The Department of Defense’s Use of Private
Security Contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan:
Background, Analysis, and Options for
Congress

Moshe Schwartz
Specialist in Defense Acquisition
September 29, 2009
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R40835
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Summary
The United States is relying on contractors to provide a wide variety of services in Iraq and
Afghanistan, including security. Private firms known as Private Security Contractors (PSCs) are
hired to protect individuals, transport convoys, forward operating bases, buildings, and other
economic infrastructure, as well as train security forces. While DOD has previously contracted
for security in Bosnia and elsewhere, it appears that in Iraq and Afghanistan DOD is for the first
time relying so heavily on armed contractors to provide security during combat or stability
operations. As of June 2009, there were over 18,000 armed private security contractors in Iraq
and Afghanistan. Recent contracting trends indicate that the number of such contractors may
continue to increase.
Many analysts and government officials believe that DOD would be unable to execute its mission
without PSCs. Nonetheless, the use of armed contractors has raised a number of issues for
Congress, including concerns over transparency and accountability. Much of the attention given
to PSCs by Congress and the media is a result of numerous high-profile incidents where security
contractors were accused of shooting civilians, using excessive force, being insensitive to local
customs or beliefs, or otherwise behaving inappropriately. These actions may have undermined
U.S. counterinsurgency efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan. Some analysts and DOD officials believe
that poor contractor oversight significantly contributed to contractor abuses. As a result, Congress
has also focused on whether DOD is effectively managing PSCs and whether improved
contractor oversight could have prevented or minimized the impact of these incidents.
DOD officials have stated that the military’s experience in Iraq and Afghanistan, coupled with
Congressional attention and legislation, has focused DOD’s attention on the importance of
managing PSCs. DOD has taken steps to improve how it manages and oversees such contractors
in Iraq and Afghanistan. These steps include tracking contracting data, coordinating the
movements of PSCs throughout the battle space, issuing new policy on managing PSCs, and
updating DOD doctrine to incorporate the role of contractors. However, these efforts are still in
progress and could take three years or more to effectively implement.
This report examines current private security contractor trends in Iraq and Afghanistan, steps
DOD has taken to improve oversight and management, and the extent to which DOD has
incorporated the role of security contractors into its doctrine and strategy. It also reviews steps
Congress has taken to exercise oversight over the use of PSCs and includes options for Congress.

Congressional Research Service

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Background ................................................................................................................................ 1
Services Provided by Private Security Contractors ................................................................ 2
Number and Profile of PSCs Working in Iraq and Afghanistan .............................................. 2
Congressional Focus on PSCs ............................................................................................... 3
Private Security Companies Working For the U.S. Government................................................... 5
Why the US Government Uses PSCs..................................................................................... 5
Department of Defense PSCs ................................................................................................ 5
Iraq................................................................................................................................. 6
Afghanistan .................................................................................................................... 8
Can the Use of PSCs Undermine US Efforts? ...................................................................... 10
DOD Management and Oversight of PSCs .......................................................................... 13
Options for Congress ................................................................................................................ 14
Define the Role that Private Security Contractors Can Play in Support of Military
Operations Taking Place in Unsecured Environments ....................................................... 14
Prohibit armed security contractors from being deployed in combat zones. .................... 14
Restrict armed security contractors to performing static security. ................................... 15
Restrict armed security contractors to static security, with an exception for local
nationals. ................................................................................................................... 15

Figures
Figure 1. Trend of Armed Security Contractors in Iraq by Nationality.......................................... 7
Figure 2. Number of APSCs vs. Total Contractor and Troop Levels in Iraq .................................. 8
Figure 3. Trend of Armed Security Contractors in Afghanistan by Nationality ............................. 9
Figure 4. Number of APSCs vs. Total Contractor and Troop Levels in Afghanistan.................... 10

Tables
Table 1. Number of Armed Security Contractors in Iraq by Nationality........................................ 6
Table 2. Number of Armed Security Contractors by Nationality................................................... 9

Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 15

Congressional Research Service

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Introduction
The 111th Congress is grappling with a broad range of issues regarding the use of private security
contractors (PSCs) to provide security for people and property in Iraq and Afghanistan. The
United States has gradually increased the types of tasks and roles for which it contracts with
private companies in military operations. Congress has generally accepted the concept of using
unarmed contractors to carry out support functions in military operations, such as providing food
and laundry services, although not without concerns regarding the costs of contracts and alleged
favoritism in issuing them.1 But for the Department of Defense (DOD), Iraq and Afghanistan
present new challenges. The United States is relying heavily, apparently for the first time during
combat or stability operations, on private firms to supply a wide variety of security services.2
Given the shortage of U.S. troops, PSCs are widely viewed as being vital to U.S. efforts in the
region. Many Members are concerned about transparency, accountability, and legal and symbolic
issues raised by the use of armed civilians to perform security tasks formerly performed primarily
by military personnel, as well as the negative effect that PSCs may be having on U.S.
counterinsurgency efforts.
This report discusses the type of work performed by PSCs, why DOD uses PSCs, and the number
of armed security contractors working in Iraq and Afghanistan. The report also examines whether
the use of PSCs could undermine U.S. efforts in the region.
Background
The United States Government is just one of many entities—including foreign governments,
international organizations, and private industry—that employ private security contractors in Iraq.
In recent years, the United States and many other nations and organizations, including the United
Nations, have increasingly turned to private contractors to provide security, as well as a variety of
other functions in support of stabilization and reconstruction efforts.3 This increased reliance on
contractors has fueled the growth of the private security industry worldwide.

