U.S. Trade and Investment Relationship with
Sub-Saharan Africa: The African Growth and
Opportunity Act
Vivian C. Jones
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
July 24, 2009
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL31772
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress
U.S. Trade and Investment Relationship with Sub-Saharan Africa
Summary
Following the end of the apartheid era in South Africa in the early 1990s, the United States sought
to increase economic relations with Sub-Saharan Africa. President Clinton instituted several
measures that dealt with investment, debt relief, and trade. Congress required the President to
develop a trade and development policy for Africa.
The economic challenges facing Africa today are serious. Unlike the period from 1960 to 1973,
when economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa was relatively strong, since 1973 the countries of
Sub-Saharan Africa have grown at rates well below other developing countries. There are some
signs of improvement, but problems such as HIV/AIDS and the debt burden are constraining
African economic growth.
In May 2000, Congress approved a new U.S. trade and investment policy for Sub-Saharan Africa
in the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA; Title I, P.L. 106-200). U.S. trade with and
investment in Sub-Saharan Africa have comprised only 1%-2% of U.S. totals for the world.
AGOA extends preferential treatment to imports from eligible countries that are pursuing market
reform measures. Data show that U.S. imports under AGOA are mostly energy products, but
imports to date of other products have grown. AGOA mandated that U.S. officials meet regularly
with their counterparts in Sub-Saharan Africa, and six of these meetings have been held.
AGOA also directed the President to provide U.S. government technical assistance and trade
capacity support to AGOA beneficiary countries. Government agencies that have roles in this
effort include the U.S. Agency for International Development, the Assistant U.S. Trade
Representative for Africa (established by statute under AGOA), the Overseas Private Investment
Corporation, the Export-Import Bank, the U.S. and Foreign Commercial Service, and the Trade
and Development Agency. In addition to bilateral programs, the United States is a member of
several multilateral institutions that provide trade capacity building.
In AGOA, Congress declared that free-trade agreements should be negotiated, where feasible,
with interested Sub-Saharan African countries. Related to this provision, negotiations on a free-
trade agreement with the Southern African Customs Union, which includes South Africa and four
other countries, began in June 2003, but were suspended in April 2006.
Several topics may be important to the 111th Congress in the oversight of AGOA and in potential
legislation amending the act. First, S. 1141 (Feinstein, introduced May 21, 2009, the TRADE Act
of 2009) seeks to establish a trade preference program for least-developed countries such as
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Yemen. Second, an emerging area of concern for Sub-Saharan
African countries is growing interest in Congress over reforming trade preference programs by
combining existing programs, some of which are due to expire by the end of 2009, into a unified
package. Some African leaders have expressed concern that a preference program giving trade
benefits similar to those enjoyed by AGOA countries, or creating one trade preference program
for all developing countries, would lead to erosion of the preferences granted to African countries
under AGOA, and place them in direct competition for U.S. market share and investment with
other developing and least-developed countries such as Bangladesh and Cambodia.
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Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Perspectives on the Sub-Saharan African Economy ..................................................................... 3
Historical Perspectives .......................................................................................................... 3
Current Perspectives ............................................................................................................. 4
Investment and Growth Challenges ....................................................................................... 5
HIV/AIDS ...................................................................................................................... 5
Debt................................................................................................................................ 6
U.S.-Africa Trade and Investment Trends .................................................................................... 6
U.S. Trade with Sub-Saharan Africa ...................................................................................... 6
U.S. Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa................................................................................ 10
AGOA: Legislation................................................................................................................... 11
Action in 111th Congress ..................................................................................................... 11
Current Provisions and Amendments................................................................................... 11
Beneficiary Countries and Trade Benefits...................................................................... 12
Textiles and Apparel...................................................................................................... 13
Developments Following Enactment of AGOA ............................................................. 13
Amendments to AGOA ................................................................................................. 14
Current Beneficiaries .................................................................................................... 15
AGOA Trade Trends ..................................................................................................... 16
United States-Sub-Saharan Africa Trade and Economic Cooperation Forum .................. 18
Technical Assistance and Capacity-Building.............................................................................. 19
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) ......................................................... 20
Assistant U.S. Trade Representative for Africa (AUSTRA) ................................................. 21
Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC)................................................................ 21
Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im)............................................................................................... 21
U.S. and Foreign Commercial Service (USFCS).................................................................. 22
Trade and Development Agency (TDA) .............................................................................. 23
Multilateral Initiatives ......................................................................................................... 23
Regional Cooperation and Free Trade Agreements .................................................................... 24
FTA Negotiations with the Southern African Customs Union FTA (SACU) ......................... 25
U.S. Trade and Investment Framework Agreements (TIFA)................................................. 26
U.S. Bilateral Investment Treaties (BIT).............................................................................. 26
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD).......................................................... 26
European Union Activity..................................................................................................... 27
AGOA: Current and Future Challenges ..................................................................................... 27
Figures
Figure 1. Africa ........................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2. U.S. Imports from Sub-Saharan Africa, 2008................................................................ 7
Figure 3. U.S. Exports to Sub-Saharan Africa, 2008 .................................................................... 8
Figure 4. U.S. Imports from Sub-Saharan Africa by Product Category, 2008................................ 9
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Figure 5. U.S. Exports to Sub-Saharan Africa by Product Category, 2008 .................................. 10
Tables
Table 1. U.S. Trade with Sub-Saharan Africa............................................................................... 6
Table 2. Country Status under AGOA........................................................................................ 16
Table 3. Leading U.S. Imports from Sub-Saharan Africa............................................................ 17
Table 4. Leading U.S. Imports from Sub-Saharan Africa Entering Under the AGOA
Preference.............................................................................................................................. 17
Appendixes
Appendix. Regional Economic Integration Among Sub-Saharan Africa Nations ........................ 29
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 30
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... 30
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U.S. Trade and Investment Relationship with Sub-Saharan Africa
Introduction
All of us share a common vision for the future of Africa. We look to the day when prosperity for
Africa is built through trade and markets.
