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Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring
Programs and Issues
Adrienne L. Fernandes
Specialist in Social Policy
February 5, 2010
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL34306
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress
c11173008
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Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring Programs and Issues
Summary
Youth mentoring refers to a relationship between youth—particularly those most at risk of
experiencing negative outcomes in adolescence and adulthood—and the adults who support and
guide them. The origin of the modern youth mentoring concept is credited to the efforts of charity
groups that formed during the Progressive era of the early 1900s to provide practical assistance to
poor and juvenile justice-involved youth, including help with finding employment.
Approximately 2.5 million youth today are involved in formal mentoring relationships through
Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) of America and similar organizations. Contemporary mentoring
programs seek to improve outcomes and reduce risks among vulnerable youth by providing
positive role models who regularly meet with the youth in community or school settings. Some
programs have broad youth development goals while others focus more narrowly on a particular
outcome. Evaluations of the BBBS program and studies of other mentoring programs
demonstrate an association between mentoring and some positive youth outcomes, but the effects
of mentoring on particular outcomes and the ability for mentored youth to sustain gains over time
is less certain.
In recent years, two mentoring programs—the Mentoring Children of Prisoners (MCP) program
and Safe and Drug Free Schools (SDFS) Mentoring program—have provided a significant source
of federal funding for mentoring services. The Mentoring Children of Prisoners program was
created in response to the growing number of children under age 18 with at least one parent who
is incarcerated in a federal or state correctional facility. The program is intended, in part, to
reduce the chance that mentored youth will use drugs and skip school. Similarly, the SDFS
Mentoring program has provided school-based mentoring to reduce school dropout and improve
relationships for youth at risk of educational failure and with other risk factors. Congress did not
appropriate funding for the program in FY2010. As part of its FY2010 budget justifications, the
Obama Administration proposed eliminating the program because of an evaluation showing that it
does not have an impact on students overall in terms of interpersonal relationships, academic
outcomes, and delinquent behaviors.
In addition to these programs, the federal government has funded short-term mentoring grants as
well as programs that include mentoring as one of their core activities. For example, the
Department of Justice has allocated funding for initiatives that provide mentoring for youth in the
juvenile justice or foster care systems and other vulnerable youth populations. Youth ChalleNGe,
an educational and leadership program for at-risk youth administered by the Department of
Defense, includes mentoring as a major aspect of its program. In addition, federal agencies
coordinate on federal mentoring issues. The Federal Mentoring Council was created in 2006 to
address the ways agencies can combine resources and training and technical assistance to
federally administered mentoring programs, and to serve as a clearinghouse on mentoring issues
for the federal government. The recently enacted Serve America Act (P.L. 111-13) authorizes
funding for Corporation for National and Community Service (CNCS) programs in which
mentoring is a permissible activity.
Issues relevant to the federal role in mentoring include the limitations of research on outcomes for
mentored youth, the potential need for additional mentors, grantees’ challenges in sustaining
funding, and the possible discontinuation of federal mentoring funding. This report will be
updated as legislative activity warrants.
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Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring Programs and Issues
Contents
Overview and Purpose of Mentoring ........................................................................................... 2
Origins of Contemporary Mentoring Programs ...................................................................... 2
Characteristics of Successful Mentoring Programs ................................................................ 3
Characteristics of Successful Mentoring Relationships .......................................................... 6
Evaluation of Mentoring Programs........................................................................................ 6
Examples of the Positive Effects of Mentoring ................................................................ 6
Some Outcomes Do Not Improve or Are Short Lived ...................................................... 7
Current Federal Mentoring Programs .......................................................................................... 8
Mentoring Children of Prisoners Program (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services) .................................................................................................................................. 9
Overview .............................................................................................................................. 9
Purpose........................................................................................................................... 9
Grantee Requirements ................................................................................................... 10
Mentored Youth and Mentors ........................................................................................ 11
Voucher Demonstration Project: Caregiver’s Choice Program ............................................. 11
Funding and Grant Awards .................................................................................................. 12
Program Performance and Oversight ................................................................................... 14
Research ....................................................................................................................... 14
Reports to Congress and Evaluations............................................................................. 14
Training and Technical Assistance ................................................................................. 16
Safe and Drug Free Schools Mentoring Program (U.S. Department of Education) ..................... 16
Recent Developments.......................................................................................................... 16
Overview ............................................................................................................................ 17
Purpose......................................................................................................................... 17
Grantee Requirements ................................................................................................... 18
Mentored Youth and Mentors ........................................................................................ 18
Funding and Grant Awards .................................................................................................. 19
Program Performance and Oversight ................................................................................... 19
Evaluations ................................................................................................................... 20
Training and Technical Assistance ................................................................................. 21
Other Federal Mentoring Support .............................................................................................. 21
Department of Justice.......................................................................................................... 22
Overview ...................................................................................................................... 22
Other Notable DOJ Funding Allocations for Mentoring................................................. 26
Corporation for National and Community Service ............................................................... 27
America’s Promise ........................................................................................................ 28
Federal Mentoring Council.................................................................................................. 28
Department of Defense ....................................................................................................... 29
Youth ChalleNGe Program ............................................................................................ 29
Federal Issues in Mentoring ...................................................................................................... 31
Limitations of Research on Mentoring................................................................................. 31
Gap in Mentoring Services .................................................................................................. 33
Sustaining Resources .......................................................................................................... 34
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Figures
Figure 1. Elements, Policies, and Procedures of Successful Mentoring Programs........................ 5
Tables
Table 1. FY2003-FY2009 (Appropriated) and FY2011 (Proposed) Funding for the
Mentoring Children of Prisoners Program .............................................................................. 13
Table 2.FY2003-FY2010 Funding (Appropriated) for the Safe and
Drug Free Schools Program ................................................................................................... 19
Table A-1. Demographics and Characteristics of Children, Mentors, and Relationships
(FY2006 Through FY2009).................................................................................................... 35
Table B-1.Department of Justice Mentoring Programs, FY2009 ................................................ 36
Table B-2.Department of Justice Mentoring Programs, FY2008 ................................................ 39
Appendixes
Appendix A. Mentoring Children of Prisoners Program............................................................. 35
Appendix B. Descriptions of Department of Justice Mentoring Programs, Select Years.............. 36
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 40
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Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring Programs and Issues
ince the mid-1990s, Congress has supported legislation to establish structured mentoring
programs for the most vulnerable youth. The Department of Justice’s Juvenile Mentoring
S Program (JUMP), the first such program, was implemented in 1994 to provide mentoring
services for at-risk youth ages five to 20. The purpose of contemporary, structured mentoring
programs is to reduce risks by supplementing (but not supplanting) a youth’s relationship with his
or her parents. Some of these programs have broad youth development goals while others focus
more narrowly on a particular outcome such as reducing gang activity or substance abuse, or
improving grades. Research has shown that mentoring programs have been associated with some
positive youth outcomes, but that the long-term effects of mentoring on particular outcomes and
the ability for mentored youth to sustain gains over time are less certain.
Although there is no single overarching policy today on mentoring, the federal government
supports multiple mentoring efforts for vulnerable youth since JUMP was discontinued in
FY2003, including the Mentoring Children of Prisoners (MCP) program, administered by the
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS); and the Safe and Drug Free Schools (SDFS)
Mentoring program, which, through FY2009, was administered by the Department of Education
(ED). The purpose of the programs is to improve the outcomes of vulnerable youth across a
number of areas, including education, criminal activity, health and safety, and social and
emotional development.
The federal government also supports other mentoring efforts through short-term grants and
initiatives. Many of these grants are carried out by the Department of Justice (DOJ), which has
allocated funding for multiple mentoring initiatives for youth in foster care, the juvenile justice
system, and minority youth. In addition, the federal government has provided funding to
programs with vulnerable youth that have a strong (but not exclusive) mentoring component.
Youth ChalleNGe, an educational and leadership program for at-risk youth administered by the
Department of Defense, helps to engage youth in work and school, and leadership opportunities.
Adult mentors assist enrolled youth with their transition from the program for at least one year.
Finally, federal agencies coordinate on mentoring issues. The Federal Mentoring Council was
created in 2006 to address the ways agencies can combine resources and training and technical
assistance to federally administered mentoring programs, and to serve as a clearinghouse on
mentoring issues for the federal government.
This report begins with an overview of the purpose of mentoring, including a brief discussion on
research of structured mentoring programs. The report then describes the evolution of federal
policies on mentoring since the early 1990s. The report provides an overview of the components
and funding for each of two major federal mentoring programs, as well as a discussion of other
federal mentoring initiatives that are currently funded. Note that additional federal programs and
policies authorize funding for mentoring activities, among multiple other activities and services.1
These programs are not discussed in this report. The report concludes with an overview of issues
that may be of interest to Congress. These issues include the limitations of research on outcomes
for mentored youth, the potential need for additional mentors, grantees’ challenges in sustaining
funding, and the possible discontinuation of federal mentoring funding.
1 The White House Task Force for Disadvantaged Youth, convened in 2003 to identify issues in coordinating federal
youth policy, identified approximately 123 federally funded programs administered by 10 agencies with a mentoring
component. The task force’s final report is available at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/fysb/content/docs/
white_house_task_force.pdf.
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Overview and Purpose of Mentoring
Mentoring refers to a relationship between two or more individuals in which at least one of those
individuals provides guidance to the other. In the context of this report, mentoring refers to the
relationship between a youth and an adult who supports, guides, and assists the youth.2 Youth can
receive mentoring through informal and formal relationships with adults. Informal relationships
are those that develop from a young person’s existing social network of teachers, coaches, and
family friends. This report focuses on formal mentoring relationships for vulnerable youth. These
relationships are cultivated through structured programs sponsored by youth-serving
organizations, faith-based organizations, schools, and after-school programs. Volunteers in
structured programs are recruited from communities, churches, and the workplace, and undergo
an intensive screening process. Youth eligible for services through structured mentoring programs
are often identified as at “high risk” of certain negative outcomes.3
The purpose of modern structured mentoring programs is to reduce risks by supplementing (but
not replacing) a youth’s relationship with his or her parents. Some programs have broad youth
development goals, while others focus more narrowly on a particular outcome such as reducing
gang activity or substance abuse, or improving grades. Structured mentoring programs are often
community based, meaning that mentored youth and adults engage in community activities (e.g.,
going to the museum and the park, playing sports, playing a board game, and spending time
together outside of work and school). Other programs are characterized as school based because
they take place on school grounds or some other set location, like a community center. The co-
location of mentoring programs in schools facilitates relationships with teachers, who can meet
with mentors and refer youth to the programs.4 Mentors provide academic assistance and
recreational opportunities and expose youth to opportunities that promote their cognitive and
emotional development.
Origins of Contemporary Mentoring Programs
The origin of today’s structured mentoring programs is credited to the efforts of charity groups
that formed during the Progressive Movement of the early 1900s. These groups sought adult
volunteers for vulnerable youth—defined at the time as youth who were poor or had become
involved in the then nascent juvenile court system.5 These early organizations provided practical
assistance to youth, including help with finding employment, and created recreational outlets. The
most prominent mentoring organization at the time, Big Brothers (now known as Big Brothers
Big Sisters of America), continues today as the oldest and largest mentoring organization in the
country with over 275,000 youth ages five to 18 served in 5,000 communities.6
2 See U.S. General Accounting Office, Student Mentoring Programs: Education’s Monitoring and Information Sharing
Could Be Improved, GAO Report GAO-04-581 (Washington, June 2004), p. 6. (Hereafter referenced GAO, Student
Mentoring Programs.) After this report was issued, the name of the General Accounting Office was changed to the
Government Accountability Office.
3 For further discussion of risk factors and groups of at-risk youth, see CRS Report RL33975, Vulnerable Youth:
Background and Policies, by Adrienne L. Fernandes.
4 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Student Mentoring Programs, p. 6.
5 George L. Beiswinger, One to One: The Story of the Big Brothers Big Sisters Movement in America. (Philadelphia:
Big Brothers Big Sisters of America, 1985), pp. 15-20.
6 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, “OJJDP Helps Big Brothers Big
(continued...)
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The contemporary youth mentoring movement began in the late 1980s with the support of
foundations and corporations, including Fannie Mae, Commonwealth Fund, United Way of
America, Chrysler, Procter & Gamble, and the National Urban League.7 In addition,
nongovernmental organizations such as One to One in Philadelphia and Project RAISE in
Baltimore were established by entrepreneurs seeking to expand mentoring services to vulnerable
youth.
The federal government has supported structured mentoring programs and initiatives since the
beginning of the contemporary mentoring movement. At that time, mentoring was becoming
increasingly recognized by the government as a promising strategy to enrich the lives of youth,
address the isolation of youth from adult contact, and provide one-to-one support for the most
vulnerable youth, particularly those living in poverty.8 Among the first projects undertaken by the
federal government was a youth mentoring initiative in the early 1990s implemented by the newly
created Points of Light Foundation, a federally funded nonprofit organization that promotes
volunteering.9 Then Secretary of Labor Elizabeth Dole made the case for mentoring as a way to
improve the lives of youth and prepare them for the workforce.10 Other early initiatives included
the Juvenile Mentoring Program (see below). The federal government also signaled the
importance of mentoring during the 1997 Presidents’ Summit, which was convened by the living
Presidents (at the time) to pledge their support for policies that assist youth. The Presidents and
other national leaders called for adults to volunteer as mentors for over two million vulnerable
youth.11
Characteristics of Successful Mentoring Programs
Studies of structured mentoring programs, including those that have received federal funding,
indicate that the programs are most successful when they include a strong infrastructure and
facilitate caring relationships. Infrastructure refers to a number of activities including identifying
the youth population to be served and the activities to be undertaken, screening and training
mentors, supporting and supervising mentoring relationships, collecting data on youth outcomes,
and creating sustainability strategies.12 The mentor screening process provides programs with an
opportunity to select those adults most likely to be successful as mentors by seeking volunteers
who can keep their time commitments and value the importance of trust. Further, these studies
(...continued)
Sisters Celebrate 100th Anniversary,” OJJDP News @ a Glance, vol. 3, no. 3, May/June 2004, p. 1. (Hereafter
referenced as U.S. Department of Justice, Big Brothers Big Sisters.)