1 For a discussion on DOD’s use of contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan, see CRS Report R40764, Department of
Defense Contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan: Background and Analysis
, by Moshe Schwartz.
2 Iraq and Afghanistan appear to be the first two instances where the U.S. government has used private contractors
extensively for protecting persons and property in combat or stability operations where host country security forces are
absent or deficient, but it is not the first time private contractors have been used for such purposes. The U.S.
Government Accountability Office (GAO) reported that contractors have provided security guards in the Balkans and
Southwest Asia. Military Operations: Contractors Provide Vital Services to Deployed Forces but Are Not Adequately
Addressed in DOD Plans.
GAO-03-695, June 2003, p 8. The United States also uses contractors (U.S. and foreign
citizens) for guard duty at U.S. military installations and U.S. embassies and consulates in a number of countries where
stability generally is not an issue.
3 According to one report, “Not since the 17th century has there been such a reliance on private military actors to
accomplish tasks directly affecting the success of military engagements.” Fred Schreier and Marina Caparini.
Privatising Security: Law, Practice and Governance of Private Military and Security Companies. Geneva, Switzerland:
Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, March 2005. p. 1. For discussions on the growth of
private companies providing security and other support to military efforts worldwide, see, for example: Deborah D.
Avant. The Market for Force: The Consequences of Privatizing Security. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2005; Simon Chesterman and Chia Lehnardt. From Mercenaries to Market: The Rise and Regulation
of Private Military Companies
. Oxford, UK; New York: Oxford University Press, 2007; and Singer, Peter W.
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
1

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Services Provided by Private Security Contractors
There is some debate as to what constitutes a private security contractor. Some commentators
define private security as any activity that a company undertakes that is directly related to
protecting a person, place, or thing.4 Others use a broader definition that includes such activities
as providing intelligence analysis, operational coordination, and the training of military or law
enforcement personnel. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008 (P.L. 110-
181 Sec. 864) defines private security functions as the guarding of personnel, facilities, or
properties, and any other activity for which contractors are required to be armed. Such a
definition does not include unarmed personnel providing services directly related to security, such
as coordinating the movements of PSCs throughout Iraq and Afghanistan. Many of the services
provided by companies that consider themselves PSCs go beyond providing armed security. For
the purposes of this report, the services provided by private security contractors can be divided
into two major categories: armed services and unarmed services. Armed services include
• static (site) security—protecting fixed or static sites, such as housing areas,
reconstruction work sites, or government buildings;
• convoy security—protecting convoys traveling through unsecured areas;
• security escorts—protecting individuals traveling in unsecured areas; and
• personal security details—providing full-time protective security to high-ranking
individuals.
For some PSCs, unarmed services represent more than 50% of their total revenue. Unarmed
security services include5
• operational coordination—establishing and managing command, control, and
communications operations centers;
• intelligence analysis—gathering information and developing threat analysis;
• hostage negotiations; and
• security training—providing training to domestic or international security forces.
Number and Profile of PSCs Working in Iraq and Afghanistan
How the term private security contractor is defined affects how one counts the number of
contractors. For example, according to the Department of Defense (DOD), as of June 31, 2009,
there were 15,279 PSCs in Iraq, of which 2,047 (13%) provided unarmed services. This figure

(...continued)
Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003. For a
discussion of United Nations use of such contractors, see William J. Durch and Tobias C. Berkman. Who Should Keep
the Peace? Providing Security for the Twenty-First-Century Peace Operations
. Washington, D.C.: The Henry L.
Stimson Center, September 2006. pp. 83-84.
4 Doug Brooks, President of the International Peace Operations Association, an industry trade group, defines private
security as any activity directly related to protecting a “noun.”
5 Contractors providing weapons training may be armed. However, the use of weapons for training purposes is
categorized here as an unarmed service because the weapons are used as training tools and not to provide armed
security.
Congressional Research Service
2