—President George W. Bush to delegates at the African
Growth and Opportunity Forum in Mauritius,
January 15, 2003
As reflected in the above statement by President Bush, a key element in U.S. policy toward Africa
is the potential benefit from improved commerce between the two regions. This interest in
increasing bilateral commerce began after the end of the apartheid era in South Africa in the early
1990s. In 1993, Congress approved the end of anti-apartheid restrictions, and later that year
Commerce Secretary Ron Brown led a business delegation to South Africa.
With the end of apartheid, President Clinton instituted numerous measures to help the region and
increase U.S. trade and investment there. In 1994, he announced a $600 million aid and
investment package for South Africa. In 1997, he proposed the Partnership for Economic Growth
and Opportunity in Africa, which offered different levels of economic benefits to countries in sub-
Saharan Africa (SSA), depending on their economic reform measures.
At the same time, Congress was developing legislation that sought to improve U.S.-Africa trade
relations. In the 1994 legislation to implement the Uruguay Round multilateral trade agreements
(P.L. 103-465), Congress directed the Administration to develop and implement a comprehensive
trade and development policy for the countries of Africa. Disappointed with the Administration’s
first report under this provision, some Members developed legislation to authorize a new trade
and investment policy for sub-Saharan Africa. In May 2000, Congress approved such legislation
in the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA; Title I, P.L. 106-200). AGOA offers trade
preferences and other economic benefits to countries in SSA that meet certain criteria, including
progress towards a market economy, respect for the rule of law, and human and worker rights.
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Figure 1. Africa
Source: Map resources. Adapted by CRS (6/21/2004).
Both the executive and legislative branches continue to consider ways in which to improve trade
relations between the United States and SSA. In 2002, the Congress amended AGOA to further
increase market access for products from SSA.1 The Administration began free-trade negotiations
with the South African Customs Union (Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho, South Africa, and
Swaziland) in June 2003. In 2004 Congress passed legislation further amending AGOA,
extending its benefits beyond the original deadline and clarifying certain provisions. This
legislation also included directives to the President on investment initiatives and technical
assistance. Congress passed legislation in December 2006 which further amends AGOA, to
extend certain provisions concerning textile and apparel imports to 2012.2
This report presents perspectives on African economic trends and provides an overview of U.S.
trade and investment flows with SSA. It discusses the provisions of AGOA and the changes that
1 Section 3108 of the Trade Act of 2002, P.L. 107-210.
2 Section 6002 of the Tax Relief and Health Care Act of 2006, P.L. 109-432.
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have occurred since its enactment. It concludes with a brief discussion of issues of congressional
interest.
Perspectives on the Sub-Saharan African Economy
Historical Perspectives
The historical pattern of contemporary Africa’s economic growth provides insights to help
understand Africa’s current economic situation and policy options. Between 1960 and 1973,
which is the period immediately following independence in most African countries, economic
growth was reasonably strong in much of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The subsequent two
decades were, however, a period of stagnation or decline for most countries.3 The causes of
Africa’s slow and stagnant economic growth have been a source of debate among development
economists. Analysts have cited poor governance, political instability, geographic features, and
historical conditions such as colonialism as different reasons for Africa’s economic malaise.