7 Marc Freedman, The Kindness of Strangers: Mentors, Urban Youth, and the New Volunteerism (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1993), p. 5. (Hereafter referenced as Freedman, The Kindness of Strangers.)
8 U.S. Department of Justice, “Juvenile Mentoring Program (JUMP) Guidelines,” 59 Federal Register 3820, July 28,
1994.
9 Freedman, The Kindness of Strangers, p. 4. The Points of Light Foundation is funded by the Corporation for National
and Community Service.
10 Ibid, p. 16.
11 The Presidents’ Summit on America’s Future, Remarks at the Presidents’ Summit on America’s Future, available at
http://clinton3.nara.gov/WH/New/Summit/Remarks_index.html.
12 See, Jean Baldwin Grossman, ed., Contemporary Issues in Mentoring, Public/Private Ventures, p. 6.;
Mentor/National Mentoring Partnership, “Elements of Effective Practice in Mentoring,” 3rd ed., 2009; and Jean E.
Rhodes and David L. DuBois, “Understanding and Facilitating the Youth Mentoring Movement,” Social Policy Report,
vol. 20, no. 3 (2006), pp. 8-11. (Hereafter referenced as Rhodes and DuBois, “Understanding and Facilitating the Youth
Mentoring Movement.”)
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assert that orientation and training ensure youth and mentors share a common understanding of
the adult’s role and help mentors develop realistic expectations of what they can accomplish.
Ongoing support and supervision of the matches assist mentored pairs in negotiating challenges.
Staff can help the pairs maintain a relationship over the desired period (generally a year or more).
According to the studies, successful programs are known to employ strategies to retain the
support of current funders and garner financial backing from new sources. Finally, the studies
demonstrate that successful programs attempt to measure any effects of mentoring services on the
participating youth. Programs can then disseminate these findings to potential funders and
participants. Figure 1 summarizes the elements, policies, and procedures of successful mentoring
programs.
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Figure 1. Elements, Policies, and Procedures
of Successful Mentoring Programs
Source: Congressional Research Service, based on Figure 1 in GAO, Student Mentoring Programs. This
information was originally presented in MENTOR/National Mentoring Partnership, “Elements of Effective
Practice in Mentoring,” 2nd ed., 2003.
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Characteristics of Successful Mentoring Relationships
Research on youth mentoring demonstrates that mentoring relationships are likely to promote
positive outcomes for youth and avoid harm when they are close, consistent, and enduring.13
Closeness refers to a bond that forms between the youth and mentor, and has been found to have
benefits for the youth. Mentor characteristics, such as prior experience in helping roles or
occupations, an ability to appreciate salient socioeconomic and cultural influences, and a sense of
efficacy for mentoring youth appear to facilitate close mentoring relationships. Consistency refers
to the amount of time mentors and youth spend together. Regular contact has been linked to
positive youth outcomes, and relationships become strong if they last one year or longer. Youth in
relationships that lasted less than six months showed declines in functioning relative to their non-
mentored peers.
Evaluation of Mentoring Programs
Some studies have found that formal mentoring programs in community-based and school-based
settings are associated with improved academic and behavioral outcomes for youth, but that the
effects of mentoring on particular outcomes and the ability for mentored youth to sustain gains
over time is less certain.
Examples of the Positive Effects of Mentoring
A landmark study in 1995 of the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America program compared
outcomes of eligible youth who were randomly selected to receive mentoring services (the
treatment group) against those eligible youth who were randomly selected to remain on a waiting
list for mentoring services (the control group). The study found that 18 months after the youth
were assigned to their groups, the mentored youth skipped half as many days of school, were 46%
less likely than their control group counterparts to use drugs, 27% less likely to initiate alcohol
use, and almost one-third less likely to hit someone.14
A 2002 review of studies of major community-based programs (the 1995 Big Brothers Big Sisters
evaluation and evaluations of Across Ages, Project BELONG, and Buddy System, among
others15) with an experimental design—meaning that some youth were randomly assigned to get a
mentor—found that the outcomes for youth with a mentor were better than outcomes for their
counterparts without a mentor.16 These outcomes included the following:
• Improved educational outcomes: Youth in the year-long Across Ages mentoring
program showed a gain of more than a week of attended classes. Evaluations of
13 Rhodes and DuBois, “Understanding and Facilitating the Youth Mentoring Movement,” p. 9.
14 Joseph P. Tierney and Jean Baldwin Grossman, with Nancy L. Resch, Making A Difference: An Impact Study of Big
Brothers Big Sisters, Public/Private Ventures, reissued September 2000, available online at http://www.ppv.org/ppv/
publications/assets/111_publication.pdf.
15 These programs are a sampling of some of the programs profiled.
16 Susan Jekielek et al., Mentoring Programs and Youth Development: A Synthesis, Child Trends, January 2002,
available at http://www.childtrends.org/what_works/clarkwww/mentor/mentorrpt.pdf. (Hereafter reference Jekielek et
al., Mentoring Programs and Youth Development.)
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the program also showed that mentored youth had better attitudes toward school
than non-mentored youth.
• Reduction in some negative behaviors: All studies that examined delinquency
showed evidence of reducing some, but not all, of the tracked negative behaviors.
Mentored youth in the BELONG program committed fewer misdemeanors and
felonies. In the Buddy System program, youth with a prior history of criminal
behavior were less likely to commit a major offense compared to their non-
mentored counterparts with a prior history.
• Improved social and emotional development: Youth in the Across Ages program
had significantly more positive attitudes toward the elderly, the future, and
helping behaviors than non-mentored youth. Participants in the Big Brothers Big
Sisters program felt that they trusted their parents more and communicated better
with them, compared to their non-mentored peers.
Similarly, a 2007 study of Big Brothers Big Sisters school-based mentoring programs, with adults
serving as mentors, demonstrated some positive results. This study—among the most rigorous
scientific evaluations of a school-based mentoring program—found that mentored youth
(randomly selected into the treatment group) made improvements in their first year in overall
academic performance, feeling more competent about school, and skipping school, among other
areas, compared to their non-mentored counterparts (randomly selected into the control group).17
Some Outcomes Do Not Improve or Are Short Lived
Although research has documented some benefits of mentoring, findings from studies of
mentoring programs show that mentoring is limited in improving all youth outcomes. The 2002
review of mentoring program evaluations found that programs did not always make a strong
improvement in grades and that some negative behaviors—stealing or damaging property within
the last year—were unaffected by whether the youth was in a mentoring program.18 In the 2007
Big Brothers Big Sisters school-based mentoring evaluation, the nonschool, related outcomes,
including substance use and self worth, did not improve.19
Other research has indicated that mentored youth make small gains or do not sustain positive
gains over time.20 The 1995 Big Brothers Big Sisters study found that mentored youth and non-
mentored youth showed decreased functioning over time, although those in the mentoring group
declined more slowly than those in the non-mentoring group. Further, the 2007 Big Brothers Big
Sisters school-based mentoring evaluation found that, in the second year of the program, none of
the academic gains were maintained (however, mentored youth were less likely to skip school,
and more likely to feel that they would start and finish college).21 The evaluation also pointed to
weaknesses in the program’s design, such as high attrition (due likely to the transitioning for
17 Carla Herrera et al., Making a Difference in Schools: The Big Brothers Big Sisters School-Based Mentoring Impact
Study, Public/Private Ventures, August 2007, pp. 34-35, available at http://www.ppv.org/ppv/publication.asp?
section_id=22&search_id=&publication_id=220. (Hereafter referenced as Herrera et al., Making a Difference in
Schools.)
18 Jekielek et al., Mentoring Programs and Youth Development, p. 15.
19 Herrera et al., Making a Difference in Schools, pp. 37-38.
20 Jean E. Rhodes and David L. DuBois, “Understanding and Facilitating the Youth Mentoring Movement,” pp. 3-5.
21 Herrera et al., Making a Difference in Schools, pp. 47-78.
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some youth to middle school, or high school), limited contact with mentors and youth over the
summer, and delays in beginning the program at the start of the school year.22 A 2008 study of Big
Brothers Big Sisters school-based mentoring that used high schools students as mentors and drew
on data used for the 2007 study, found that while the mentored students experienced gains on
some outcomes, the improvements were not sustained for students who ended their involvement
in the program after one school year (the minimum time commitment).23 Similarly, a recent
evaluation of the federal school-based mentoring program demonstrates that the program does not
have an impact on students overall in terms of interpersonal relationships, academic outcomes,
and delinquent behaviors.24
The remainder of this report provides an overview of the federal role in mentoring and select
federal programs, as well as a discussion of mentoring issues.
Current Federal Mentoring Programs
In recent years, two federal programs have provided a significant source of funding for mentoring
services: the Mentoring Children of Prisoners program, which is administered by the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, and the Safe and Drug Free Schools Mentoring
program, which was administered by the U.S. Department of Education until funding was
discontinued beginning in FY2010. The Mentoring Children of Prisoners program was created in
response to the growing number of children under age 18 with at least one parent who is
incarcerated in a federal or state correctional facility. The program is intended, in part, to reduce
the chance that mentored youth will use drugs and skip school. Similarly, the SDFS Mentoring
program has provided school-based mentoring to reduce school dropout and improve
relationships for youth at risk of educational failure and with other risk factors.
Funding has ranged for the programs, but has remained relatively stable in the last few years at
$50 million for each program annually. Congress did not appropriate funding for the SDFS
Mentoring program in FY2010. As part of its FY2010 budget justifications, the Obama
Administration proposed eliminating the program because of an evaluation showing that it does
not have an impact on students overall in terms of interpersonal relationships, academic
outcomes, and delinquent behaviors. The evaluation is discussed further below. The remainder of
this report describes the two programs, other current federal mentoring activities and services,
and issues that may arise in any discussions about the federal role in mentoring.
22 Ibid., pp. iv-v.
23 Carla Herrera et al., High School Students as Mentors: Findings from the Big Brothers Big Sisters School-Based
Mentoring Impact Study, Public/Private Ventures, September 2008, available at http://www.ppv.org/ppv/
publication.asp?section_id=22&search_id=&publication_id=252.
24 Lawrence Bernstein et al., Impact Evaluation of the U.S. Department of Education’s Student Mentoring Program
Final Report, Abt Associates, March 2009, available at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20094047/. (Hereafter referenced as
Bernstein et al., Impact Evaluation of the U.S. Department of Education’s Student Mentoring Program Final Report.)
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Mentoring Children of Prisoners Program
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services)
Overview
The Mentoring Children of Prisoners (MCP) Program was proposed as part of the Bush
Administration’s FY2003 budget and was signed into law under the Promoting Safe and Stable
Families Amendments of 2001 (enacted in law in 2002 under P.L. 107-133) as Section 439 of the
Social Security Act. The program is administered by the Family and Youth Services Bureau in the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ Administration for Children and Families. The
program funds public or private entities—in areas of high concentrations of children with parents
in prison, including urban, rural, and tribal areas—to provide mentoring services to children of
prisoners. Mentoring through the MCP is defined as a structured program that matches each
eligible child (with the permission of one or both their parents) to a screened and trained adult
volunteer who serves as a positive role model to the child. This one-on-one relationship,
involving activities based in the community and not primarily on school grounds or the
workplace, is intended to improve academic and behavioral outcomes. Mentors are to supplement
existing caring relationships that the child has with his or her parents, teachers, and other adults.
The Child and Family Services Improvement Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-288) expanded the scope of
the program by authorizing HHS to enter into a three-year cooperative agreement with a national
mentoring support organization to operate a new program that provides vouchers for mentoring
services.
Purpose
The MCP program was created in response to the growing number of children under age 18 with
at least one parent who is incarcerated in a federal or state correctional facility. Between 1991 and
1999, the children-of-prisoners population grew from 936,000 to 1.5 million.25 Today, an
estimated two million children between the ages of four and 18 have a parent in prison or jail.26
Minority youth are overrepresented among the population. Less than 1% of white children have a
parent in prison, compared to 7% of African American children and 3% of Hispanic children.27
Studies of children of prisoners show that parental confinement can lead to stress, trauma, and
separation problems.28 The living arrangements of these children often change when a parent is
imprisoned. Nearly 65% of children of incarcerated mothers must live with another relative and
6% are placed under the care of a foster care agency.29 Further, children of prisoners may need to
25 Christopher J. Mumola, Incarcerated Parents and Their Children, U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice
Statistics, August 2000, p. 2, available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/iptc.pdf.
26 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, The Mentoring Children
of Prisoners Program, Report to Congress, September 12, 2007, p. 3. (Hereafter referenced as The Mentoring Children
of Prisoners Program, Report to Congress.)
27 Ibid.
28 Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget, Mentoring Children of Prisoners Assessment,
2005, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/expectmore/summary/10003505.2005.html. (Hereafter referenced
as Office of Management and Budget, Mentoring Children of Prisoners Assessment.)