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

does not include contractors, armed or unarmed, that are training security forces, analyzing
intelligence, or conducting interrogations. The Department of Defense (DOD) uses the term PSCs
to include unarmed security contractors and APSCs (armed private security contractors) to denote
armed contractors providing security.
Security contractors come from all over the world to work in Iraq and Afghanistan. Peter Singer
of the Brookings Institution estimated that citizens of some 30 countries are working as security
contractors in Iraq.6 PSC employees are generally divided by nationality into three groups:
1. U.S. nationals;
2. Nationals from non-coalition countries such as Chile, Fiji, Nepal, and Nigeria;
and
3. Local nationals.
U.S. and coalition nationals often have military or law enforcement experience and are generally
the easiest to vet through a background check. Third-country nationals are generally cheaper than
U.S. coalition contractors, even though some third-country nationals have extensive military
training and experience. Local nationals are generally the least expensive to hire, in part because
there are no large overhead costs related to transportation, housing, and sustenance. Using local
nationals as security contractors can also provide a number of potential benefits, such as
providing jobs, building relationships and developing contacts with the local population, and
having a security force that has a better understanding of the region. However, local nationals are
often more difficult to screen and can be more easily infiltrated by hostile forces.
In Iraq there are reportedly more than 50 PSC companies employing more than 30,000 armed
employees.7 In Afghanistan, there are reportedly about 40 licensed private security companies
employing over 20,000 personnel, with another 30 companies applying for a license. 8 Estimates
of the total number of security contractors in Afghanistan, including those that are not licensed,
are as high as 70,000.9
Congressional Focus on PSCs
Congress has generally focused more on private security contractors than on other specific
contracting issues, even though such contractors only comprise roughly 5-10% of DOD
contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan and a smaller percentage of Department of State contractors.
Much of the attention given to PSCs is a result of numerous high-profile incidents where security
contractors were accused of shooting civilians in Iraq and Afghanistan, using excessive force,
being insensitive to local customs or beliefs, or otherwise behaving in a manner that has raised

6 Conversation with Peter Singer, Brookings Institution, June 13, 2007.
7 Martin Chulov and Jon Boone, “Security industry: Ministers view private firms as an imposition to aid
reconstruction,” The Guardian, August 11, 2009, quoting Iraq interior ministry spokesman Abdul Kareem Khalaf.
Estimates of number of contractors based on Email correspondence with Lawrence Peter, Director, Private Security
Companies Association in Iraq, June 14, 2008.
8 “Enekas (Echo),” National Afghanistan TV (state owned), June 8, 2009, as reported by “Afghan TV show discusses
private security companies’ operations, legality”, The British Broadcasting Corporation, BBC Monitoring South Asia,
June 15, 2009; Weesa (Afghan Newspaper), April 7, 2009, as reported by “Afghan Ministry submits bill on private
security companies to parliament”, The British Broadcasting Corporation, BBC Monitoring South Asia, April 9, 2009.
9 David Zucchino, “Private security forces unnerve Afghans,” Chicago Tribune, August 17, 2009.
Congressional Research Service
3

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

concerns (See below “Can the Use of PSCs Undermine US Efforts?”). Congress has also focused
on whether DOD is effectively managing PSCs and whether improved contractor oversight could
have prevented or minimized the impact of these incidents.
Hearings have been held in the Senate Committee on Armed Services,10 the Senate Committee on
Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs,11 the House Oversight and Government Reform
Committee12, and the House Committee on Armed Services.13 This issue was also raised in the
House Judiciary Committee’s hearing on Enforcement of Federal Criminal Law to Protect
Americans Working for U.S. Contractors in Iraq.
14
Congress has enacted legislation to address some of its concerns. In the FY2008 National
Defense Authorization Act (NDAA), Congress required the Secretary of Defense, in coordination
with the Secretary of State, to prescribe regulations and guidance relating to screening, equipping,
and managing private security personnel in areas of combat operations. These regulations were to
include tracking private security contractor (PSC) employees, authorizing and accounting for
weapons used by PSCs, and reporting requirements whenever a security contractor discharges a
weapon, kills or injures another person, or is killed or injured.15 Included in the FY2009 NDAA is
a “Sense of the Congress” provision that private security contractors should not perform
inherently governmental functions, such as security protection of resources, in high-threat
operational environments16 (For a discussion on inherently governmental functions, see CRS
Report R40641, Inherently Governmental Functions and Department of Defense Operations:
Background, Issues, and Options for Congress
, by John R. Luckey, Valerie Bailey Grasso, and
Kate M. Manuel).

10 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Armed Services, Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees
in U.S. Custody
, 110th Cong., 1st sess., August 3, 2007.
11 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, An Uneasy Relationship: U.S.
Reliance on Private Security Firms in Overseas Operations
, 110th Cong., 2nd sess., February 27, 2008.
12 U.S. Congress, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, Private Security Contracting in Iraq and
Afghanistan
, 110th Cong., 1st sess., October 2, 2007; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Oversight and Government
Reform, Subcommittee on National Security and Foreign Affairs, Commission on Wartime Contracting: Interim
Findings and Path Forward
, 111th Cong., 1st sess., June 9, 2009.
13 U.S. Congress, House Committee on Armed Services, Contingency Contracting: Implementing a Call for Urgent
Reform
, 110th Cong., 2nd sess., April 9, 2008.
14 U.S. Congress, House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security,
Enforcement of Federal Criminal Law to Protect Americans Working for U.S. Contractors in Iraq, 110th Cong., 1st
sess., December 19, 2007.
15 P.L. 110-181, sec 862.
16 P.L. 110-417, sec 832.
Congressional Research Service
4

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Private Security Companies Working For the U.S.
Government