Whatever the underlying cause, Africa’s slow growth and stagnation have been attributed to slow
accumulation of both human and physical capital, dependence on single commodity exports, low
productivity growth and pressures from high population growth rates.4
Most African countries experienced a sharp decline in their growth trends at some point between
1973 and 1980, followed by persistent stagnation until the early 1990s. Average SSA per-capita
GDP reached its minimum point in the mid 1990s, and still had not recovered to 1970s levels in
2005.5 High economic growth volatility is a common feature in SSA countries’ historical trends.
A recent World Bank study finds that SSA has experienced more growth volatility than other
regions, resulting in dampened investments and obscuring periods of good performance for some
countries. This volatility has been caused by conflict, poor governance, and fluctuating world
commodity prices. The authors of the study contend that reducing volatility is at least as
important as promoting growth.6 Recent data demonstrate that many African countries have made
a modest recovery since about 1994, but the growth rates for the remainder of the 1990s tended to
remain far below the first post-colonial phase.7 For the four decades as a whole, SSA’s average
per capita income growth of 0.9 % lagged behind that of other developing countries by 1.5% and
approximately 3% below that of the high-performing African economies (Botswana and
Mauritius).8
Individual African countries have shown widely divergent economic growth performance. A
recent study found that in a group of 36 African countries, 22 countries exhibited reasonably
3 A. Hoeffler, “The Augmented Solow Model and the African Growth Debate,” CSAE, University of Oxford, March
2000.
4 For a further discussion of African economic development, see CRS Report RL32489, Africa: Development Issues
and Policy Options, by Raymond W. Copson.
5 Jorge Saba Arbache and John Page, “Patterns of Long Term Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa.” World Bank, November
2007.
6 Jorge Saba Arbache and John Page, “More Growth or Fewer Collapses? A New Look at Long Run Growth in SSA.”
World Bank, October 2007.
7The Economist, May 13-19, 2000.
8 L. Pritchett, “Patterns of Economic Growth: Hills, Plateaus, Mountains, and Plains,” World Bank Paper, July 1998
(hereafter, Pritchett);http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/attackingpoverty/events/Turkey_0199/pritch.pdf.
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robust growth before the long period of stagnation. The remaining 14 either experienced sharp
growth fluctuations or showed persistent stagnation at growth rates below 1.5% throughout the
last three decades. In this study, the high growth rates achieved by Botswana and Mauritius stand
out.9
The consequence of the long period of stagnation for a large number of African economies,
combined with high population growth rates, is that little or no progress has been made in raising
the standards of living in these countries. Many African countries have experienced a decrease in
the standard of living.10 Between 1960 and 1994, out of 35 SSA countries for which comparable
data exist, 16 suffered at least 20% loss in income per capita measured in 1985 constant U.S.
dollars. Most of the losses were registered after 1975.11 In contrast to SSA, developed countries
have sustained a remarkably steady per capita growth of approximately 2% for about 100 years,
and some newly industrializing countries have maintained income growth rates above 3% for
nearly three decades, thus enabling them to gain significant ground on the industrialized
countries.12
Current Perspectives
According to the World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa’s resilient economic growth performance over
the past decade suggests that it may have achieved a milestone in its quest for sustained growth.
SSA’s economic performance from 1995 to 2005 “reverses the collapses in 1975-1985 and the
stagnations in 1985-1995.”13 Its growth has averaged 4.0% between 2000 and 2005, compared
with less than 1% during the early 1990s. In 2006, GDP expanded by 5.6 % in SSA, followed by
6.2 % in 2007, and 5.2 % in 2008. During that time period, analysts also considered the growth
trends as less volatile and more evenly distributed among African countries than in the past.
Twenty-two countries (out of a total 48 Sub-Saharan African countries) had average growth rates
of 4% or greater during the past five years, as compared with only four countries in the first half
of the 1990s. In 2006, half of the SSA countries experienced growth of 5% or more. This
improved economic performance may reflect many factors, including better governance,
increased trade flows, strong commodity prices, rising aid flows, and debt forgiveness.14
Although the global financial crisis did not initially hit Africa directly, the effects of the global
economic downturn are now beginning to be felt. IHS Global Insight projects that Sub-Saharan
Africa’s real GDP will grow only 0.2% in 2009, down from 5.2% in 2008. Real GDP growth in
the region is projected to grow by 2.2% in 2010, and 4.0% in 2011. In contrast, however, the
growth rate for the world in 2009 is forecasted to contract to a negative 2.4%, with modest
economic recovery expected in 2010 (1.7%) and 2011 (2.2%).15
9 Pritchett, p. 18.
10 W. Easterly, “Why Is Africa Marginal in the World Economy?,” In G. Maasdrop, ed., Can South and Southern
Africa Become Globally Competitive Economies? (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1996), pp. 19-30.