29 Elizabeth Inez Johnson and Jane Waldfogel, Children of Incarcerated Parents: Cumulative Risk and Children’s
(continued...)
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contend with compounding issues, such loss of emotional and financial support provided by the
imprisoned parent and stigmatization by peers and others.30 The trauma of parental incarceration
can trigger anti-social behavior in these children. Some children may also have difficulty
maintaining contact with their parents. The majority of incarcerated parents reside over 100 miles
away from their previous home, and long-distance phone calls may be prohibitively expensive.
In passing P.L. 107-133, Congress cited the success of the Amachi program31 as a reason for
supporting a national program for children of incarcerated parents.32 The Amachi program was
developed by Public/Private Ventures and Big Brothers Big Sisters in Southeastern Pennsylvania,
in partnership with secular and faith-based organizations to provide mentors to eligible youth of
incarcerated parents.
Grantee Requirements
A number of entities may apply for an MCP grant: any state or local government unit,
independent school districts, federally recognized American tribal governments, Native American
tribal groups (other than federally recognized groups), private nonprofit organizations, and
community and faith-based groups. In awarding grants, HHS must consider the qualifications and
capacity of the applicants to carry out a mentoring program for children of prisoners; the need for
mentoring services in local areas, taking into consideration data on the number of children (and in
particular of low-income children) with an incarcerated parent (or parents) in the area; and
evidence of consultation with existing youth and family services.33 Grant funds are to be
expended within one year and are to be used for mentoring services exclusively (i.e., not
wraparound services or other social services).34
Grantees may recruit mentors from the child’s family and community, church congregations,
religious nonprofit groups, community-based groups, service organizations, Senior Corps, and
from the business community. Grantees provide mentor training and criminal background checks,
and monitor mentoring relationships. They also evaluate youth outcomes. Grantees are expected
to incorporate a message of positive youth development into their programs and coordinate with
other organizations to develop a plan that addresses the needs of the entire family.35 (Positive
(...continued)
Living Arrangements, July 2002, p. 2, available at http://www.jcpr.org/wpfiles/johnson_waldfogel.pdf.
30 Nancy G. La Vigne, Elizabeth Davies, and Diana Brazzell, Broken Bonds: Understanding and Addressing the Needs
of Children with Incarcerated Parents, Urban Institute, Research Report, February 2008, available at
http://www.urban.org/publications/411616.html.
31 For further information about the Amachi program, see http://www.amachimentoring.org/index.html.
32 U.S. Congress, House Committee on Ways and Means, Promoting Safe and Stable Families Amendments, report to
accompany H.R. 2873, 107th Cong., 1st sess., H.Rept. 107-281 (Washington: GPO, 2001), p. 19.
33 HHS has given preference to grantees that have demonstrated a need for mentoring services in their areas based on
the concentration of children of prisoners who are currently not mentored. Grantee applicants have determined the
number of eligible participants by contacting local school systems for student/parent information and/or the Bureau of
Prisons. Others have collaborated with child social service programs such as the foster care system and/or their state
prisons. Organizations with well-established ministry programs recruited participants as part of their ministry work.
34 Office of Management and Budget, Mentoring Children of Prisoners Assessment.
35 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Mentoring Children of
Prisoners Competitive Grant Announcement, 2007, pp. 5-6, available at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/grants/open/HHS-
2007-ACF-ACYF-CV-0029.html. (Hereafter referenced as U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Mentoring
Children of Prisoners Competitive Grant Announcement, 2007).
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youth development refers to a philosophy of serving youth that emphasizes youth empowerment
and the development of skills and assets that prepare youth for adulthood.)
Mentored Youth and Mentors
From the creation of the program through FY2009, the program has served 161,607 youth in the
50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico.36 (See Appendix A for the number of
matches in each of FY2006-FY2009.) Several MCP programs are administered by the Big
Brothers and Big Sisters programs.37 Children ages four to 18 (as specified in the MCP grant
announcement) are eligible for the program if their parent is in state or federal prison, although
they may continue to receive services if their parent is released from prison during the mentoring
relationship; children whose parents are in halfway houses, under supervision, or house arrest are
not eligible unless the detention follows a federal or state prison sentence.
Mentors undergo screenings that include in-depth interviews and criminal background checks.
They must commit to attending training and meeting with their assigned youth one hour per week
for one year. Mentors are not paid for their participation, except for reimbursement for incidental
expenses such as food and mileage on a case-by-case basis.
Voucher Demonstration Project: Caregiver’s Choice Program
The Child and Family Services Improvement Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-288) extended funding and
authorization for the Mentoring Children of Prisoners program and authorized a demonstration
project to test the effectiveness of using vouchers to deliver MCP services more broadly to youth
who have not already been matched to a mentor. The law specified that vouchers would be
distributed by an organization with considerable experience in mentoring services for children,
and in developing program standards for planning and evaluating mentoring programs for
children.38 In November 2007 (FY2008), HHS awarded a competitive three-year cooperative
agreement grant (which may be renewed for an additional two years) to MENTOR, a national
mentoring advocacy group and clearinghouse on mentoring issues, to administer the program.
The voucher program is known as the Caregiver’s Choice Program.
According to HHS, MENTOR began the program by targeting efforts in geographically diverse
targeted communities with high rates of incarceration, crime or poverty, rural populations, or
areas with American Indian children.39 These areas included Atlanta, Chicago, and Philadelphia,
as well as the Arizona, Connecticut, Idaho, Massachusetts, North Carolina, and Washington.40
HHS has stated that these targeted efforts are to allow the voucher initiative to be implemented,
reviewed, and adjusted as needed. The program has been expanded to other locations nationally,
36 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and
Families, Family and Youth Services Bureau, January 2010.
37 Ibid., December 2008.
38 HHS is required to provide a description of how the organization should ensure collaboration and cooperation with
other interested parties, including courts and prisons, with respect to the delivery of mentoring services under the
demonstration project.
39 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and
Families, Family and Youth Services Bureau, December 2007. Receipt of a voucher is not counted for purposes of
determining eligibility of federal or federally supported assistance for the child’s family.
40 See http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_1033.pdf.
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with nearly 600 providers in total.41 The law specified that in year one, no less than 3,000
vouchers were to be distributed to children and families. The law also specified that in year two,
no less than 8,000 vouchers are to be distributed and in year three, no less than 13,000 vouchers
are to be distributed.
As required by law, MENTOR is not providing direct mentoring services. HHS reports that the
organization is coordinating with national networks for re-entry and incarcerated families,
caregiver support networks, school districts, social service agencies, and faith- and community-
based organizations to identify children to participate in the program. Families and caregivers are
directed to a national call center to enroll in the voucher program and provided with a mentoring
information packet that corresponds to the family’s stated preferences and provides mentoring
options in their community. The voucher for mentoring services is included in the packet and
contains an identification code. (This identifier becomes the primary means of data collection and
system management for the voucher demonstration project.) The families redeem the vouchers at
organizations deemed to be quality providers of mentoring services.
MENTOR is conducting an advertising campaign to encourage mentoring programs to become
certified as “quality providers” (allowing them to receive MCP vouchers).42 MENTOR, in
consultation with FYSB, has identified quality standards for these providers that addresses
program capacity, sustainability, design, management, and operations.43 It must also monitor and
oversee delivery of mentoring services. MENTOR has established several requirements for
providers: they must meet certain volunteer screening and matching requirements, have at least
one year of experience matching and supporting mentoring relationships, provide training and
orientation to mentors and mentored children and youth, provide ongoing support and case
management to matches, and offer clear policies and procedures for ending matches, among other
requirements.44 To be eligible for voucher funding, mentoring organizations must also
demonstrate that significant mentoring services can be provided for an eligible child and that after
the voucher expires, they can continue providing such services through non-federal resources. For
those organizations with general MCP grants, they must exhaust these funds before receiving
funds through the voucher project.
Funding and Grant Awards
The MCP general grant program is authorized to receive “such sums as may be necessary” for
each year through FY2011. Funding for the program is distributed on a competitive basis to
eligible applicants for up to three years. The size of the average grant is approximately $186,000
for each year of the three-year period, with grants ranging from $26,000 to $2 million per year.45
(Some of these organizations make sub-awards to other organizations for mentoring services.)
Grantees are required to provide a nonfederal share or match of at least 25% of the total project
budget in the first and second years of the project, rising to 50% in the third year.
41 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and
Families, Family and Youth Services Bureau, January 2010.
42 For information about the publicity campaign, see http://www.mentoring.org/caregiverschoice.
43 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and
Families, Family and Youth Services Bureau, December 2008.
44 For additional information about the program’s eligibility requirements, see http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/
mentoring_1031.pdf.
45 The Mentoring Children of Prisoners Program, Report to Congress, p. 1.
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As required by the reauthorizing legislation (P.L. 109-288), funding may not be awarded to the
national mentoring support organization to distribute the vouchers unless $25 million in program
appropriations is first available for site-based grants. If funding is available, the organization is to
receive up to $5 million in the first year of the cooperative agreement, $10 million in the second
year, and $15 million in the third year. The organization’s administrative expenditures for the
demonstration project may not exceed 10% of the amount awarded. Individual vouchers of up to
$1,000 can be awarded on behalf of an individual child to redeem for mentoring services.46
The MCP program received initial funding of $10 million in FY2003 and has been funded at
approximately $50 million in each year since then, as shown in Table 1. The general mentoring
program supports over 200 new and continuing grants each year. For example, in FY2009, the
program funded 214 grantees; HHS expects that the program will fund 216 grantees in FY2010.47
Funding has been appropriated for the voucher component since FY2007. In FY2008, over 3,000
(3,008) vouchers (with FY2007 funds) were distributed.48 In FY2009, over 8,000 (8,130)
vouchers (with FY2008 funds) were distributed. HHS expects to distribute 13,000 vouchers in
FY2010 (with FY2009 funds). Given that the law authorizes funding for three years (FY2007-
FY2009), it is unclear whether additional funding will be made available.
Table 1. FY2003-FY2009 (Appropriated) and FY2011 (Proposed) Funding for the
Mentoring Children of Prisoners Program
(dollars in millions)
FY2003 FY2004 FY2005 FY2006 FY2007 FY2008 FY2009 FY2010
FY2011
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Proposed
Funding
Appropriated
$10.0 $49.7 $49.6 $49.5 $49.5 $48.6 $49.3 $49.3
$49.3
Source: FY2002 to FY2007 funding data based on information provided by the U.S. Health and Human Services,
Family and Youth Services Bureau, 2007. FY2008 funding data based on U.S. Congress, House Committee on
Appropriations, Joint Explanatory Statement to Accompany FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Amendment to H.R.
2764/P.L. 110-161, Division G. FY2009 funding data based on U.S. Congress, House Committee on Rules, Joint
Explanatory Statement to Accompany FY2009 Consolidated Appropriations Amendment to H.R. 1105/P.L. 111-8,Division
F. FY2010 funding based on U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Departments of Transportation
and Housing and Development, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2010, report to accompany H.R. 3288/P.L.
111-117, 111th Cong., 1st sess., December 8, 2009, H.Rept. 111-366; and FY2011 funding data based on U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families Justification of Estimates for
Appropriations Committees, FY2011.
46 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Mentoring Children of Prisoners Competitive Grant
Announcement, 2007.
47 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and
Families, Family and Youth Services Bureau, January 2010.
48 Ibid.
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Program Performance and Oversight
Of all MCP funds, 4% must be set aside for research, evaluation, and technical assistance related
to site-based and voucher-related mentoring services.49
Research
HHS collects caseload demographics and characteristics from grantee progress reports and from
an online data collection instrument, administered by HHS, and used by grantees to input
caseload data. This information allows HHS to assess the average number of days that a child is
on the waitlist for a mentor, the number of hours that the child met with their mentor over the
course of a reporting period, the average number of hours in pre-training/orientation and post-
training that mentors received, and the number of staff contacts with mentors to address mentor
skills or critical issues. Table A-1, at the end of the report, displays demographics and
characteristics for youth enrolled in the program in FY2006 through FY2009, excluding those
youth who received a voucher. Among the more notable trends is the increase in the number of
matches, from 27,525 in FY2006 to 42,666 in FY2009. Further, an increasing share of children
appear to be spending more time with their mentors. Training for mentors before they are
matched has increased by a few hours, and the number of training hours for mentoring after they
are matched has decreased. The number of days that children wait to be matched has increased. In
FY2009, children waited about 90 days on average, compared to 53 days in FY2006.
In 2006, HHS introduced the Relationship Quality Survey Instrument (RQI) to assess the
dynamics of the mentor/mentored youth relationship. The RQI seeks information from youth ages
nine and above engaged in long-term (i.e., minimum of nine months by the time the survey is
administered in July of each year) mentoring relationships. The survey asks the youth about their
satisfaction with the relationship, the extent to which mentors have helped them cope with their
problems, how happy the youth feel when they are with their mentors, and whether there is
evidence of trust in the mentoring relationship.50 According to HHS, research has demonstrated
that answers to the questions are predictive of the psychological and academic benefits of
mentoring.
Reports to Congress and Evaluations
The authorizing legislation (P.L. 107-133) directed HHS to evaluate the program and submit its
findings to Congress. The reauthorizing legislation (P.L. 109-288) directed HHS to include the
voucher demonstration component as part of the larger evaluation. The legislation also specified
that a report on the status of the voucher component is to be submitted to the House Ways and
Means Committee and the Senate Finance Committee no later than 90 days after the end of the
second fiscal year the project is conducted (i.e., December 2009). The report is to include the
number of children who received vouchers for mentoring services and any conclusions regarding
the use of vouchers to deliver mentoring services to children of prisoners. Finally, the
reauthorization legislation directed HHS to submit, within 12 months after the reauthorizing
49 The percentage of funds set aside for this purpose was increased from 2.5% to 4% under P.L. 109-288.
50 Department of Health and Human Services, Mentoring Children of Prisoners Competitive Grant Announcement,
2007, p. 7.