Why the US Government Uses PSCs
Private security contractors can provide significant operational benefits to the U.S. government.
Contractors can often be hired and deployed faster than a similarly skilled and sized military
force. Because security contractors can be hired and fired quickly as needed, using contractors
can allow federal agencies to adapt more easily to changing environments around the world. In
contrast, adapting the military force structure or training significant numbers of Department of
State civilian personnel can take months or years. Security contractors also serve as a force
multiplier for the military, freeing up uniformed personnel to perform combat missions or
providing the State Department with the necessary security capabilities when State’s civilian
security force is stretched thin. In some cases, security contractors may possess unique skills that
the government workforce lacks. For example, local nationals hired by U.S. government agencies
working overseas may provide critical knowledge of the terrain, culture, and language of the
region. Using PSCs can also save the government money. Contractors can be hired when a
particular security need arises and be let go when their services are no longer needed. Hiring
contractors only as needed can be cheaper in the long run than maintaining a permanent in-house
capability. According to government officials, both DOD and the Department of State would be
unable to execute their missions in Iraq and Afghanistan without the support of private security
contractors.17
Department of Defense PSCs
DOD did not begin to gather data on private security contractors until the second half of 2007. As
a result, the following CRS analysis includes the past eight quarters, ending June 30, 2009. In
addition, a number of analysts have raised questions about the reliability of the data gathered. For
example, in October 2008, GAO reported that DOD’s quarterly contractor reports were not
routinely checked for accuracy or completeness.18 DOD officials have acknowledged these
shortcomings; in the census for the second quarter of fiscal year 2009 (Q2 FY2009), DOD
reported that the data system previously used to count contractors duplicated reported numbers on
task order contracts. DOD may have been consistently undercounting the actual number of PSCs
working directly or as subcontractors. The census for the third quarter of FY2009 notes that the
recorded 19% increase in armed security contractors over the previous quarter is partly a result of
“continued improved ability to account for subcontractors who are providing security services.”
DOD stated that it is working to improve the reliability and the type of data gathered.19 For
example, DOD is implementing the Synchronized Predeployment and Operational Tracker
(SPOT), which is designed to track and monitor contractor personnel in a contingency
operation. DOD officials stated SPOT is fully functional and will contain all contractor data by

17 CRS Report MM70119, Private Security Contractors: Possible Legislative Approaches. Online Video. DVD.,
coordinated by Kennon H. Nakamura.
18 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Contingency Contracting: DOD, State, and USAID Contracts and
Contractor Personnel in Iraq and Afghanistan, GAO-09-19, October 1, 2008, p. 6.
19 Ibid.
Congressional Research Service
5

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Q1 FY2010, at which time it will replace the CENTCOM quarterly census as the tracking
mechanism for contractor data. SPOT is expected to track contractor data across the entire Iraq
and Afghanistan theaters, including contractors based in neighboring countries.20
Iraq
Number of Security Contractors
According to DOD, as of June 2009, there were 15,279 private security contractors in Iraq, of
which 13,232 (87%) were armed. Of the armed security contractors in Iraq, 88% were third-
country nationals, and 8% were Iraqis (see Table 1).
Table 1. Number of Armed Security Contractors in Iraq by Nationality
(June 30, 2009)
Number of
Number of
Number of Third-

Americans
Iraqis
Country Nationals
Total
Armed PSCs in Iraq
623
1,029
11,580
13,232
Percent of Total
5%
8%
88%

Source: CENTCOM 3rd Quarter Contractor Census Report (as of June 30, 2009).
Notes: Sum of percentages does not equal 100% due to rounding. Actual numbers of employees working in Iraq
vary widely on a daily basis due to personnel rotations, medical evacuations, and R&R travel.
Nationality of Armed Contractors
Contracting local nationals is an important element in DOD’s counterinsurgency strategy. In
January 2009, General Raymond Odierno issued a memorandum stating “employment of Iraqis
not only saves money but it also strengthens the Iraqi economy and helps eliminate the root
causes of the insurgency—poverty and lack of economic opportunity.”21 The memorandum set
forth a goal of increasing the percentage of local national contractors. From September 2007 to
June 2009, the number of local national armed contractors remained relatively stable, whereas the
number of third-country nationals increased from 3,769 to 11,580. As a result of the increase in
third-country nationals, the percentage of local nationals serving as armed security contracts
dropped from 25% in September 2007 to 8% in June 2009 (see Figure 1). In contrast to Iraq,
where 8% of armed security contractors are local nationals, in Afghanistan, 95% are local
nationals (see Table 2 and Figure 3).

