Targeted Lifting of the Suspension of Fund Technical Assistance,” April 21, 2009.
143 Find information on overdue financial obligations at http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/pam/pam45/contents.htm.
144 See, for example, Benjamin Leo and Todd Moss, Moving Mugabe’s Mountain: Zimbabwe’s Path to Arrears
Clearance and Debt Relief,
the Center for Global Development, November 12, 2009.
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request goes further, proposing new activities to promote private sector development and
agricultural recovery, but cautions that “if the government does not make adequate progress in
meeting donor benchmarks, assistance beyond the agriculture sector may not follow.”
Accountability and Reform
The inability of Zimbabwe’s judicial system to protect its citizens or their property, or to provide
due process to those seeking remedy or compensation, suggests a fundamental breakdown in the
implementation of the rule of law in Zimbabwe. Analysts suggest that the country will require
significant judicial and security sector reforms as part of larger constitutional reforms. The people
of Zimbabwe will also have to determine what level of accountability they may seek, not only for
recent political violence, but for historical grievances and alleged official corruption. Morgan
Tsvangirai has proposed the creation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission similar to that of
South Africa, “striking a healthy balance between reconciliation and accountability.”145 Prior to
the September 2008 agreement, he offered Mugabe “an honorable exit as ... father of the nation,”
but it is unlikely that his party would consider extending such an offer to all senior officials
implicated in acts of violence.146 Under the terms of the power sharing agreement, a new
constitution is expected to be developed within two years; many expect fresh elections to be held
at that point. Mugabe and other senior officials may resist a peaceful exit from power if they fear
subsequent prosecution, as occurred with the former presidents of Liberia, Chad, and Zambia.147

145Morgan Tsvangirai, “Freedom for Zimbabwe,” The Wall Street Journal, March 21, 2008.
146 “Zimbabwe Opposition Seeks Peacekeepers for Run-off,” Reuters, May 11, 2008.
147Former Liberian President Charles Taylor now faces war crimes charges before the Special Court for Sierra Leone;
former Chadian President Hissan Habre is expected to be tried for human rights abuses committed by his regime.
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Zimbabwe: The Transitional Government and Implications for U.S. Policy

Appendix. Members of Zimbabwe’s Inclusive
Government

President—Robert Mugabe (ZANU-PF)*
Prime Minister—Morgan Tsvangirai (MDC-T)
Vice President—Joyce Mujuru (ZANU-PF)*
Vice President—John Nkomo (ZANU-PF)*
Deputy Prime Ministers—Arthur Mutambara (MDC-M); Thokozani Khupe (MDC-T)

Ministers:
Finance—Tendai Biti (MDC-T)
Information & Communications Technology—Nelson Chamisa (MDC-T)
Science and Technology—Heneri Dzinotyiwei (MDC-T)
Public Service—Elphas Mukonoweshuro (MDC-T)
Energy and Power Development—Elias Mudzuri (MDC-T)
Constitutional and Parliamentary Affairs—Eric Matinenga (MDC-T)
Labour—Pauline Mpariwa (MDC-T)
Water Resources—Joel Gabuza (MDC-T)
Health—Henry Madzorera (MDC-T)
State Enterprises—Samuel Sipepa Nkomo (MDC-T)
National Housing & Social Amenities—Fidelis Mhashu (MDC-T)
Economic Planning and Development—Elton Mangoma (MDC-T)
Public Works—Theresa Makone (MDC-T)
Education, Sport and Culture—David Coltart (MDC-M)
Industry and Commerce—Welshman Ncube (MDC-M)
Regional Integration & International Cooperation—Priscilla Misihairabwi-Mushonga (MDC-M)
Home Affairs—Co-ministers Kembo Mohadi (ZANU-PF)* and Giles Mutsekwa (MDC-T)
Defense—Emerson Mnangagwa (ZANU-PF)*
Local Government & Urban Development—Ignatius Chombo (ZANU-PF)*
Justice and Legal Affairs—Patrick Chinamasa (ZANU-PF)*
Agriculture—Joseph Mtekwese Made (ZANU-PF)*
Environment—Francis Dunstun Chenayimoyo Nhema (ZANU-PF) *
Tourism—Walter Mzembi (ZANU-PF)
Transport and Infrastructural Development—Nicholas Goche (ZANU-PF)*
Mines and Mining Development—Obert Moses Mpofu (ZANU-PF)*
Foreign Affairs—Simbarashe Simbanenduku Mumbengegwi (ZANU-PF)*
Media, Information and Publicity—Webster Kotiwa Shamu (ZANU-PF)*
Lands and Land Resettlement—Herbert Murerwa (ZANU-PF)*
Higher & Tertiary Education—Stan Gorerazvo Mudenge (ZANU-PF)*
Women's Affairs, Gender, & Community Development—Olivia Muchena (ZANU-PF)*
Youth Development, Indigenization & Empowerment—Savior Kasukuwere (ZANU-PF)*

Deputy Ministers (that have been sworn-in):
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Zimbabwe: The Transitional Government and Implications for U.S. Policy

Foreign Affairs—Moses Mzila Ndlovu (MDC-M)
Higher and Tertiary Education—Lutho Addington Tapela (MDC-T)
Health and Child Welfare—Dr. Tendai Douglas Mombeshora (ZANU PF)
Labour and Social Welfare—Dr. Tracy Mutinhiri (ZANU PF)
Education, Sports, Arts and Culture—Lazarus Dokora (ZANU PF)
Economic Planning and Development—Dr. Samuel Undenge (ZANU PF)
Energy and Power Development—Hubert Nyanhongo (ZANU PF)
State Enterprises and Parastatals—Walter Chidhakwa (ZANU PF)
Industry and Commerce—Michael Bimha (ZANU PF)
Regional Integration and International Co-operation—Reuben Marumahoko (ZANU PF)*
Public Works—Aguy Georgias (ZANU PF)
Public service—Andrew Langa (ZANU PF)*
Local Government, Urban and Rural Development—Sessil Zvidzai (MDC-T)
Transport and Infrastructural Development—Dr. Tichaona Mudzingwa (MDC-T)
Mines and Mining Development—Murisi Zwizwai (MDC-T)
Media, Information and Publicity—Jameson Timba (MDC-T)
Youth Development, Indigenisation and Empowerment—Thamsanqa Mahlangu (MDC-T)
Women's Affairs, Gender and Community Development—Evelyn Masaiti (MDC-T)
Justice and Legal Affairs—Jessie Majome (MDC-T)

Ministers of State:
President's Office (Healing Organ)—John Nkomo (ZANU-PF)*
Prime Minister's Office (Healing Organ)—Sekai Holland (MDC-T)
Deputy Prime Minister's Office (Healing Organ)—Gibson Sibanda (MDC-M)
Vice President Mujuru's Office—Sylvester Nguni (ZANU-PF) *
National Security in the President's Office—Sydney Sekeramayi (ZANU-PF)*
Security Minister in the President's Office—Didymus Mutasa (ZANU-PF)*
Prime Minister's Office—Gordon Moyo (MDC-T)

*Denotes those included in the Specially Designated Nationals (SDN) list maintained by the U.S.
Treasury Department’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC).

Author Contact Information

Lauren Ploch

Analyst in African Affairs
lploch@crs.loc.gov, 7-7640


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