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legislation was passed (i.e., September 28, 2007), a report on the features of the mentoring
program.
In response to these legislative requirements, HHS subcontracted with Abt Associates to conduct
process and outcome evaluations of the general mentoring program. As required, HHS submitted
to Congress a report in September 2007 on the mentoring program that discussed the program’s
design, strategy, implementation, current operation status, and characteristics.51 Separately, the
outcome evaluation of the MCP is underway and seeks to determine the program’s effect upon
mentored children’s school attendance and performance, risk reduction, and youth development.52
Survey instruments for the evaluation were approved by the Office of Management and Budget
(OMB), and surveys have been administered at select grantee sites. The sites were selected based
on the likelihood that new matches would be created. In addition, the sites had to have a track
record of both consistently creating matches that last for at least six months and ensuring that
mentors and youth meet regularly. The study also sought out sites where youth ages nine through
17 were adequately represented, given that this is the target population of the MCP program.
Finally, the sites were selected based on their geographic location so that the study includes sites
from various regions of the country, to the extent possible. In FY2008, the evaluation measured
child baseline characteristics and status in a sample of the program’s caseload of children who
have been in a mentoring relationship at least twelve months. In FY2009, follow-up interviews
were conducted.
According to HHS, the data will be analyzed in FY2010. The results of the outcome evaluation
will be matched, through a data sharing agreement, against similar at-risk youth who served as
controls in the recent evaluation of the Big Brothers Big Sisters school-based mentoring program
(discussed above). (The study uses consistent definitions and other methods to make valid
comparisons between the groups.) The objectives of the study are to record short-term outcomes
related to identity development, cognitive development, social and emotional relationships, and
relationships with peers and adults; and long-term measures related to behavioral outcomes,
academic outcomes, and psychological outcomes. The evaluation will also assess the design of
the program. HHS expects that findings from the evaluation will be available by December 2010.
HHS does not have plans to conduct an evaluation of the voucher component. According to HHS,
the agency would conduct an evaluation if the voucher component is authorized beyond the initial
three years that are specified in law.53
PART Evaluation
As part of the FY2005 budget process, the MCP program was evaluated by the Performance
Assessment Rating Tool (PART), an instrument developed by the current Administration to
examine the performance of certain programs across federal agencies. The PART evaluation
assessed the MCP’s purpose and design, strategic planning, management, and
results/accountability. While the program received maximum scores for these first three
measurements, it was rated as “Results Not Demonstrated” because the program performance
data to assess results had only recently begun to be collected from grantees. In addition, the
51 The Mentoring Children of Prisoners Program, Report to Congress.
52 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and
Families, Family and Youth Services Bureau, December 2008, May 2009, and January 2010.
53 Ibid, January 2010.
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program also did not meet its mentor match goal. According to HHS, mentor match targets were
not met because many MCP grantees had never previously received a federal grant and/or were
new and formed specifically to operate the grant.54 In its 2007 Report to Congress, HHS stated
that it has taken steps to improve the number of matches, such as conducting site visits to
grantees.55
Training and Technical Assistance
In September 2008, HHS entered into a competitively awarded cooperative agreement with the
Mid-Atlantic Network of Youth & Family Services (MANY) to provide training and technical
assistance for the program.56 The agreement is authorized through FY2011. MANY is responsible
for conducting a needs assessment for MCP grantees, and organizing an annual national
conference for all MCP grantees and workshops throughout the year.57 The organization is also to
conduct site visits and provide on-site assistance, among other types of assistance.
In addition, the National Child Welfare Resource Center for Youth Development at the University
of Oklahoma (the contractor for FYSB on select child welfare programs and the Runaway and
Homeless Youth program) developed a peer-to-peer monitoring tool that allows grantees to join
federal staff on visits to other grantees to monitor compliance with the legislative intent of the
program and to encourage exchange of ideas between peer mentoring professionals.58
Finally, HHS staff provide direct assistance to grantees.59 Program specialists assist grantees in
grant management, service delivery planning, program start-up and implementation, reporting,
and building partnerships. HHS staff monitor grantee activities and oversee detailed quarterly
narrative and financial information. The staff also facilitates transfers of promising practices from
experienced to less experienced grantees.
Safe and Drug Free Schools Mentoring Program
(U.S. Department of Education)
Recent Developments
Until it was discontinued with the end of FY2009, the SDFS Mentoring program provided
school-based mentoring to reduce school dropout and improve relationships for youth at risk of
educational failure and with other risk factors. Congress did not appropriate funding for the
54 The Mentoring Children of Prisoners Program, Report to Congress, p. 11.
55 Ibid.
56 For further information, see http://www.manynet.org/.
57 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Mentoring Children of Prisoners Training and Technical
Assistance Grant Announcement, June 16, 2008.
58 This on-site monitoring tool is similar to one that has been used by FYSB’s Runaway and Homeless Youth program.
In FY2008, 18 peer monitoring visits were conducted. Based on correspondence with U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Family and Youth Services Bureau, October 2007 and
December 2008.
59 The Mentoring Children of Prisoners Program, Report to Congress, p. 8.
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program in FY2010. As part of its FY2010 budget justifications, the Obama Administration
proposed eliminating the program because of an evaluation showing that it does not have an
impact on students overall in terms of interpersonal relationships, academic outcomes, and
delinquent behaviors. Some grantees were in their second year of the grant period when funding
was discontinued (no grantees were in their third and final year of the grant period).60
Overview
The Safe and Drug Free Schools (SDFS) program was enacted as Title IV-A of the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1994 (P.L. 103-382) in response to concerns about
increased school violence and drug use among school-aged youth. The program awarded funding
to states to support activities that promote school safety. In 2001 (P.L. 107-110), the No Child
Left Behind Act reauthorized and amended ESEA, and enacted a school-based mentoring
program under the SDFS program.61
The SDFS Mentoring program was administered by the Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools in
the U.S. Department of Education, and provided grants to establish and support mentoring
programs that are school based. School-based mentoring refers to mentoring activities that are
closely coordinated with school (i.e., involve teachers, counselors, and other school staff who
identify and refer students for mentoring services) and assist youth with improving their academic
achievement, reducing disciplinary referrals, and increasing their bonding to school.62 Generally,
mentored youth in the SDFS Mentoring program were paired with one adult63 who served as a
positive role model and provided the child with academic assistance (e.g., tutoring, helping with
homework, learning a game like chess, developing computer skills), exposure to new experiences
that promoted positive youth development (e.g., attending concerts and plays, visiting colleges,
shadowing mentor at his/her job), and recreational opportunities (e.g., playing sports, creating arts
and crafts projects, attending professional sports games).64 According to a June 2004 GAO report
of the program, many of these mentoring activities were carried out on school grounds, but some
activities take place in the community and in the workplace.65
Purpose
The mentoring program targeted children with the greatest need, defined as those children at risk
of educational failure or dropping out of school, involved with criminal or delinquent activities,
60 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools, January
2010.
61 The SDFS program supports two major grant programs—one for states and one for national programs. The
mentoring program is authorized under the national programs grant. For further information, see CRS Report RL33980,
School and Campus Safety Programs and Requirements in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and Higher
Education Act, by Gail McCallion.
62 U.S. Department of Education, “Notice of Final Priorities, Requirements, and Selection Criteria Under the Mentoring
Program,” 69 Federal Register 30794, May 28, 2004. (Hereafter referenced as U.S. Department of Education, “Notice
of Final Priorities.”)
63 In a 2004 GAO analysis of the 121 SDFS Mentoring Program grantees who received awards in FY2002, 75%
provided one-to-one mentoring only; 22% provided both one-to-one mentoring and group mentoring; and 3% provided
group mentoring only.
64 GAO, Student Mentoring Programs, p. 17.
65 Ibid.
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or who lack strong positive role models. The purpose of the program was to provide school-based
mentoring programs that improve academic outcomes, improve interpersonal relationships, and
reduce involvement in delinquency and gang involvement.
Grantee Requirements
The Department of Education was authorized to award competitive grants to three entities to
carry out the SDFS Mentoring program: (1) local education agencies (LEAs); (2) nonprofit
community-based organizations (CBOs), including faith-based groups; and (3) partnerships
between LEAs and CBOs. The Secretary prioritized grant applications that proposed a school-
based mentoring program, provided high quality background checks and technical assistance, and
served children with greatest need living in particular areas.
In applying for grants, an eligible entity was to provide information on the children for which the
grant was sought; a description of the method to match children with mentors based on the needs
of the children; information on how the entity recruited, screened, and provided training to
mentors; information on the system for managing and monitoring information related to the
program’s background checks of mentors and procedures for matching children to mentors.
Grantees were required to make assurances that no mentor would be matched with so many
children that the assignment would undermine the mentor’s ability to be an effective mentor or
the mentor’s ability to establish a close relationship (i.e., a one-to-one relationship, where
practicable), with each mentored child. Further, grantees were to make assurances that the
mentoring program would provide children with certain supports (i.e., emotional, academic, and
exposure to new experiences) and assign a new mentor if the relationship between the original
mentor and the child was not beneficial to the child.
Mentored Youth and Mentors
As noted above, the SDFS Mentoring program targeted children with the greatest need. In
awarding grants, the Department of Education was to prioritize entities that served children in
grades four to eight with greatest need living in rural areas, high-crime areas, or troubled home
environments or who attend schools with violence problems.66 The Department of Education did
not aggregate demographic and other data on youth participants, and therefore, the number and
characteristics of youth that have been served by the program is unknown.67
Mentors were to be a responsible adult, a postsecondary school student, or a secondary school
student. While the Department of Education did not mandate a set amount of hours that mentors
and students were to meet, it advised that programs require at least one hour each week.68
Mentors were screened using reference checks, child and domestic abuse record checks, and
criminal background checks; and received training and support in mentoring. Mentors were
uncompensated.
66 U.S. Department of Education, “Notice of Final Priorities.”
67 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools, October
2007.
68 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools, July 2007.
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Funding and Grant Awards
The mentoring program was one component of the Safe and Drug Free Schools program. The
SDFS program has two funding streams: one for state grants awarded by formula (which was also
not funded for FY2010) and another for discretionary national grants. The SDFS mentoring
program was funded through the national grants component.69 The program received about $17
million to $49 million each year since grants were first awarded in FY2002, as shown in Table 2.
For FY2009, 264 continuing grantees were funded and no new grants were awarded.70 No new
grants were funded in FY2010 and the Obama Administration has not proposed funding for the
program in FY2011.
In the FY2007, FY2008, and FY2009 budget justifications, the Bush Administration proposed no
funding for the mentoring program, on the basis that it has met its objectives. The Bush
Administration budget for FY2009 also proposed to consolidate the SDFS national grants
component, which currently has several sub-programs, into a single-flexible discretionary
program.71 Similarly, the Obama Administration proposed to eliminate the program as part of the
FY2010 budget because of an evaluation showing that it is ineffective, as discussed below. Also
according to the Administration, many other federal programs support mentoring activities.
Table 2. FY2003-FY2010 Funding (Appropriated) for the Safe and
Drug Free Schools Program
(dollars in millions)
FY2002 FY2003 FY2004 FY2005 FY2006 FY2007 FY2008 FY2009 FY2010
Program
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Actual
Funding
Appropriated
$17.5 $17.4 $49.7 $49.2 $48.8 $19.0 $48.5 $48.5 0
Source: FY2002 to FY2007 funding data based on information provided by the U.S. Department of Education,
Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools, 2007. FY2008 funding data based on U.S. House, Committee on
Appropriations, Joint Explanatory Statement to Accompany FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Amendment to H.R.
2764/P.L. 110-161, Division G. FY2010 data taken from U.S. Department of Education, FY2010 Budget Summary,
Programs Proposed for Elimination. FY2010 funding based on U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations,
Departments of Transportation and Housing and Development, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2010, report
to accompany H.R. 3288/P.L. 111-117, 111th Cong., 1st sess., December 8, 2009, H.Rept. 111-366.
Program Performance and Oversight
The No Child Left Behind Act does not specify whether or how the SDFS mentoring program
was to be monitored and evaluated, or how grantees were to receive technical assistance and
support. However, regulations promulgated in March 2004 specify that grant applicants were to
69 State grants are awarded to states based on a formula that incorporates poverty and population factors. States must
use 93% of their allocation to make formula grants to local educational agencies (LEAs) based on poverty factors and
each LEA’s share of student enrollment in public and private nonprofit elementary and secondary schools. National
grants are used primarily for a variety of discretionary programs designed to prevent drug abuse and violence in
elementary and secondary schools. For further information, see CRS Report RL33980, School and Campus Safety
Programs and Requirements in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and Higher Education Act, by Gail
McCallion.
70 Based on correspondence with U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools, May 2007.
71 U.S. Department of Education, FY2009 Justifications of Appropriation Estimates, p. F-30.
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include in their application an assurance that they would (1) establish clear, measurable
performance goals; and (2) collect and report to the agency data related to the established
Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) performance indicators for the mentoring
program’s grant competition.72 The Department of Education required grantees to provide an
evaluation of their program at the end of the three-year grant period. Further, the agency
established three performance measures for assessing the effectiveness of the mentoring program,
using data from the 2004 cohort (the most recent data available):73
• The percentage of mentor-youth matches that are sustained for a period of nine
months. The goal for 2007 was 44.9% and the actual figure was 38.6%.