11 D. Rodrik, “Where Did All the Growth Go? External Shocks, Social Conflict and Growth Collapses,” mimeo,
London School of Economic and Political Science, August 1998.
12 Pritchett, p. 12.
13 The World Bank, Africa Development Indicators 2007, October 2007.
14 The World Bank, Global Development Finance, 2006 and 2007.
15 IHS Global Insight, World Overview Tables, Detailed Forecast Data, Second Quarter 2009.
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Foreign direct investment in the region has been strong in recent years. According to the
Economist Intelligence Unit, inward direct investment flows amounted to $12 billion in 2005,
$14 billion in 2006, $18 billion in 2007 and $20 billion in 2008.16 However, as the results of the
global economic downturn continue to be felt in Sub-Saharan Africa and other regions,
investment is expected to decline to $4 billion in 2009, and then increase once again to $6 million
in 2010, and $11 billion in 2011.17
Investment and Growth Challenges
Despite the region’s improved economic performance, the economic challenges facing Africa
remain enormous. African countries are vulnerable to volatile weather conditions, commodity
price fluctuations, poor road and other infrastructure conditions, and political events in parts of
the continent.
Much of Sub-Saharan Africa’s trade with the world is largely still reliant on primary product
exports, such as oil and other mineral fuels (68% of its exports to the world by value in 2008);
ores, slag and ash (about 14% by value); and precious stones (about 4% by value).18 As a result,
many Sub-Saharan African countries continue to be vulnerable―as do many developing
countries and regions―to the rise and fall of international commodity prices. Correspondingly,
the global slump in oil prices, combined with price declines and decreased demand for other
primary products due to the world economic downturn, have dealt a severe blow to the region.
HIV/AIDS19
The HIV/AIDS pandemic is also straining African economies and threatens to curtail future
economic growth. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in SSA was estimated at 6.1% in late 2005,
compared with 1.1% worldwide. By 2007, the incidence decreased to 5%, compared to 0.8%
worldwide.20 Nine countries in southern Africa had incidence rates of over 10 percent. Botswana,
long considered one of the region’s most successful economies, had an incidence rate of 25.9% as
of 2006. Only Swaziland had a higher HIV/AIDS incidence rate than Botswana in 2006, at
25.9%. The pandemic not only diverts resources from investments in productive resources and
social services to care for the sick and dying, but it also erodes human capital by striking some of
the most productive members of society: skilled workers, teachers, and professionals.21
16 Economist Intelligence Unit. EIU Market Indicators and Forecasts Database. Inward direct investment are the net
flows of direct investment capital by non-residents into the region.
17 Ibid.
18 Trade statistics are based on CRS calculations using the Global Trade Atlas Navigator database and the U.S.
International Trade Commission Trade Dataweb.
19 See CRS Report RL33584, AIDS in Africa, by Nicolas Cook.
20 Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS. AIDS Epidemic Update, December 2007.
21 See CRS Report RL33584, AIDS in Africa, by Nicolas Cook. Data from World Bank, African Development
Indicators 2007.
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Debt
The debt burden carried by SSA countries has been identified as a drag on the economies of the
region. At the end of 2007, the states of SSA owed foreign creditors a total of $195.1 billion.22
While SSA’s debt is comparable to other regions in terms of absolute amount, per capita share
($244 per head), or debt service as percentage of export earnings (5.0% in 2007), its debt burden
has been considered onerous because of its high ratio of debt to income.23 Africa’s total debt was
equal to 66% of its income in 2002. As of late 2007, Africa’s total debt stood at about 20% of its
income.24 Declines in SSA’s external debt were due to comprehensive debt relief initiatives
including the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPC), the Multilateral Debt Relief
Initiative (MDRI), and the Paris Club agreement with Nigeria.25
U.S.-Africa Trade and Investment Trends
U.S. Trade with Sub-Saharan Africa
The United States conducts a small share of its total trade with Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2008, the
United States exported $18 billion to Sub-Saharan Africa, or 1.6% of total U.S. global exports of
$1,070 billion. The United States imported $86.1 billion from the region, or 4.1% of its total
imports of $2,090 billion. Total trade (exports plus imports) between the United States and Sub-
Saharan Africa more than quadrupled between 1990 and 2007, from $17 billion to $81 billion.
However, U.S. trade with Sub-Saharan Africa as a share of total U.S. trade did not increase as
dramatically from 1990 to 2007, from 1.9 % in 1990 to 2.7% in 2007.
Table 1. U.S. Trade with Sub-Saharan Africa
Domestic Exports, FAS value; Imports for Consumption, Customs Value; Actual U.S. dollars
Trade Flow
2007
2008
Jan. – May 2008
Jan. –May 2009
U.S. Exports
13,860,275,557
18,007,646,662
6,482,230,963
5,852,442,459
U.S.