20 In April 2009, SPOT won the Computerworld Honors Program’s 21st Century Achievement Award. See
http://www.cwhonors.org/documents/The_Laureate_09.pdf.
21 General Raymond T. Odierno, Memorandum, Increased Employment of Iraq Citizens Through Command Contracts,
Multi-National Force-Iraq, January 31, 2009.
Congressional Research Service
6

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Figure 1. Trend of Armed Security Contractors in Iraq by Nationality
(June 30, 2009)
14,000
8%
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
25%
4,000
2,000
-
Sep-07
Dec-07
Mar-08
Jun-08
Sep-08
Dec-08
Mar-09
Jun-09
U.S./ Coalition
Third Country Nationals
Local Nationals

Source: CENTCOM Quarter Contractor Census Reports, FY2008-FY2009.
Notes: Percentages represent number of armed security contractors who are local nationals.
Armed Security Contractors Compared to Total Contractor and Troop Levels
According to DOD, since September 2007, the number of armed security contractors increased
even though overall contractor and troop levels decreased over the same period (see Figure 2).
The number of armed security contractors increased from 5,481 in September 2007 (3.5% of all
contractors) to 13,232 in June 2009 (11% of all contractors).
Congressional Research Service
7

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Figure 2. Number of APSCs vs. Total Contractor and Troop Levels in Iraq
(June 2009)
180,000
160,000
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
11%
20,000
3.5%
-
Sep-07
Dec-07
Mar-08
Jun-08
Sep-08
Dec-08
Mar-09
Jun-09
Armed PSCs
Total Contractors
Troops

Source: Contractor data from CENTCOM Quarterly Census Reports; Troop data from CRS Report R40682,
Troop Levels in the Afghan and Iraq Wars, FY2001-FY2012: Cost and Other Potential Issues, by Amy Belasco; see also
Joint Staff, Joint Chiefs of Staff, “Boots on the Ground” monthly reports to Congress.
Notes: Percentages represent number of armed security contractors relative to total number of contractors.
According to DOD, the number of armed security contractors in Iraq rose from 10,743 in the
second quarter of FY2009 to 13,232 in the third quarter of 2009, an increase of 19%. DOD
attributed the increase to an increased security need as the military begins to draw down forces
and to improved ability to account for subcontractors providing security services. Analysts
disagree on whether additional PSCs will be needed to fill the security void left by departing U.S.
forces or whether fewer PSCs will be needed as the military footprint shrinks.
Afghanistan
Number of Contractors
According to DOD, as of June 2009, there were 5,198 private security contractors, of which 5,165
(99%) were armed. Of the armed security contractors, 95% were local nationals (see Table 2).

Congressional Research Service
8

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Table 2. Number of Armed Security Contractors by Nationality
(June 30, 2009)
Number of
Number of
Number of Third-

Americans
Afghans
Country Nationals Total
Armed PSCs in
13 4,895
257 5,165
Afghanistan
Percent of Total
<1%
95%
5%

Source: CENTCOM 3rd Quarter Contractor Census Report (as of June 30, 2009).
Notes: Sum of percentages does not equal 100% due to rounding. Actual numbers of employees working in
Afghanistan vary widely on a daily basis due to personnel rotations, medical evacuations, and R&R travel.
Nationality of Contractors
According to DOD, since September 2007, local nationals have made up 95% or more of all
armed security contractors in Afghanistan (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Trend of Armed Security Contractors in Afghanistan by Nationality
(June 30, 2009)
6,000
95%
5,000
4,000
3,000
100%
2,000
1,000
-
Sep-07
Dec-07
Mar-08
Jun-08
Sep-08
Dec-08
Mar-09
Jun-09
U.S./ Coalition
Third Country Nationals
Local Nationals

Source: Department of Defense.
Notes: Percentages represent number of armed security contractors who are local nationals.
Armed Security Contractors Compared to Total Contractor and Troop Levels
According to DOD, since September 2007, the number of armed security contractors increased at
a slower rate than overall contractor and troop levels (see Figure 4). The number of armed
Congressional Research Service
9

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

security contractors increased from 2,401 in September 2007 (8% of all contractors) to 5,165 in
June 2009 (7% of all contractors).
Figure 4. Number of APSCs vs. Total Contractor and Troop Levels in Afghanistan
(June 2009)
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
7%
10,000
8%
-
Sep-07
Dec-07
Mar-08
Jun-08
Sep-08
Dec-08
Mar-09
Jun-09
Armed PSCs
Total Contractors
Troop Levels

Source: Contractor data from CENTCOM Quarterly Census Reports; Troop data from CRS Report R40682,
Troop Levels in the Afghan and Iraq Wars, FY2001-FY2012: Cost and Other Potential Issues, by Amy Belasco; see also
Joint Staff, Joint Chiefs of Staff, “Boots on the Ground” monthly reports to Congress.
Notes: Percentages represent number of armed security contractors relative to total number of contractors.
According to DOD, the number of armed security contractors in Afghanistan rose from 4,111 in
the second quarter of FY2009 to 5,165 in the third quarter of 2009, an increase of 20%. DOD
attributed the increase to a build-up of forces.
Can the Use of PSCs Undermine US Efforts?
According to the Army Field Manual on counterinsurgency, one of the fundamental tenets of
counterinsurgency operations—such as those undertaken in Iraq and Afghanistan—is to establish
and maintain security while simultaneously winning the hearts and minds of the local population.
Abuses by security forces, according to the manual, can be a major escalating factor in
insurgencies.22
Abuses committed by contractors, including contractors working for other U.S. agencies, can also
strengthen anti-American insurgents.23 There have been published reports of local nationals being