• The percentage of mentored students who demonstrate improvement in core
academic subjects as measured by grade point average after 12 months. The goal
for 2007 was 49.6% and the actual figure was 22%.
• The percentage of mentored students who have unexcused absences from school.
The goal for 2007 was 39.6% and the actual figure was 28.9%.74
Evaluations
In 2004, GAO conducted a study of the program and made three recommendations to the
Department of Education to facilitate monitoring and evaluation of the program: (1) explore ways
to facilitate the sharing of successful practices and lessons learned among grantees, (2) ensure
that the agency uses grantees’ single audit reports, and (3) undertake a national study of the
program’s outcomes.75 (This second recommendation refers to audit reports of grantees that
provide information on weaknesses related to grantee financial management, internal control, and
compliance issues; these reports are available through the Office of Management and Budget’s
Federal Auditing Clearinghouse.) In response to GAO’s first recommendation, the Department of
Education developed an electronic listserv to promote communication among grantees. To ensure
that the agency monitored single audit reports, the agency began to provide a comprehensive
training to grant monitors (of the audit reports) to assist them access the information. In addition,
the agency added a requirement to the grant monitoring procedures that directs staff to review
audit findings at least annually. Finally, in response to GAO’s third recommendation, the
Department of Education subcontracted with Abt Associates to conduct process and outcome
evaluations.
The findings of the outcome evaluation were made available in March 2009.76 The purpose of the
evaluation was to determine the program’s effect upon mentored children’s school attendance and
performance, risk reduction, and relationships with adults. The evaluation measured the
characteristics and status of 2,400 students in grades four through eight who were randomly
assigned to participate in the program or to a control group. However, the programs from which
they received mentoring were not randomly selected and in fact, were not representative of all
72 U.S. Department of Education, “Notice of Final Priorities.”
73 Based on correspondence with U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools, May 2009.
74 U.S. Department of Education, FY2009 Justifications of Appropriation Estimates, pp. F-39, F-40.
75 GAO, Student Mentoring Programs.
76 Bernstein et al., Impact Evaluation of the U.S. Department of Education’s Student Mentoring Program Final Report,
Abt Associates, March 2009, available at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20094047/.
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grantees. For example, the grantees in the study tended to serve more female and minority youth
than grantees generally.
The study involved two cohorts of students—those who were referred to the program during the
2005 and 2006 school year, and those who were referred during the 2006 and 2007 school year.
The data were collected from student self-reports; school records; and surveys of students,
mentors, and grantees. The study found that the program did not lead to statistically significant
effects on students across the three domains evaluated: school attendance and performance, risk
reduction, and relationships with adults. However, impacts were significant among certain sub-
groups. For example, the program improved academic outcomes for girls and produced mixed
academic outcomes for boys. The program also led to a decrease in truancy for younger students.
Further, the program found that the program was carried out similarly to other school-based
mentoring programs. Among other findings, the majority of mentors received pre-match training
and had access to ongoing support from the program; the majority of students were matched with
mentors of the same race and gender; mentors and mentored youth tended to meet one-on-one;
and the average length of the mentoring relationship was about six months.
Training and Technical Assistance
In 2004, the Department of Education awarded a performance-based contract to EMT Associates,
Inc., to operate the Mentoring Program Resource Training and Technical Assistance Center
through FY2009.77 The purpose of this center was to ensure that programs funded under the
mentoring program receive assistance, as appropriate, in the management and implementation of
their projects. Grantees received assistance with (1) training to ensure that they are using high-
quality, evidence-based programs; (2) identifying gaps and weaknesses in their program design;
and (3) collaborating with other organizations; and (4) planning for program sustainability.78
According to the Department of Education, department staff also provided needed assistance to
grantees.79 Mechanisms to assist grantees included a post-award call to ensure that grantees
understand established outcomes and to offer technical assistance, semiannual calls to grantees to
determine the implementation process and issues and to provide technical assistance, reviews of
annual grantee performance reports to determine successes and needed corrective action,
monitoring of expenditure rates to determine if grants were expended at an appropriate rate, and
visits to a limited number of grantees.
Other Federal Mentoring Support
In addition to the MCP and SDFS mentoring programs, the federal government supports
mentoring through short-term grants and Congressionally-directed appropriations, and by funding
programs that have a strong, but not exclusive, focus on mentoring. Efforts to support mentoring
are carried out both independently and jointly by the Department of Justice, Corporation for
77 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools, July 2007
and May 2009.
78 Ibid, October 2007.
79 This process is described in greater detail in GAO, Student Mentoring Programs, pp. 24-26.
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National and Community Service, Department of Health and Human Services, and Department of
Defense.80
Department of Justice
Overview
As noted above, the Department of Justice is the first federal agency to have funded a structured
mentoring program. The 1992 amendments (P.L. 102-586) to the Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention Act (JJDPA) added Part G to the act, authorizing the Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to establish a mentoring program, which came to be
known as the Juvenile Mentoring Program (JUMP). The program was created in response to the
perception that youth in high-crime areas would benefit from one-on-one adult relationships.81
The objectives of JUMP were to reduce juvenile delinquent behavior and improve scholastic
performance, with an emphasis on reducing school dropout. From FY1994 through FY2003,
Congress appropriated a total of $104 million ($4 million to $15.8 million each year) to the
program.
JUMP was repealed by the 21st Century Department of Justice Appropriations Authorization Act
of 2001 (P.L. 107-273). This law incorporated the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
Act of 2001 (H.R. 1900), which eliminated several juvenile justice programs, including Part G
(Mentoring), and replaced it with a block grant program under a new Part C (Juvenile
Delinquency Prevention Block Grant Program, to be used for activities designed to prevent
juvenile delinquency). The act also created a new Part D (Research, Evaluation, Technical
Assistance and Training) and a new Part E (Developing, Testing, and Demonstrating Promising
New Initiatives and Programs). According to the accompanying report for H.R. 1900, the
relatively small amount of funding appropriated for JUMP may have been a factor in its
elimination. The report states: “In creating this block grant, the [Senate Judiciary] Committee has
eliminated separate categorical programs under current law.... Funding for the Part E—State
Challenge Activities and Part G—Mentoring Program received minimal funding.”82 The report
goes on to say that the Committee does not discourage mentoring activities under the Part C block
grant program.83
80 This section is not exhaustive of the mentoring services that may be available through other federal programs and
initiatives. See, for example, Executive Office of the President, White House Task Force for Disadvantaged Youth
Final Report, October 2003, pp. 165-179, available online at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/fysb/content/docs/
white_house_task_force.pdf.
81 Sen. Frank R. Lautenberg, “Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Authorization Act,” remarks in the Senate,
Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 138 (October 7, 1992).
82 U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and the Workforce, Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act
of 2001, report to accompany H.R. 1900, 107th Cong., 1st sess. H.Rept. 107-203 (Washington; GPO, 2001), p. 31. An
evaluation of JUMP found that the program did not recruit the desired number of mentors, that many of the
relationships appeared to have ended prematurely, and that some youth outcomes did not improve. Nonetheless, the
results of the evaluation do not appear to have been a factor in eliminating the program.
83 The Department of Justice did not request that these funds be discontinued. According to the agency, no letters or
budget justifications advocating for these funds to be discontinued were submitted to Congress. Based on
correspondence with the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention, November 2007.
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After the JUMP program was discontinued, the Bush Administration requested funding for
mentoring under Part C (Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Block Grant Program) and Part E
(Developing, Testing, and Demonstrating Promising New Initiatives and Programs), which can
fund mentoring demonstration projects.84 However, in most years since JUMP’s discontinuation,
Congress has appropriated mentoring funds under a separate mentoring line item titled
“Mentoring Part G” or “Mentoring;” the line item does not specify under which part of the
JJDPA, as amended, the funding is authorized.85 The Department of Justice has interpreted the
appropriations language as requiring the agency to allocate funds pursuant to old Part G.86 Below
is a discussion of funding appropriated to the Department of Justice for mentoring since JUMP
was discontinued. Much of the funding has been dedicated to specific types of mentoring
programs through the “Mentoring Part G” or “Mentoring” line item. Funds have also been
appropriated under other parts of the JJDPA, including Part E and Title V (Incentive Grants for
Local Delinquency Prevention Programs). Most DOJ mentoring activities are coordinated
through the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.87
FY2011 Funding
For FY2011, the Obama Administration proposes funding mentoring programs at $45 million.88
FY2010 Funding
For FY2010, the Obama Administration proposed funding mentoring programs and training and
technical assistance for those programs through the Department of Justice at $80 million.89
According to the budget request, the funds would support faith-based organizations, community
organizations, and non-profit and for-profit agencies to enhance and expand existing mentoring
programs and strategies; as well as to pilot mentoring strategies and programs designed for youth
in the juvenile justice or foster care systems or youth re-entering the community after detention in
a juvenile justice facility. Separately, the Administration proposes funding mentoring activities,
among other activities, through the Prisoner Reentry Initiative, as authorized by the Second
Chance Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-199) and in coordination with the Department of Labor. The
Administration proposed funding the initiative through the Department of Justice at $100,000.
For FY2010, Congress appropriated $100 million for DOJ mentoring grants. The conference
report to accompany the budget law specifies that the grants are to be competitive and used to
84 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention, March 2006 and U.S. Department of Justice, 2007 Congressional Authorization and
Budget Submission, p. 141.
85 See, for example, House Committee on Appropriations, Making Appropriations for Science, the Departments of
State, Justice, and Commerce, and Related Agencies for the Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 2006, and for Other
Purposes, report to accompany H.R. 2862, 109th Cong., 2nd sess., CP-3 (Washington: GPO, 2006).
86 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention, November 2007.
87 The Bureau of Justice Assistance has provided some funding for mentoring.
88 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, FY2011 Performance Budget, pp. 113-114.
89 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, FY2010 Performance Budget, pp. 112-113.
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“support the critical work of national, regional, and local organizations in nurturing and
mentoring at-risk children and youth.”90
On December 1, 2009, OJJDP issued a notice in the Federal Register for soliciting comments, by
January 15, 2010, about the office’s proposed spending plan for FY2010.91 As part of its plan for
supporting mentoring, OJJDP stated that it seeks to support mentoring programs that draw on the
strengths of youth and engage youth in the community.
New Mentoring Programs and Initiatives Funded by Appropriations for FY2009
The FY2009 appropriations law (P.L. 111-8) provided a line item of $80 million for mentoring
grants. In May 2009, DOJ announced six new grants for mentoring programs, research, and
training and technical assistance funded by P.L. 111-8. Grant solicitations were also announced
for two grants authorized under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-
5). P.L. 111-5 authorized that funds appropriated for the Byrne Memorial Competitive grant
program92 could be used for youth mentoring grants, among other purposes. Most of these eight
grants are intended to provide mentoring to at-risk youth under the age of 18, including youth in
foster care and the juvenile justice systems. Other grants provide funding for training and
technical assistance, and to conduct an evaluation of mentoring programs that used paid mentors.
Table B-1 in Appendix B summarizes the purpose and goals of the programs, the number of
grants, and other information.
Mentoring Programs Funded by Appropriations for FY2008
The FY2008 appropriations law (P.L. 110-161) provided a line item of $70 million for mentoring
grants.93 Pursuant to the mentoring line item in P.L. 110-161, the Department of Justice is
administering three new mentoring initiatives that began with FY2009 and will extend over
multiple years: National Mentoring programs, Strengthening Youth Mentoring Through
Community Partnerships program, and Latino Youth Mentoring program.94 The programs
received $64.3 million. The remaining $5.7 million was obligated for management and
90 U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Departments of Transportation and Housing and Development,
and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2010, report to accompany H.R. 3288/P.L. 111-117, 111th Cong., 1st sess.,
December 8, 2009, H.Rept. 111-366.
91 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,
“Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Proposed Plan for Fiscal Year 2010,” 229 Federal Register
62821, December 1, 2009.
92 The Byrne Competitive Grant program funds activities that are to improve the functioning of the criminal justice
system. For additional information, see CRS Report RS22416, Edward Byrne Memorial Justice Assistance Grant
Program: Legislative and Funding History, by Nathan James.
93 In its joint explanatory statement to accompany H.R. 2764 (which was signed into law as P.L. 110-161), Congress
stated that it expected national programs that have received funding under the Byrne Discretionary Grant program or
the JJDPA Part E program to be eligible for funding under the mentoring grant program. U.S. House, Committee on the
Appropriations, Joint Explanatory Statement to Accompany FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Amendment to H.R.
2764/P.L. 110-161, Division G, available at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/congress/house/appropriations/
08conappro.html. The Byrne Discretionary Grant program funds activities that are to improve the functioning of the
criminal justice system. For additional information, see CRS Report RS22416, Edward Byrne Memorial Justice
Assistance Grant Program: Legislative and Funding History, by Nathan James.
94 The solicitations are available online at http://ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/grants/solicitations/FY2008/CommMentoring.pdf,
http://ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/grants/solicitations/FY2008/NatlMentoring.pdf, and http://ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/grants/solicitations/
FY2008/LatinoMentoring.pdf.