Imports
66,888,558,420 86,082,041,604 28,100,634,572 12,126,201,385
U.S. Total Trade
80,748,833,977 104,089,688,266 34,582,865,535 17,978,643,844
(Imports +
Exports)
Source: U.S. International Trade Commission Trade Dataweb, http://dataweb.usitc.gov.
Most U.S. trade with Sub-Saharan Africa is with a small number of countries. Seventy percent of
U.S. imports from the region were from three SSA countries in 2008: Nigeria (44%), Angola
(22%), and South Africa (12%). Exports were similarly concentrated, with three countries
22 International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, October 2007.
23 Ibid., and World Bank, World Development Indicators Online, October 16, 2006.
24 International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, October 2007.
25 United States Trade Representative, 2008 Comprehensive Report on U.S. Trade and Investment Policy Toward Sub-
Saharan Africa and Implementation of the African Growth and Opportunity Act, May 2008.
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receiving 68%: South Africa (34%), Nigeria (22%), and Angola (12%). The remaining countries
each accounted for less than 6% of U.S. exports to the region. (See Figure 3.)
Figure 2. U.S. Imports from Sub-Saharan Africa, 2008
Cote d`Ivoire
Gabon
All Other
Chad
Eq Guinea
Congo (ROC)
Nigeria
South Africa
Angola
Source: U.S. International Trade Commission Trade Dataweb, http://www.usitc.gov.
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Figure 3. U.S. Exports to Sub-Saharan Africa, 2008
All Other
Mozambique
Cote d`Ivoire
Namibia
South Africa
Gabon
Ethiopia
Kenya
Ghana
Benin
Angola
Nigeria
Source: U.S. International Trade Commission Trade Dataweb, http://dataweb.usitc.gov.
Natural resources dominate U.S. imports from Sub-Saharan Africa. Nearly all U.S. imports from
the region in 2008 were energy products (83 percent), which were almost exclusively petroleum,
or minerals and metals (see Figure 4). Nigeria was the largest African and fifth-largest overall oil
supplier to the United States. It supplied 53% of U.S. petroleum imports from the region, which
accounted for 8% of total global U.S. oil imports. Angola supplied another 26% of U.S.
petroleum from the region, and Congo(ROC) supplied 7%. Other petroleum exporters from the
region included Chad, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea, supplying between 3 and 5% of U.S. oil
imports from Africa. The most important U.S. mineral/metal imports from Africa were platinum,
followed by diamonds.
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Figure 4. U.S. Imports from Sub-Saharan Africa by Product Category, 2008
All Other
Iron and Steel
Vehicles
Precious Stones
and Metals
Mineral Fuels
Source: U.S. International Trade Commission Trade Dataweb, http://www.usitc.gov.
U.S. exports to Sub-Saharan Africa were more diverse. Machinery and parts was the leading
export sector in 2008 (22% of U.S. exports to the region), followed by transportation equipment
(17%), cereals (8%), mineral fuels (8%), aircraft and parts (7%), and electrical machinery (6%)
(see Figure 5).
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Figure 5. U.S. Exports to Sub-Saharan Africa by Product Category, 2008
Machinery and
All Other
parts
Chemicals
Fats and Oils
Iron and Steel
Plastics
Optical and
Photographic
Vehicles
Special
Provisions
Electrical
Machinery
Cereals
Aircraft and Parts
Mineral Fuels and
Oils
Source: U.S. International Trade Commission Trade Dataweb, http://www.usitc.gov.
In terms of Sub-Saharan Africa’s trade with the world, the European Union was SSA’s largest
export trading partner in 2008 ($99 billion), followed by the United States ($85.7 billion), China
($43.6 billion), India ($19.3 billion), Japan ($13.5 billion), and Brazil ($10.3 billion). The
European Union was also Sub-Saharan Africa’s leading import trading partner ($85.3 billion),
followed by China ($34.5 billion), the United States ($18.2 billion), India ($11.9 billion), South
Korea ($9.3 billion), and Japan ($9.3 billion).26
U.S. Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa
Similar to trade, U.S. investment in Sub-Saharan Africa represents a very small percentage of
worldwide total U.S. investment. At year-end 2008, total U.S. direct investment in Sub-Saharan
Africa was $36.6 billion, or about 1% of the $3,162 billion in total U.S. direct investment
abroad.27 U.S. capital outflows to Africa (including North Africa) increased steadily from $20.4
billion in 2004, to $22.8 billion in 2005, to $28.2 billion in 2006, to $32.6 billion in 2007, and
$36.6 billion in 2008. 28 U.S. investment in Africa is heavily toward natural resources: In 2008,
26 Global Trade Atlas Database.
27 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, International Economic Accounts,
http://www.bea.gov/international/di1usdbal.htm.