22 Department of Defense, Counterinsurgency, FM 3-24, December 2006, p. 1-9
23 Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Operational Contract Support, Joint Publication 4-10, October 17, 2008, pp.
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
10

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

abused and mistreated by DOD contractors in such incidents as the summary shooting by a
private security contractor of an Afghan who was handcuffed, 24the shooting of Iraqi civilians,25
and the abuse of prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq.26 (It should be noted that there have also
been reports of military personnel abusing and otherwise mistreating local nationals, including
the abuses that took place at Abu Ghraib prison.27 CRS has not conducted an analysis to
determine whether the incidence of abuses is higher among contractors than it is among military
personnel.)
Many of the high-profile reports of PSCs shooting local nationals or otherwise acting
irresponsibly were committed by contractors working for the Department of State. Some of these
incidents include the reported shooting of Iraqi civilians by Triple Canopy employees,28 the
shooting of 17 Iraqi civilians at a Baghdad traffic circle in Nisoor Square by Blackwater
employees,29 and the recent controversy over the behavior of security contractors from Armour
Group who were hired to protect the U.S. embassy in Afghanistan.30 Of the six incidents listed
above, five were committed by U.S. companies and U.S. nationals.
According to many analysts, these events have in fact undermined the U.S. mission in Iraq and
Afghanistan.31 An Iraqi Interior Ministry official, discussing the behavior of private security
contractors, said “Iraqis do not know them as Blackwater or other PSCs but only as Americans.”32
One senior military officer reportedly stated that the actions of armed PSCs “can turn an entire
district against us.”33
The perception that DOD and other government agencies are deploying PSCs who abuse and
mistreat people can fan anti-American sentiment and strengthen insurgents, even when no abuses
are taking place. There have been reports of an anti-American campaign in Pakistan, where
stories are circulating of U.S. private security contractors running amuck and armed Americans

(...continued)
IV-20; See also Counterinsurgency, p. 1-9. Operational Contract Support recognizes that local nationals may not
always draw a distinction between government contractors and the U.S. military;
24 Bruce Alpert, “Killing in Afghanistan hits very close to home; N.O. man is accused of cold-blooded crime,” Times-
Picayune
, December 17, 2008, p. 1.
25 Mark Townsend, “National: Iraq victims sue UK security firm: Guards employed by Hampshire-based company
are,” The Observer, January 11, 2009, p. 14.
26 Department of Defense, Investigation of Intelligence Activities at Abu Ghraib, August 23, 2004. See
http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA429125. The contractors involved in
the Abu Ghraib incident are generally considered not to have been private security contractors.
27 Department of Defense, Investigation of Intelligence Activities at Abu Ghraib, August 23, 2004. See
http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA429125.
28 Tom Jackman, “Security Contractor Cleared in Two Firings,” Washington Post, August 2, 2007. p. A-15.
29 Blackwater has since changed its name to Xe.
30 Tony Harris, Jill Dougherty, and Chris Lawrence, et al., “U.S. Embassy Hazing & Humiliation,” CNN: CNN
Newsroom
, September 2009. See also, Letter from Project on Government Oversight to The Honorable Hillary Clinton,
Secretary of State, September 1, 2009, http://www.pogo.org/pogo-files/letters/contract-oversight/co-gp-20090901.html.
31 See David Zucchino, “Private security forces unnerve Afghans,” Chicago Tribune, August 17, 2009.
32 Steve Fainaru, “Where Military Rules Don’t Apply; Blackwater’s Security Force in Iraq Given Wide Latitude by
State Department,” Washington Post, September 20, 2007, Pg. A1.
33 Anna Mulrine and Keith Whitelaw, “Private Security Contractors Face Incoming Political Fire,” U.S. News & World
Report
, October 15, 2007.
Congressional Research Service
11

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

harassing and terrifying residents.34 U.S. efforts can also be undermined when DOD has ties with
groups that kill civilians or government officials, even if the perpetrators were not working for
DOD when the killings took place. In June 2009, the provincial police chief of Kandahar,
Afghanistan, was killed by a group that worked as a private security contractor for DOD.35
Pointing to the example of the killing of the police chief in Kandahar, some analysts have also
argued that the large-scale use of armed contractors in certain countries can undermine the
stability of fragile governments. In a paper for the U.S. Army War College, Colonel Bobby A.
Towery wrote
After our departure, the potential exists for us to leave Iraq with paramilitary organizations
that are well organized, financed, trained and equipped. These organizations are primarily
motivated by profit and only answer to an Iraqi government official with limited to no
control over their actions. These factors potentially make private security contractors a
destabilizing influence in the future of Iraq.
These and other considerations have led a number of analysts, government officials, and military
officers to call for limiting the use of PSCs in combat and stability operations. Some analysts
have called for completely barring the use of PSCs during such operations. The executive
summary for the U.S. Naval Academy’s 9th Annual McCain Conference on Ethics and Military
Leadership takes this position:
We therefore conclude that contractors should not be deployed as security guards, sentries, or
even prison guards within combat areas. APSCs should be restricted to appropriate support
functions and those geographic areas where the rule of law prevails. In irregular warfare
(IW) environments, where civilian cooperation is crucial, this restriction is both ethically and
strategically necessary.36
Others have suggested a more targeted approach, such as limiting DOD’s use of PSCs to
providing only static security in combat areas, leaving all convoy and personal security details to
the military.37
Analysts calling for restrictions on the use of PSCs generally believe that contractors are more
likely to commit abuses or other atrocities than military personnel. Some analysts believe that the
culture of the military, which is focused on mission success and not on profit or contractual
considerations, makes it less likely that uniformed personnel will behave inappropriately. Some
analysts and DOD officials believe that lax contractor oversight has significantly contributed to
contractor abuses.38 This sentiment was echoed by then Senator Barack Obama, who stated “we