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administration ($3.4 million) and other mentoring-related costs ($2.3 million).95 Funds were not
set aside to evaluate the programs.96 A fourth mentoring program, Mentoring Programs for At-
Risk Tribal Youth, received funding pursuant to the Title V (Incentive Grants for Local
Delinquency Prevention Programs) line item in P.L. 110-161. All program grantees have access to
training and technical services through the National Training and Technical Assistance Center,
which contracts with DOJ to assist OJJDP grantees generally.97
Table B-2 in Appendix B summarizes the purpose and goals of the programs, number of grants,
and other information.
Mentoring Programs Funded by Appropriations for FY2007
For FY2007, DOJ awarded JJDPA Part E (Developing, Testing, and Demonstrating Promising
New Initiatives and Programs) funds to Big Brothers Big Sisters under a competitive solicitation
(Prevention and Intervention Programs) designed to advance juvenile justice, child protection, or
delinquency prevention by expanding knowledge in tribal areas.98 The funding is used, in part, to
support mentoring services for Alaskan Native youth.
Mentoring Programs Funded by Appropriations for FY2006
The Mentoring Initiative for System Involved Youth (MISIY) was created pursuant to a FY2006
appropriation under a line item for mentoring. MISIY seeks to identify and expand effective
mentoring programs for youth in the juvenile justice or foster care systems. Entities eligible to
apply for MISIY funds included public agencies (state agencies, units of local government, public
universities and colleges, and tribal governments) and private organizations (including secular
and nonprofit, faith-based groups).99 The initiative awarded a total of $1.6 million to four sites
($400,000 per site) through FY2010.100 Grantees are not required to provide a match.
The four grantees are nonprofit, youth-serving organizations, and the City of Chicago. (As part of
its grant requirements, the City of Chicago sub-contracts with community-based organizations.)
Each of the organizations is required to meet performance standards that focus on building
protective factors (e.g., youth are to gain at least two responsible nonparent adults in their life that
support them, experience improved self esteem, and develop better relationships with their
95 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention, January 2009. Some of the mentoring-related funds were used to conduct the first of a
three-year rigorous evaluation designed to determine the impact of the Amachi Texas mentoring program on outcomes
for children impacted by incarceration.
96 Based on correspondence with the Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, January 2009.
97 Ibid.
98 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,
OJJDP FY2007 Prevention and Intervention Programs grant solicitation, available online at
http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/grants/solicitations/FY2007/intervention.pdf.
99 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,
“Application for Funding: Mentoring Initiative for System Involved Youth,” available at http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/
grants/solicitations/06mentoringinitiative.pdf. (Hereafter referenced as U.S. Department of Justice, “Application for
Funding: Mentoring Initiative for System Involved Youth.”)
100 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,
“OJJDP Awards Foster Mentoring for System Involved Youth,” available at http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/enews/
07juvjust/070123.html.
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families and peers) and improving school outcomes (e.g., greater attendance, higher reading and
math scores, and fewer behavior referrals). The Education Development Center (EDC) was
awarded a two-year grant of approximately $500,000 to provide training and technical support to
the grantees through site visits, regional training, and over-the-phone support.101 EDC is assisting
grantees on a range of topics including outreach strategies for recruiting mentors and youth,
training mentors and youth, and addressing the emotional needs of youth.102
OJJDP also awarded a four-year grant of approximately $500,000 to the Pacific Institute for
Research and Evaluation (PIRE) to conduct process and outcome evaluations of the program.103
(In FY2007, EDC received a supplementary award of $197,446.) The process evaluation is
underway, and is documenting how the selected mentoring sites adapt mentoring approaches
(e.g., individual, group mentoring, counseling); how the programs and/or strategies are being
implemented for the target populations; and how these types of mentoring approaches and
strategies could impact outcomes for mentoring.104 The outcome evaluation is also underway and
baseline data have been collected; follow-up data are being collected three and nine months after
a youth is matched with a mentor. The evaluation measures youth behaviors and their school
performance at intake into their respective programs, three months after they are matched with
mentors, and nine months after they are matched. Measured outcomes include short-term
outcomes (i.e., quality of match), intermediate outcomes (i.e., academic self-esteem, aggression
and violence, delinquency, and substance use), and long-term outcomes (i.e., improved academic
performance, involvement with the juvenile justice system, and stability in the foster care
system). These data are to be aggregated and compared across the four grant recipients. The data
are also to be analyzed in sub-groups, based on race and ethnicity, gender, age, type of participant
(foster care youth, juvenile justice youth, or both), and the individual grantee.105 The outcome
evaluation includes a treatment group—those youth who are in the mentoring programs—and a
control group made up of youth who either agree to be on a waiting list for at least six months or
are in a local geographic area not served by the grant recipient. The same demographic and
survey data is collected from youth in the control group (except they are not be asked for
information about the quality of their match) and are to be compared to the data from the
treatment group.
Other Notable DOJ Funding Allocations for Mentoring
Youth-serving organizations have received funding for mentoring through congressionally
directed awards that are not part of grant programs authorized under JJDPA. For multiple years
101 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,
“Application for Training and Technical Assistance for Mentoring Initiative for System Involved Youth,” available at
http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/grants/solicitations/ttamentoring06.pdf.
102 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention, December 2008.
103 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,
“Application for Evaluation of Mentoring Initiative for System Involved Youth,” available at
http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/grants/solicitations/06mentoringeval.pdf.
104 The process evaluation involves the monthly collection of data on the date of each mentoring and related activity,
duration of each activity, the type of activity (e.g., recreational, academic), location of activity (e.g., at mentoring
agency, school), structure of activity (e.g., face to face, by phone), and whether the activity was conducted one-on-one
or in a group. These data are to be submitted by each of the four grant recipients electronically.
105 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention, November 2007.
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from at least FY1998 through FY2009, the Department of Justice has funded the Big Brothers
and Big Sisters mentoring organizations and its affiliates via specific set asides in appropriation
bills.106 Over this period, DOJ has allocated more than $30 million to the organization from these
set asides. Funding for the national organization ($12.4 million in FY1998, $5.0 million in
FY2003, $6.0 million in FY2004, and $7.0 million in FY2005 and in FY2006) has been used to
build a national infrastructure that supports 450 local affiliates in serving one million children
(this initiative is known as “Building Capacity for High-Volume Quality Growth”).107 Congress
has also appropriated funds directly to state and regional affiliates.
Corporation for National and Community Service
The Corporation for National and Community Service is an independent federal agency that
administers programs to support volunteer services. CNCS is authorized by two statutes: the
National and Community Service Act (NCSA, P.L. 101-610) of 1990, as amended, and the
Domestic Volunteer Service Act (DVSA, P.L. 93-113) of 1973, as amended. Though CNCS does
not administer a program explicitly for mentoring, the agency has provided funding for
mentoring, among other purposes, through two of its volunteer organizations, AmeriCorps108 and
SeniorCorps. The recently enacted Serve America Act (P.L. 111-13), which amended NCSA and
DVSA, authorizes funding for programs in which mentoring is a permissible activity, among
several other activities.109 For example, the new law provides that AmeriCorps can fund new
programs – including the Education Corps, Clean Energy Services Corps, Veterans Corps – that
can be used for mentoring, among other activities. In addition, the law authorizes the program to
fund initiatives that seek to expand the number of mentors for disadvantaged youth, as defined
under the act.
In a recent fiscal year, CNCS devoted more than $250 million to support approximately 400,000
youth, including 16,000 children of prisoners, through mentoring, tutoring, and related
services.110 (The amount of funding for mentoring alone cannot be disaggregated.111) As
discussed below, CNCS has funded America’s Promise, an organization that strongly promotes
mentoring. Finally, CNCS has also partnered with MENTOR, the mentoring advocacy group, in
an effort to match three million youth with mentors.112
106 This does not include funding received through the various grant programs, such as $8.6 million awarded to the
organization through the National Mentoring grant in FY2008.
107 Ibid.
108 This program is authorized under Title I-C of DVSA as the National Service Trust Program and is also known as
AmeriCorps State and National Grants Program or AmeriCorps.
109 For further information about the new law, see CRS Report R40432, Reauthorization of the National and
Community Service Act of 1990 and the Domestic Volunteer Service Act of 1973 (P.L. 111-13), by Ann Lordeman.
110 Corporation for National & Community Service, Issue Brief: National Service and Mentoring, available at
http://www.nationalservice.gov/pdf/06_0503_mentoring_issuebrief.pdf.
111 Based on correspondence with the Corporation for National and Community Service, December 2007.
112 Corporation for National and Community Service, “Cross-Sector Leaders Unveil Major New Plan to Close
Mentoring Gap,” press release, May 3, 2006, available at http://www.usafreedomcorps.gov/about_usafc/newsroom/
announcements_dynamic.asp?ID=1299. (Hereafter referenced as Corporation for National and Community Service,
“Close Mentoring Gap.”)
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America’s Promise
America’s Promise, a national nonprofit children’s advocacy organization, was formed after the
Presidents’ Summit for America’s Future was convened in Philadelphia in 1997.113 The
organization promotes five “commitments” (or factors) that attendees at the summit determined to
be essential for the success of young people. One of the factors was caring adults who are actively
involved in a child’s life, such as mentors, parents, teachers, and coaches.114 America’s Promise
has promoted mentoring, and the organization is funded through a combination of federal and
private funds. The Corporation for National and Community Service has provided some funding,
most recently in FY2006.115
Federal Mentoring Council
The chief executive officer of CNCS and the Commissioner of HHS’s Family and Youth Services
Bureau chair the Federal Mentoring Council (“Council”), which is comprised of the leadership
teams of eight federal agencies with multiple youth-focused programs. The Council was created
in 2006 to address the ways these agencies can combine resources and training and technical
assistance to federally administered mentoring programs, and to serve as a clearinghouse on
federal mentoring.116 A national working group comprised of leading mentoring experts and
practitioners (including the chief executive officers of MENTOR, Big Brothers Big Sisters of
America, the Boys and Girls Club, and America’s Promise, among others) advises and shares
effective mentoring practices with the Council.117
Since the Council was convened, it has met quarterly. According to CNCS, the Council has three
priorities.118
• One of the priorities is to increase federal coordination around mentoring
programs and issues by creating a website that will include articles, papers,
program evaluations, and research from practitioners in the mentoring field. The
site will also contain a record of Council meetings and initiatives, and will link to
a new federal website (http://www.findyouthinfo.gov) on resources for assisting
youth. The findyouthinfo.gov website was created pursuant to Executive Order
13459, which established a federal Interagency Working Group on Youth
Programs. Among other things, the Working Group is charged with identifying
113 The five surviving Presidents (at that time) convened the summit to mobilize Americans in all sectors to ensure that
all youth have adequate resources to assist them in leading healthy, productive lives.
114 The organization’s 2006 report, Every Child, Every Promise: A Report on America’s Young People, correlated the
presence of the five commitments in young people’s lives with success in adolescence and adulthood. The report
concluded that children who have at least four of the five commitments are more likely to be academically successful,
civically engaged, and socially competent, regardless of their race or family income. The report is available online at
http://www.americaspromise.org/uploadedFiles/AmericasPromise/Our_Work/Strategic_Initiatives/
Every_Child_Every_Promise/EC-EP_Documents/MAIN%20REPORT%20DRAFT%2011.1.pdf.
115 U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Making Appropriations for the Departments of Labor, Health and Human
Services, and Education, and Related Agencies for the Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 2006, and for Other
Purposes, report to accompany H.R. 3010, 109th Cong., 2nd sess., H.Rept. 109-337 (Washington: GPO, 2006), p. 41.
116 U.S. Department of Justice, Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Minutes from
the Quarterly Meeting on November 30, 2006, p. 10, available at http://www.juvenilecouncil.gov/meetings.html.
117 Based on correspondence with the Corporation for National and Community Service, December 2007.
118 Ibid, December 2008.
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and promoting initiatives and activities that merit strong interagency
collaboration because of their potential to offer cost-effective solutions, including
mentoring. At the Working Group’s April 2008 meeting, the Federal Mentoring
Council presented about its history, structure, and goals, and to brainstorm about
how to collaborate with the Working Group, such as through expanding
information about mentoring on the group’s website.119
• Another priority of the Council is to identify common measures approved by the
Office of Management and Budget (OMB) that all partner agencies can use, and
thereby enable the Council to assess the aggregate impact of the federal
investment in mentoring.
• A third priority of the Council is to review federal requests for proposals to
ensure that the language used about mentoring is clear, consistent, and easily
identifiable by potential applicants.
The Council is not funded, although staff at HHS, CNCS, and the other agencies commit time to
serving on the Council and carrying out its activities. When funding has been required to
implement their initiatives, such as the website, member agencies have contributed funding as
they were able.120
Department of Defense
Youth ChalleNGe Program121
The Youth ChalleNGe Program is a quasi-military training program administered by the Army
National Guard to improve outcomes for youth who have dropped out of school or have been
expelled. As discussed below, mentoring is a major (and not optional) component of the program.
The program was established as a pilot program under the National Defense Authorization Act for
FY2003 (P.L. 102-484), and Congress permanently authorized the program under the National
Defense Authorization Act for FY1998 (P.L. 105-85). Congress has since provided an annual
appropriation for the program as part of the Department of Defense authorization acts. Currently,
35 programs operate in 28 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico.
Youth are eligible for the program if they are ages 16 to 18 and enroll prior to their 19th birthday;
have dropped out of school or been expelled; are unemployed; are not currently on parole or
probation for anything other than juvenile status offenses and not serving time or awaiting
sentencing; and are drug free.122 From 1993 through 2007, nearly 94,000 youth enrolled and
approximately 74,000 youth have graduated from the program.123 The program consists of three
phases: a two-week pre-program residential phase where applicants are assessed to determine
119 Interagency Working Group on Youth Programs, Progress Report to the President, Implementation of Executive
Order 13459: Improving the Coordination and Effectiveness of Youth Programs, August 7, 2008.