28 Ibid.
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77% of total U.S. investment in Africa (including Egypt) was in the mining sector (includes
petroleum extraction), compared to 18% in holding companies, 10% in other manufacturing, 3%
in primary and fabricated metals, and 3% in wholesale trade. About 9% of total U.S. investment
in the mining sector worldwide is in Africa.29
In 2008, South Africa led the SSA region in U.S. investment flows to Africa, with 13.4% (of the
total $36.6 billion invested in Africa in 2008), followed by Nigeria (9.26%), Equatorial Guinea
(8.1%), Mauritius, (6.6%), and Angola (5.8%).30
AGOA: Legislation
Action in 111th Congress
Some in Congress have proposed reforming trade preference programs such as the Generalized
System of Preferences (GSP) and the Andean Trade and Partnership Act (ATPA), both of which
expire by the end of 2009. In particular, a group of business and NGO groups have proposed
providing duty-free, quota-free (DFQF) U.S. market access to all least-developed countries
(LDCs).31 Congressman Jim McDermott is reportedly planning to introduce a bill in the 111th
Congress seeking to reform these programs in a way that would grant DFQF access to designated
LDCs and Sub-Saharan African countries, similar to legislation (H.R. 3905 of the 110th Congress)
that he introduced in the previous Congress.32 S. 1141 (Feinstein), the TRADE Act of 2009, seeks
to create a trade preference program for designated least-developed countries, including
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Cambodia, in a similar model to AGOA, and with similar trade
benefits.
Many Sub-Saharan African countries have expressed concern that an such an approach to trade
preference reform could place them in direct competition for U.S. market share with countries
like Bangladesh and Cambodia, thus diluting the value of the preferential treatment that they
currently receive through the AGOA preference. Some African business interests are also
reportedly working to limit the textile and apparel benefit provisions in a bill that would designate
Reconstruction Opportunity Zones in Afghanistan and Pakistan on the basis that the proposed
benefits would harm the exports of SSA countries and set a bad precedent for legislation to
reform existing preference programs.33
Current Provisions and Amendments
In May 2000, Congress approved legislation, the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA;
Title I, Trade and Development Act of 2000; P.L. 106-200), to assist the economies of Sub-
29 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, “U.S. Direct Investment Abroad: Capital Outflows
Without Current Cost Adjustment, 2008,” International Economic Accounts, http://www.bea.gov.
30 Ibid.
31 Alliance to End Hunger, et al. Letter to House Ways and Means and Senate Finance Chairs and Ranking Members,
April 22, 2009
32 “Levin Says Committee to Tackle Preference Reform After August Recess,” Inside U.S. Trade, July 21, 2009.
33 “ROZ Bill Stalls in Senate, Finance Committee Action Likely to Slip to Fall,” Inside U.S. Trade, July 17, 2009.
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Saharan Africa and to improve economic relations between the United States and the region. This
section examines the major provisions of AGOA, related legislative initiatives, and other
developments since enactment.
Beneficiary Countries and Trade Benefits
Subtitle A of AGOA authorized the President to designate Sub-Saharan African countries as
beneficiary countries eligible to receive duty-free treatment for certain articles that are the
growth, product, or manufacture of that country. It directed that in designating a beneficiary
country, the President must determine that the country (1) has established, or is making continual
progress toward establishing a market-based economy and is taking other designated actions; (2)
does not engage in activities that undermine U.S. national security and foreign policy interests;
and (3) does not engage in gross violations of internationally recognized human rights or provide
support for international terrorism.
Subtitle B of AGOA describes trade-related benefits that are available to AGOA-eligible
countries. Among these benefits is preferential duty-free treatment for certain articles under the
U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP). The GSP program is a unilateral trade preference
regime that allows certain products from designated developing countries to enter the United
States duty-free. Certain categories of articles (see box) are identified in statute as ineligible for
this duty-free treatment, because they are “import sensitive.” AGOA provides that the President
can grant GSP duty-free treatment to all of these articles except one category (see box, textiles
and apparel). First, however, after receiving advice from the International Trade Commission, the
President must determine that an article is not import-sensitive in the context of imports from
AGOA beneficiaries. These additional articles qualifying for GSP duty-free treatment have to be
the growth, product, or manufacture of an AGOA beneficiary country, and they must meet the
GSP rules of origin as amended under AGOA. AGOA beneficiaries are exempt from certain limits
under the GSP program on allowable duty-free imports (“competitive need limitation”).34
“Import-sensitive” articles that are ineligible for preferences under GSP:
1. Textile and apparel articles which were not eligible articles for purposes of this subchapter on January 1, 1994, as
this subchapter was in effect on such date.