34 Saeed Shah, “Anti-Americanism rises in Pakistan over U.S. motives,” McClatchy Newspapers, September 7, 2009.
See also "Article flays Pakistan for not taking "serious note" of US firm's activities," The British Broadcasting
Corporation
, September 25, 2009, 03:25, BBC Monitoring South Asia.
35 Noor Khan, “Afghan minister calls for disbanding of private security forces after killing of police chief,” Associated
Press
, June 30, 2009, AP Newswire.
36 Vice Admiral Jeff Fowler, Superintendent, U.S. Naval Academy, Executive Summary for the U.S. Naval
Academy’s 9th Annual McCain Conference on Ethics and Military Leadership , Annapolis, MD, April 23, 2009,
http://www.usna.edu/Ethics/Seminars/mccain.htm Last visited August 21, 2009. See also Colonel Bobby A. Towery,
“Phasing Out Private Security Contractors in Iraq”, (master’s thesis, U.S. Army War College, 2006), p. 12.
37 Col. David A. Wallace, “The Future Use of Corporate Warriors With the U.S. Armed Forces: Legal, Policy, and
Practical Considerations and Concerns,” Defense Acquisition Review Journal, vol. 16, no. 2 (July 2009), p. 136.
38 According to an Army investigative report, a lack of good contractor oversight at Abu Ghraib prison contributed to
fostering a permissive environment in which prisoner abuses took place at the hands of contractors. Department of
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
12

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

cannot win a fight for hearts and minds when we outsource critical missions to unaccountable
contractors.”39 According to these analysts, improved oversight and accountability could mitigate
the negative effects that the use of PSCs and other contractors has had on U.S. efforts in Iraq and
Afghanistan, and potentially bring the standard of behavior of PSCs on par with that of uniformed
personnel.
DOD Management and Oversight of PSCs
DOD officials have stated that the military’s experience in Iraq and Afghanistan, coupled with
Congressional attention and legislation, has focused DOD’s attention on the importance of
contractors to operational success. DOD has taken steps to improve how it manages and oversees
all contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan. These steps include tracking contracting data,
implementing contracting training for uniformed personnel, increasing the size of the acquisition
workforce to manage contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan, implementing rules and regulations for
managing and coordinating PSCs, and updating DOD doctrine as it relates to contractors
generally. To the extent that DOD improves the management and oversight of contractors broadly,
management and oversight of security contractors should also be improved.
DOD has also taken a number of steps to specifically improve management and oversight of
PSCs. In July 2009, DOD issued an Instruction, Private Security Contractors (PSCs) Operating
in Contingency Operations
, establishing policy and procedures for managing private security
contractors during contingency operations.40 DOD also released an interim rule modifying the
Code of Federal Regulations that lays out policy regarding the use of private security contractors
in war zones. The interim rule includes policies and procedures for selecting, training, equipping
and overseeing private security contractors. DOD established Contractor Operations Cells in Iraq
and in Afghanistan to coordinate the movement of PSCs,41 and it established the Armed
Contractor Oversight Division to receive serious incident reports involving PSCs and to ensure
that all of the incidents are reported, tracked, and investigated.42 In addition, Joint Forces
Command is currently developing a handbook for commanders intended to distill doctrine and
guidance for using PSCs during contingency operations.
DOD’s efforts have improved the management, oversight, and coordination of PSCs. These and
other improvements have been discussed at length and noted by the Special Investigator for Iraqi

(...continued)
Defense, Investigation of Intelligence Activities at Abu Ghraib, August 23, 2004, p. 52. The report found “Proper
oversight did not occur at Abu Ghraib due to a lack of training and inadequate contract management ... [T]his lack of
monitoring was a contributing factor to the problems that were experienced with the performance of the contractors at
Abu Ghraib.” See http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA429125.
39 Hauser, C., New Rules for Contractors are Urged by 2 Democrats, the New York Times, October 4, 2007.
40 Ashton Carter, Private Security Contractors (PSCs) Operating in Contingency Operations, Department of Defense,
Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, DODI 3020.50, July 22, 2009.
41 The Armed Contractor Oversight Division in Iraq was renamed the Armed Contractor Oversight Bureau. For a
detailed discussion on DOD efforts to improve the coordination of PSC movements throughout Iraq, see Government
Accountability Office, REBUILDING IRAQ: DOD and State Department Have Improved Oversight and Coordination
of Private Security Contractors in Iraq, but Further Actions Are Needed to Sustain Improvements
, GAO-08-966, July
31, 2008; Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction, Field Commanders See Improvements in Controlling and
Coordinating Private Security Contractor Missions in Iraq
, SIGIR 09-022, July 28, 2009.
42 Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction, Investigation and Remediation Records Concerning Incidents of
Weapons Discharges by Private Security Contractors Can Be Improved, SIGIR 09-023, July 28, 2009.
Congressional Research Service
13