120 Based on correspondence with the Corporation for National and Community Service, December 2008.
121 Unless otherwise noted, this information is based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Defense, National
Guard, June 12, 2008.
122 U.S. Department of Defense, National Guard, Youth ChalleNGe Program 2007 Performance and Accountability
Highlights, 2008.
123 Ibid.
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their potential for completing the program; a 20-week residential phase; and a 12-month post-
residential phase.124 During the residential phase, youth—known as cadets—work toward their
high school diploma or GED and develop life-coping, job, and leadership skills. They also
participate in activities to improve their physical well-being, and they engage in community
service. Youth develop a “Post-Residential Action Plan (P-RAP)” that sets forth their goals, as
well as the tasks and objectives to meet those goals. The post-residential phase begins when
graduates return to their communities, continue in higher education, or enter the military. The
goal of this phase is for graduates to build on the gains made during the residential phase and to
continue to develop and implement their P-RAP.
A core component of the post-residential phase is mentoring in which a cadet works with a
mentor to meet his or her goals set forth in the P-RAP. This component is referred to as the
“Friendly Mentor Match” process. Parents and youth are asked to nominate at least one
prospective mentor prior to acceptance into the program. They are advised to identify an
individual who is respected by the youth and would be a good role model. Cadets tend to know
their mentors before enrolling in the program; however, members of an applicant’s immediate
family or household and ChalleNGe staff members and their spouses are not eligible to become
mentors. By week 13 of the residential phase, and prior to the formal matching of a cadet and a
mentor, programs are required to use a National Guard-approved curriculum to train the mentors
and the cadets for their roles and responsibilities during the formal mentoring relationship.
Mentors be at least 21 years old, of the same gender as the youth (unless otherwise approved by
the director of the program), and within reasonable geographic proximity. Mentors must also
undergo a background check that includes two reference checks, an interview, and a criminal
background investigation that includes a sex offender registry check. In some programs, the
mentors are required to initiate the background investigation and have the results provided to the
program prior to their acceptance as a mentor. Mentors and cadets begin weekly contact during
the last two months of the residential phase and maintain monthly contacts during the post-
residential phase. Cadets and mentors are encouraged to participate in community service
activities or job placement activities. Although the program prefers that the pair meet in person,
contact may be made by telephone calls, emails, or letters, particularly for those cadets who enlist
in the military or attend school in a different community.
Mentors report each month during the post-residential phase about the cadets’ placement
activities, progress toward achieving their goals, and the activities associated with the mentoring
relationship. Some programs also require the cadets to report monthly about their progress. At the
end of the post-residential phase, an exit interview is conducted between program staff and the
mentor, and the match is formally concluded.
Youth ChalleNGe was evaluated by MDRC, a social policy research organization, and findings
were released in February 2009.125 The evaluation used a random assignment research design,
whereby youth were randomly selected to receive the treatment (i.e., to participate in the
program) or to a control group that did not participate in the program. The results of the
evaluation are based on a survey administered about nine months after the members of the
124 U.S. Department of Defense, National Guard, “Youth ChalleNGe Program, About Us,” at http://www.ngycp.org/
aboutus_dependant_T2_R29.php.
125 Dan Bloom, Alissa Gardenhire-Crooks, and Conrad Mandsager, Reengaging High School Dropouts: Early Results
of the National Guard Youth ChalleNGe Program, MDRC, February 2009.
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program and control groups entered the study, when youth had just begun the program’s post-
residential phase. The evaluation found that the program group was much more likely than the
control group to have obtained a GED (45.6% vs. 10.1%), to be working (51.2% vs. 42.1%)
and/or attending college (10.9% vs. 14.0%), to report having good or excellent health (76.7% vs.
68.4%), to have high levels of self-efficacy (11.0 vs. 7.0%), and to be less likely to have been
arrested since the start of the evaluation (14.2% vs. 20.0%). These differences are statistically
significant, meaning that they can be attributed to the program intervention.
Federal Issues in Mentoring
Issues that may be relevant to any discussions around the federal role in mentoring include the
limitations of research on outcomes for mentored youth; the potential need for additional mentors,
particularly for vulnerable populations; and limited funding for mentoring.
Limitations of Research on Mentoring
A few positive evaluations of mentoring programs may have provided some justification for
federal support of these programs.126 The 1995 landmark study of community-based mentoring
programs at select Big Brothers and Big Sisters chapters found that mentored youth were less
likely than their non-mentored counterparts to use drugs and alcohol, hit someone, and skip
school, among other outcomes.127 A recent evaluation of the Big Brothers Big Sisters school-
based mentoring program found similar promising results for mentored youth. Nonetheless,
findings from these and other studies show that mentoring was limited in improving all youth
outcomes. The long-term influence of mentoring for youth is unknown. The 1995 study tracked
youth for 18 months, which is among the longest periods of time mentored youth have been
studied. No study appears to address issues around how well youth transition to adulthood, such
as whether they attend college or secure employment. Further, studies of mentoring programs
have shown that some gains made by mentored youth, compared to their non-mentored
counterparts, were short-lived and that mentored youth did not improve in certain areas.
A related issue is the use of mentoring techniques, such as group mentoring, that have not been
evaluated using experimental design, where youth are randomly selected into control and
treatment groups. The Mentoring Initiative for System-Involved Youth grant solicitation
encouraged applicants to “consider a variety of mentoring approaches, such as one-to-one, group,
student/peer, team education, and sports mentoring; professional development coaching; and
other approaches best suited to meet the needs of the target population.”128 Two of the MISIY
grantees appear to use group mentoring or team-based mentoring as a primary technique, and one
of the programs uses therapeutic mentoring provided by paid case managers.129
126 Gary Walker, “Youth Mentoring and Public Policy,” in David L. Dubois and Michael J. Karcher, eds., Handbook of
Youth Mentoring (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2005), pp. 510-512. (Hereafter referenced as Walker,
“Youth Mentoring and Public Policy.”)
127 Joseph P. Tierney and Jean Baldwin Grossman, with Nancy L. Resch, Making A Difference: An Impact Study of Big
Brothers Big Sisters, Public/Private Ventures, reissued September 2000, available online at http://www.ppv.org/ppv/
publications/assets/111_publication.pdf.
128 U.S. Department of Justice, “Application for Funding: Mentoring Initiative for System Involved Youth.”
129 Mentoring programs for juvenile justice-involved youth that employ paraprofessionals may be the most appropriate
(continued...)
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Still, even the few evaluations of mentoring programs that use experimental design appear to
have limitations. For example, concerns have been raised about the methodology used in the
evaluation of the Safe and Drug Free Schools mentoring program. One concern is that grantees
were not randomly selected. Grantees involved in the study “reported being less focused on
improving students’ academic outcomes and on teaching risk avoidance” than grantees generally,
even though these domains were the focus of the evaluation.130 The grantees selected for the
evaluation were more likely to serve females and more Asian, Latino, and Pacific Islander
students but fewer white students than grantees overall. The grantees were also more likely to be
school districts, compared to non-profit or community-based organizations. They also tended to
have more years of experience running school mentoring and serving more students. These
differences may in fact have led to outcomes that were not representative of the entire pool of
grantees nationally. Further, some mentored youth did not receive certain services that were tied
to the outcomes of the study. For example, 43% of the mentored students reported working
frequently with their mentors on academics while 21% never worked on academics. Still, it is
unclear whether school-based mentoring programs should be tasked with improving academic
outcomes and certain other outcomes, like reducing involvement in gangs and other risky
behaviors.131
Another arguable limitation of the SDFS mentoring evaluation was its design. Although the SDFS
mentoring evaluation used random assignment, whereby youth were randomly assigned to the
treatment (i.e., SDFS mentoring) or the control group (no SDFS mentoring), over one-third of the
control group received mentoring, either from the SDFS grantee or from other organizations in
the community. This finding raises questions about the extent to which the evaluation could have
assessed the true effects of the program, since the outcomes for the control group may have been
influenced by the participation of some of the youth in mentoring programs. According to the
study, this may have “led to some dilution of the impacts on students compared to
expectations.”132
The program delivery also did not appear to have adhered to certain established best practices in
mentoring, such as matches that lasted one year or more and ongoing training for mentoring. The
average length of the mentoring relationship for students surveyed was 5.8 months, and on
average, students were not assigned their mentor until about five weeks after they were randomly
assigned to the treatment group.133 Ongoing training did not appear to be widely available.
Approximately 41% of mentors reported that ongoing training was available after they begun
meeting regularly with their students.134 This is in contrast to recommendations by researchers in
mentoring that mentors receive support and ongoing training after matches have been
(...continued)
and cost effective. See Elaine A. Blechman and Jedediah M. Bopp, “Special Populations: Youth Offenders,” in David
L. Dubois and Michael J. Karcher, eds., Handbook of Youth Mentoring (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications,
2005).
130 Bernstein et al., Impact Evaluation of the U.S. Department of Education’s Student Mentoring Program Final
Report, p. xvii.
131 Jen Russell, “School-Based Mentoring Needs a Friend,” Youth Today, June 1, 2009. (Hereafter, Russell, “School-
Based Mentoring Needs a Friend.”)
132 Bernstein et al., Impact Evaluation of the U.S. Department of Education’s Student Mentoring Program Final
Report, p. 92.
133 Evaluations of other school-based mentoring programs have reported similar findings.
134 Ibid, p. 47.
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established.135 Still, nearly all mentors received pre-match training or orientation and talked with
their program supervisor about how things were going with their mentoring relationship. Most
mentors (62.3%) reported having access to social workers or staff when they needed support.
In a similar vein, one of the Abt researchers raised questions about the extent of technical
assistance available to grantees about implementing the program: “The legislation ... and the
program guidance ... said to focus on the academic and social needs of students. Beyond that,
there weren’t any prescriptive protocols for how people were going to conduct their mentoring
activities, or how they were going to supervise their mentors, or how they were going to train
their mentors.”136 Nonetheless, the Department of Education reported that training and technical
assistance was provided by a contractor and ED staff.
Gap in Mentoring Services
A 2002 poll by MENTOR, a mentor advocacy group, estimated that 15 million at-risk137 youth
need a mentor.138 Recruiting and retaining volunteers appears to be a major challenge for
mentoring organizations, including those funded through federal mentoring programs.139 In its
2004 report of the Safe and Drug Free Schools Mentoring program, GAO found that new grantees
had more difficulty than established grantees in recruiting and supporting mentors.140 Similarly,
HHS reports that some mentors in organizations that receive Mentoring Children of Prisoners’
funding have dropped out before being matched with a youth because of the time and energy
commitment mentoring entails.141 While research on mentor recruitment and retention is nascent,
it reveals that mentoring organizations tend to attract individuals who are middle aged, educated,
and have children in their household, and that word of mouth is among the top strategies for
recruiting new volunteers.142 Further, individuals are likely to remain in formal mentoring
programs if they feel adequately prepared to serve as mentors. According to the research on
mentoring, retention may be high when programs continually monitor mentoring relationships for
effectiveness and respond to the needs of mentors.
To address the perceived mentoring gap, the Corporation for National and Community Service
has partnered with MENTOR to match three million youth with mentors by 2010. The campaign
has also secured commitments from corporate and foundation partners for funding to support
research on mentoring programs and engage their networks of employees in mentoring.
135 MENTOR/National Mentoring Partnership, “Elements of Effective Practice in Mentoring,” 2nd ed., 2003.
136 Russell, “School-Based Mentoring Needs a Friend.”
137 This definition encompasses youth with poor academic performance or substance abuse issues, or are sexually
active, and may overstate the number of youth who need mentoring.
138 MENTOR, “The National Agenda For Action: How to Close America’s Mentoring Gap,” 2006, available at
http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_399.pdf, p. 10.
139 Arthur Astukas and Chris Tanti, “Recruiting and Sustaining Volunteer Mentors,” in David L. Dubois and Michael J.
Karcher, eds., Handbook of Youth Mentoring, (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2005), p. 245. (Hereafter
referenced as Astukas and Tanti, “Recruiting and Sustaining Volunteer Mentors.”)
140 GAO, Student Mentoring Programs, pp. 20-21.
141 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Report to Congress: The Mentoring Children of Prisoners
Program, September 2007.
142 Astukas and Tanti, “Recruiting and Sustaining Volunteer Mentors,” pp. 235-249.
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A related issue is that the mentoring gap may be wider for special populations. Mentoring
programs primarily serve youth ages 9 through 11 who come to the attention of a parent or
teacher, rather than the most at-risk populations, which include, but are not limited to, older
youth, runaway and homeless youth, and youth in foster care or the juvenile justice system.143
According to a 2005 study by MENTOR, less than one-fifth of mentors reported mentoring a
youth involved in the juvenile justice or foster care systems or with a parent in prison.144
However, most of these mentors said they would be willing to work with vulnerable youth
populations. Recent efforts to recruit volunteers for vulnerable populations are also underway, as
evidenced by the MISIY program’s focus on youth involved in the foster care or juvenile justice
systems and children with imprisoned parents. The four short-term DOJ mentoring grants target
vulnerable youth, including Latino high school students that attend schools in areas with a
significant gang presence.145 Nonetheless, potential mentors may still be discouraged from
working with youth facing serious personal difficulties and challenges in their communities.