2. Watches, except those watches entered after June 30, 1989, that the President specifical y determines, after public
notice and comment, will not cause material injury to watch or watch band, strap, or bracelet manufacturing and
assembly operations in the United States or the United States insular possessions.
3. Import-sensitive electronic articles.
4. Footwear, handbags, luggage, flat goods, work gloves, and leather wearing apparel which were not eligible articles
for purposes of this subchapter on January 1, 1995, as this subchapter was in effect on such date.
5. Import-sensitive semi-manufactured and manufactured glass products.
6. Any other articles which the President determines to be import-sensitive in the context of the Generalized System
of Preferences.
34 See CRS Report RL33663, Generalized System of Preferences: Background and Renewal Debate, by Vivian C.
Jones.
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Textiles and Apparel
AGOA also allows duty-free and quota-free treatment for textiles and apparel under any of the
following conditions:
• Apparel must be assembled in one or more AGOA beneficiary countries from
U.S. fabric that was made from U.S. yarns and cut in the United States;
• Apparel must be assembled in one or more AGOA beneficiary countries from
U.S. fabric that was made from U.S. yarns. The apparel must be cut in an AGOA
country and assembled using U.S. thread; or
• Apparel must be assembled in one or more AGOA beneficiary countries from
fabric made in one or more AGOA beneficiary countries from yarn made in the
United States or an AGOA beneficiary country. These imports were limited under
AGOA to 1.5% of all U.S. imports (in aggregate square meter equivalents) in
FY2001, increasing to 3.5% over eight years. (This limit was later amended; see
“Amendments to AGOA” below.)
• For an apparel product of a less developed AGOA beneficiary country (defined as
having a per capita gross national product less than $1,500 in 1998 as measured
by the World Bank), that product qualifies for duty-free and quota-free treatment
through September 30, 2004 (this deadline was later extended to 2007 and then
2012; see “Amendments to AGOA” below), regardless of the country of origin of
the fabric. The square meter equivalents cap on products under this category is
3.5% of all U.S. imports.
To receive the duty-free and quota-free treatment for textile and apparel products as described
above, beneficiary countries must adopt an efficient visa system to prevent unlawful
transshipment. They also must work with the U.S. Customs Service to report exports and prevent
illegal trade. AGOA provided that the Secretary of Commerce must monitor for surges in imports,
with the possible withdrawal of duty-free treatment if imports surge beyond a certain level.
Developments Following Enactment of AGOA
AGOA was enacted on May 18, 2000. On October 2, 2000, President Clinton recognized the first
AGOA beneficiary countries. He identified 34 out of the 48 Sub-Saharan African countries as
eligible for AGOA benefits. On December 21, 2000, he granted GSP duty-free treatment to more
than 1,800 items from AGOA-eligible countries. These items were selected after public review,
advice from the International Trade Commission, and interagency review and recommendation.
(These 1,800 items are in addition to about 4,600 items already duty-free under GSP.)
During 2001, the Administration declared that 12 AGOA countries had met the additional
requirements for duty-free and quota-free treatment for apparel and textiles. Ten of the 12
countries qualified for the provisions for less-developed countries (LDCs) (see the fourth bullet
on the preceding page). Early in 2001, in response to interim regulations that the U.S. Customs
Service had issued in October 2000 (65 Fed. Reg. 59,668), some legislators protested that the
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interim regulations denied duty-free benefits for knit-to-shape articles, contrary to what they said
was the intent of the act.35
AGOA requires that the President monitor and report annually on the progress of each country in
meeting the terms for AGOA eligibility. Under this requirement, President Bush has made, at the
end of each year, annual designations of the countries eligible for AGOA benefits for the
following year. The last such designation was in June 2007, when President Bush designated
Mauritania as eligible for AGOA benefits.
Amendments to AGOA
Congress passed legislation to amend AGOA four times since its initial passage. In 2002,
Congress amended AGOA for the first time through the Trade Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-210). An
important change pertained to the cap that AGOA had set on imports of apparel assembled in an
AGOA country from fabric made in an AGOA country (see the third bullet under Textiles and
Apparel above). The Trade Act of 2002 doubled this cap, increasing it to 7% in FY2008. The act,
however, left the cap unchanged at 3.5% under the special rule for lesser-developed countries.
The act also allowed Namibia and Botswana to qualify for the special rule for lesser-developed
countries, even though their per capita incomes exceed the limit set under AGOA.
The Trade Act of 2002 specifically extended AGOA benefits to knit-to-shape articles and to
garments cut in both the United States and an AGOA beneficiary country (“hybrid cutting”). It
also made a correction to extend AGOA benefits to merino wool sweaters knit in AGOA
beneficiary countries.