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Reconstruction, the Government Accountability Office, and the Commission on Wartime
Contracting, which called DOD’s improved management of PSCs a success story. 43 Many
analysts believe that such improvements can help rein in contractor behavior that undermines
U.S. efforts. However, according to a number of analysts, gaps still remain in DOD’s
management of PSCs. For example, in July 2009, GAO found that DOD needs to develop and
finalize background screening and other standards for PSCs.44 DOD officials stated that
improving the management of PSCs is a work in progress that could take three years or more to
completely implement.
Options for Congress
In assessing whether legislative action could help minimize the harm that armed private security
contractors could have on U.S. efforts in Iraq, Afghanistan, and future operations, Congress may
consider the options discussed below.
Define the Role that Private Security Contractors Can Play in
Support of Military Operations Taking Place in Unsecured
Environments

Many analysts believe that the use of armed private security contractors in combat or stability
operations poses significant risks to U.S. government interests, including undermining efforts to
win hearts and minds during counterinsurgency and other contingency operations. Defining the
role that PSCs can—and should not— play in supporting military operations could help minimize
the risk that contractors will be placed in situations where their actions will undermine U.S.
efforts. Below are three different options for defining the role of PSCs.
Prohibit armed security contractors from being deployed in combat zones.
Proponents of this approach argue that in combat zones, the mechanisms for oversight and
accountability of contractors are likely to deteriorate and therefore, the use of deadly force should
be restricted only to the military. The military possesses a more robust chain of command and is
focused on achieving the mission, without consideration for profit motives or contractual
requirements. Opponents of this approach argue that DOD simply does not have the forces to
accomplish its mission in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that restricting the use of armed security
contractors deprives the military of the flexibility to hire and dismiss defensive security
contractors that can be tailored for specific situations in a highly fluid environment.

43 Ibid. See also, U.S. Congress, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, Subcommittee on National
Security and Foreign Affairs, Commission on Wartime Contracting: Interim Findings and Path Forward, 111th Cong.,
1st sess., June 10, 2009.
44 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Contingency Contract Management: DOD Needs to Develop and Finalize
Background and Other Standards for Private Security Contactors, GAO-09-351, July 31, 2009.
Congressional Research Service
14

DOD's Use of PSCs in Iraq and Afghanistan

Restrict armed security contractors to performing static security.
Such an approach would permit DOD to use armed security contractors in and around the
perimeter of a static location and would bar contractors from performing convoy and some
personal security. Contractors would also be barred from serving as quick reaction forces that
move to the site of an engagement to extract or protect an individual or convoy. Proponents of
this approach argue that most of the high-profile incidents involving armed contractors shooting
at local nationals have occurred during convoy or personal security movements outside of the
perimeter of a secure location. Accordingly, this approach specifically restricts the use of armed
contractors only in those situations where there is likely to be a shooting incident that involves
civilians. Opponents of this approach argue that such a restriction leaves DOD with insufficient
forces to accomplish its mission in Iraq and Afghanistan. They also argue that this approach limits
the flexibility that allows DOD to mobilize and demobilize defensive security forces that can be
tailored for specific situations in a highly fluid environment.
Restrict armed security contractors to static security, with an exception for local
nationals.

Allowing local national contractors to participate in convoy and personal security would
minimize the impact of such a restriction on military forces. Proponents argue that reserving an
exception for local nationals gives the military more flexibility in using PSCs without adding
significant risk. As discussed above, using local national contractors is an important element in
DOD’s counterinsurgency strategy. Local nationals understand the language and are subject to
local jurisdiction. Few of the high-profile incidents between PSCs and local citizens involved
local national security contractors who were working for the US government. Opponents of this
approach will still argue that such a restriction leaves DOD with insufficient forces to accomplish
its mission in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that it limits the flexibility that allows DOD to mobilize
and demobilize defensive security forces that can be tailored for specific situations in a highly
fluid environment. Such a restriction could also hamper DOD in future military operations,
particularly in the early days of a conflict when events are particularly fluid and the need to
rapidly deploy security personnel could be acute. To address this last issue, Congress could
empower a Combatant Commander to waive this restriction in initial phases of an operation, for a
period not to exceed one year.

Author Contact Information

Moshe Schwartz

Specialist in Defense Acquisition
mschwartz@crs.loc.gov, 7-1463




Congressional Research Service
15