Sustaining Resources
Some organizations that receive federal mentoring grants report challenges with securing diverse
sources of funding and expanding their programs because of limited funding or cuts in funding,146
especially in light of the elimination of the Safe and Drug Free Schools Mentoring program. To
improve the prospects that organizations continue providing mentoring services beyond the life of
their grants, the MCP and SDFS Mentoring program provide training and technical assistance to
help grantees in becoming financially sustainable.147 Still, issues around funding are ongoing.
143 Walker, “Youth Mentoring and Public Policy,” pp. 509-510.
144 MENTOR, “Mentoring in America 2005: A Snapshot of the Current State of Mentoring,” 2006, available at
http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_404.pdf.
145 Provisions in the 110th Congress’ Foster Care Mentoring Act (S. 379) were intended to help recruit mentors for
children in the foster care system. These provisions would forgive the federal student loan debt of mentors who serve
200 hours each year, at $2,000 each year, not to exceed $20,000 total.
146 Erika Fitzpatrick, “Surviving Without Uncle Sam’s Money: Mentoring Grant Cutoff Sparks Talk About How to
Diversify Funding,” Youth Today, June 2007, p. 10.
147 Based on correspondence with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Family and Youth Services
Bureau, November 2007; U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools, September 2007; and
U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, September 2007.
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Appendix A. Mentoring Children of
Prisoners Program
Table A-1. Demographics and Characteristics of Children, Mentors, and
Relationships (FY2006 Through FY2009)
Demographic or Characteristic
FY2006
FY2007
FY2008
FY2009
Total number of matches
27,525
28,256
37,380a 42,666b
Average age of youth
11
10.5
11
11
Share of children who were male
45%
43%
45%
47%
Share of mentors who were male
38%
40%
40%
41%
Total number of matches in the fourth quarter of the
2,461 n/a 3,106 1,044
fiscal year that were across gender
Total number of matches in the fourth quarter of the
6,380 n/a
12,844
3,610
fiscal year that were across race or ethnicity
Average number of days youth was waiting for a mentor
53
n/a
60.5
87.7
Share of children with fewer than 12 hours of regular
24% n/a 23% 23%
mentor/youth contact during the past quarter (i.e., four-
month period)
Share of children with 12 to 24 hours of regular
22% n/a 42% 42%
mentor/youth contact during the past quarter
Share of children with more than 24 hours of regular
32% n/a 28% 27%
mentor/youth contact during the past quarter
Share of children for whom the frequency or length of
22% n/a 7% 8%
their contacts with mentors is unknown
Average number of initial pre-match training/orientation(s)
5.0 4.1 7.3 7.0
hours per mentor
Average number of hours post-match training per mentor
4.5
3.4
2.4
2.3
Average number of staff fol ow-up contacts in person or
15.7 n/a 12.5 19.4
by phone per mentor per fiscal quarter addressing the
following: key mentor skills, commitment, or mentor’s
response to child crisis or other critical issue in child’s life
Source: Congressional Research Service presentation of data provided by the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Family and Youth Services Bureau, June and
December 2008, December 2008, and January 2009.
Note: Data are not available for some characteristics for FY2007 because of changes that year in the archiving
feature of the MCP program’s management information system.
a. Does not include the 3,008 matches under the Voucher Demonstration Project.
b. Does not include the 8,130 matches under the Voucher Demonstration Project.
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Appendix B. Descriptions of Department of Justice
Mentoring Programs, Select Years
Table B-1.Department of Justice Mentoring Programs, FY2009
Total
Mentoring
Number
Amount of
Grant
Purpose and Goals
Entities Eligible to Apply
of Awards
Funding
National
To support organizations with
National organizations,
Eight
$45.5
Mentoring
mentoring programs that are ready including faith-based and
awards,
million
Programsa
for implementation of new,
community non-profit
ranging
innovative strategies that will
organizations. These
from $2.8
strengthen existing activities. The
organizations must be
million to
goal of the program is to reduce
located in one or more
$10 million
juvenile delinquency, drug abuse,
states in at least four of six
truancy, and other high-risk
regions throughout the
behaviors.
country.
National Youth
To address the training and
Public agencies, including
One award
$1.5 million
Mentoring
technical assistance needs of
state agencies, units of local
Training and
varying mentoring organizations.
government, public
Technical
The goals of the program are to
universities and colleges, and
Assistance
build competency, performance,
tribal governments; and
Initiativea
and capacity for mentoring
private agencies, including
programs; and to provide training
faith-based and community
and technical assistance to OJJDP-
organizations.
funded mentoring initiatives.
Mentoring
To support the development and
Public agencies, including
11 awards,
$4.8 million
Initiative for
enhancement of mentoring
state agencies, units of local
ranging
Foster Care
programs and support services for
government, public
from
Youtha
at-risk youth in the foster care
universities and colleges, and
$166,600
system. The goals of the program
tribal governments; and
to
are to reduce and prevent juvenile
private agencies, including
$500,000
delinquency, integrate best
faith-based and community
practices into mentoring service
organizations.
models for foster youth, and
develop strategies to recruit and
maintain mentors for these youth.
Gang
To assist organizations establish or
Private organizations;
20 awards,
$9.5 million
Prevention
expand mentoring programs that
federally recognized tribes;
ranging
Youth
engage youth at risk of gang activity nonprofit organizations,
from
Mentoring
and delinquency with activities that
including faith-based,
$247,161
Programa
enable them to practice healthy
community, and tribal
to
behaviors with a positive peer
organizations; and public
$500,000
group. The goals of the program
agencies, including schools,
are to offer core services that
colleges, universities, and
address adolescent development
units of local governments in
needs and include certain
communities that have
attributes, such as significant
completed a comprehensive
training for mentors.
community gang assessment.
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Total
Mentoring
Number
Amount of
Grant
Purpose and Goals
Entities Eligible to Apply
of Awards
Funding
Mentoring
To fund an evaluation that answers
Public agencies, including
One award
$3.5 million
Research
the following research questions: Is state agencies, units of local
Programa
there a significant difference in the
government, public
effectiveness of a volunteer versus
universities and colleges, and
paid mentor? What will the impact
tribal governments; and
of paying mentors be on
private agencies, including
recruitment efforts? What is the
faith-based and community
impact of the length of the
organizations.
matches? The goal of the
evaluation is to assess the ways
that adding a paid component to a
previous volunteer mentoring
program can impact both process
and effectiveness.
Strategic
To enhance already existing
Public agencies, including
13 awards,
$5.4 million
Enhancement
mentoring programs’ abilities to
state agencies, units of local
ranging
to Mentoring
improve the involvement of and
government, public
from
Programsa
services for the mentoring
universities and colleges, and
$149,800
participants’ parents and family;
tribal governments; and
to
expand structured activities and
private agencies, including
$500,000
opportunities for mentoring pairs;
faith-based and community
and increase the availability of
organizations.
mentor training and support. The
goal of the program is to reduce
juvenile delinquency, drug abuse,
truancy, and other problems and
high-risk behaviors.
Second Chance
To support the successful and safe
Public agencies, including
11 awards,
$4.7 million
Juvenile
transition of youth offenders from
state agencies, units of local
ranging
Mentoring
correctional facilities to their
government, public
from
Initiativeb
communities. The goals of the
universities and colleges, and
$124,449
program are to reduce recidivism
tribal governments; and
to
among youth ex-offenders,
private agencies, including
$625,000
enhance the safety of communities, faith-based and community
and enhance the capacity of local
organizations.
partnerships to address the needs
of youth ex-offenders.
Tribal Youth
To develop, mature, and expand
National tribal organizations
Three
$5.0 million
Mentoringa
community programs that provide
and federally recognized
awards,
mentoring services to tribal youth
Indian tribes that may
ranging
populations that are underserved
partner with tribal or
from $1.3
due to location, shortage of
nontribal sub-grantee
million to
mentors, emotional or behavioral
national organizations,
$1.9 million
problems of the target population,
including faith-based and
or other situations identified by
community organizations.
federally recognized tribes.
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Total
Mentoring
Number
Amount of
Grant
Purpose and Goals
Entities Eligible to Apply
of Awards
Funding
Recovery Act
To support organizations that have
National organizations,
Four
$85.1
National Youth
mentoring programs ready for
which are defined as having
awards,
million
Mentoring
implementation or that will
an active program or
ranging
Programsc
strengthen and expand existing
programs with a financial
from $3.7
mentoring activities, particularly
relationship with affiliates in
million to
for populations that are
a majority of states.
$17.9
underserved due to location,
million
shortage of mentors, special
physical or mental chal enges of the
targeted population, or other
situations identified in the
community in need of mentoring
services. Special consideration will
be given to mentoring programs
that include education, job
readiness, employment skills
development, and training and
exposure to entrepreneurial
activities.
Recovery Act
To support local organizations that Public agencies, including
26 awards,
$12.4
Local Youth
develop, implement, or expand
state agencies, units of local
ranging
million
Mentoring
local mentoring programs leading
government, public
from
Initiativec
to measurable, positive outcomes
universities and colleges, and
$401,272
for at-risk youth. The programs’
tribal governments; and
to
goals are to reduce juvenile
private agencies, including
$500,000
delinquency and gang participation,
faith-based and community
improve academic performance,
organizations.
and reduce school dropout rates.
Total Funding
$177.4
million:
$79.9 million
for FY2009
and $97.5
million for
Recovery Act
Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) review of grant announcements available at
http://ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/funding/funding.html, and grant recipients at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/funding/
09grantawards.htm.
a. Funding for this program was appropriated under the U.S. Department of Justice mentoring line item of the
FY2009 appropriations law (P.L. 111-8).
b. This program was authorized by the Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-199) and funded pursuant to the
mentoring line item of the FY2009 appropriations law (P.L. 111-8). The Second Chance Act authorizes
various types of assistance to help adult and juvenile ex-offenders make a successful transition from
incarceration to the community. Funding for this program was appropriated under the U.S. Department of
Justice’s COPS Program and transferred to the Office of Justice Programs (OJP), as enacted by the FY2009
appropriations law (P.L. 111-8). The Department of Justice also provided funding for the Second Chance
Act Mentoring Grant to Nonprofit Organizations, targeted to adult offenders.
c. Funding for this program was appropriated under the U.S. Department of Justice’s Edward Byrne Memorial
Competitive Grant program in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5).
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Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring Programs and Issues
Table B-2.Department of Justice Mentoring Programs, FY2008
Total
Number
Amount
Mentoring
of
of
Grant
Purpose and Goals
Entities Eligible to Apply
Awards
Funding
National
To support organizations that have
National organizations,
10 awards,
$57.4
Mentoring
mentoring programs ready for
including community and
ranging
million
Programsa
implementation or that will
faith-based organizations,
from
strengthen and expand existing
which are defined as having
$65,000 to
mentoring activities, especially those
an active presence in a
$40 million
programs that seek to increase
majority of states, having
participation of mentors by
materials or programs in use
underrepresented groups, target
by organizations located in a
children of single-parent families, and significant number of states,
focus on making truancy prevention
or those with a national
a priority. The goal of the program is reputation that have
to improve outcomes of at-risk
pioneered programs that
youth, among other related goals.
serve as a basis for other
organizations.
Strengthening
To assist state and local government
A nonfederal unit or subunit
13 awards,
$5.7
Youth
leaders in further developing
of government, such as a
ranging
million
Mentoring
community partnerships designed to
state, city or township
from
Through
foster new mentoring approaches
government, or a federally
$295,000
Community
and initiatives or in expanding
recognized tribal community;
to
Partnershipsa
existing mentoring programs. The
one or more private
$500,000
goals of the program are to improve
organizations, such as non-
partnerships around mentoring and
profits, for-profits,
to increase the numbers of youth
community organizations, and
served in a cost efficient manner,
faith-based organizations.
among other related goals.
Applicants must have
demonstrated they entered
into a partnership with one
or more private entities.
Latino Youth
To assist local school districts, in
Private organizations; non-
Four
$1.8
Mentoringa
partnership with organizations, in
profit organizations, including
awards,
million
communities with a demonstrable
faith-based and community
ranging
Latino gang problem. The goals of
organizations; and public
from
the program are to prevent gang
agencies, including schools,
$377,000
participation and violence by at-risk
colleges, universities, and
to
Latino youth by offering alternatives;
units of local government.
$500,000
and reduce or prevent delinquency,
violence, dropping out of school, and
truancy.
Mentoring
To support national tribal
National tribal organizations
Two
$4
Programs for
organizations and national
and national organizations,
awards of
million
At-Risk Tribal
organizations that support
including community, secular,
$2 million
Youthb
mentoring activities in tribal
and faith-based non-profit
communities. The goal of the
organizations. A national
program is to improve outcomes of
organization must
at-risk tribal youth, among other
demonstrate the capacity to
related goals.
operate programs with
multiple tribes in multiple
states and tribal jurisdictions.
Total Funding
$65.0
million
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Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring Programs and Issues
Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) review of grant announcements available at
http://oj dp.ncjrs.gov/funding/funding.html; CRS review of grant awardees at http://oj dp.ncjrs.gov/funding/
fy08awards.html; and CRS correspondence with the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs,
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, December 2008.
a. Funding for this program was appropriated under the U.S. Department of Justice’s mentoring line item in
the FY2008 appropriations law (P.L. 110-161).
b. Funding for this program was appropriated under the U.S. Department of Justice’s Title V (Incentive Grants
for Local Delinquency Prevention Programs) of JJDPA line item in the FY2008 appropriations law (P.L. 110-
161).
Author Contact Information
Adrienne L. Fernandes
Specialist in Social Policy
afernandes@crs.loc.gov, 7-9005
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