The Trade Act included other related provisions. It stated that U.S. workers could be found
eligible for trade adjustment assistance, if U.S. production shifted to an AGOA beneficiary
country and other conditions were met.36 It authorized $9.5 million to the Customs Service for
textile transshipment enforcement, and specified that two permanent positions be assigned to
South Africa for AGOA enforcement and additional travel funds be allocated for verification in
Sub-Saharan Africa. It also required that $1.317 million of the Customs Service budget be spent
on programs to help Sub-Saharan African countries develop visa and anti-transshipment systems.
In July 2004, Congress amended AGOA further through the AGOA Acceleration Act of 2004
(P.L. 108-274). This legislation extended the deadline for AGOA benefits to 2015, and it also
extended the special rule for LDCs from September 2004 to September 2007. It further stipulated
that the cap on the volume of allowable U.S. apparel imports under this rule would be decreased
starting in the year beginning September 2004, with a major reduction in the year beginning
October 2006 (from 2.9% to 1.6%). The rationale behind this change was to encourage fabric
production and vertical integration of the apparel industry in Africa. For apparel imports meeting
the yarn forward rules of origin, the cap is to remain at 7% until the expiration of the benefits in
2015. The legislation also clarified certain apparel rules of origin to reflect the intent of Congress.
35 On March 6, 2001, the Chairman and Ranking Member of the House Ways and Means Committee and 8 other
Members from both parties wrote to the Secretary of the Treasury saying that the U.S. Customs Service interpretation
of benefits for knit-to-shape articles was “wrong.” See, Text: Ways and Means AGOA Letter to O’Neill, Inside U.S.
Trade, March 9, 2001.
36 For more information, see CRS Report RS22718, Trade Adjustment Assistance for Workers (TAA) and
Reemployment Trade Adjustment Assistance (RTAA), by John J. Topoleski.
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Apparel articles containing fabric from both the United States and AGOA beneficiary countries
were specifically allowed, as were otherwise eligible apparel articles containing cuffs, collars, and
other similar components that did not meet the strict rules of origin. There was also clarification
that ethnic printed fabric would qualify for duty-free treatment, as long as the fabric met certain
standards regarding its size, form, and design characteristics. In addition, apparel articles
containing fabrics and yarns recognized in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
as being in short supply in the United States were declared as eligible for duty-free treatment,
regardless of the source of such fabric and yarns. The legislation also increased the maximum
allowable content of non-regional or non-U.S. fibers or yarns in AGOA eligible apparel imports,
otherwise known as the de minimis rule, from 7% to 10%.
The AGOA Acceleration Act included a number of directives for the President. One such
directive was to provide agricultural technical assistance by assigning U.S. personnel to at least
10 AGOA beneficiary countries, to help exporters meet U.S. technical standards for agricultural
imports. Another directed the President to develop policies to encourage investment in agriculture
and agricultural processing, as well as investment in infrastructure projects aimed at improving
transportation and communication links both within Africa and between Africa and the United
States. There was also a directive to foster improved relationships between African and U.S.
customs and transportation authorities. An additional directive was to encourage technical
assistance and infrastructure projects to assist in the development of the ecotourism industry in
Sub-Saharan Africa. Finally, another directed the President to conduct a study on each beneficiary
country, identifying potential sectors for growth, barriers to such growth, and how U.S. technical
assistance can assist each country in overcoming these barriers.
In December 2004, the Miscellaneous Trade and Technical Corrections Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-
429) was passed, which contained a technical correction to the AGOA Acceleration Act. The
legislation also allowed Mauritius to qualify for the special rule for LDCs for the one year
beginning October 1, 2004, with a cap of 5% of total eligible imports under this rule.
Congress passed the Africa Investment Incentive Act of 2006 in December 2006 (Title VI of P.L.
109-432). This act extends the special rule for LDCs which allows textiles and apparel quota- and
duty-free access to the U.S. market regardless of the source of materials used, as long as assembly
takes place within an AGOA-eligible LDC. The special rule for LDCs would have expired in
2007, but this act extends it to 2012 and increases the cap on square meter equivalents under this
rule back to the initial level of 3.5%. This act also contains an “abundant supply” provision
stipulating that if a certain fabric is determined by the U.S. International Trade Commission to be
available in commercial quantities in AGOA beneficiary countries, then the special rule will no
longer apply to apparel and textiles containing that particular fabric.
Current Beneficiaries
At present, 40 Sub-Saharan African countries are designated as AGOA-eligible. Of those
countries, 26 have met the additional requirements to receive duty-free treatment for their textile
and apparel products, and of those, 25 qualify for the special rule for lesser-developed countries
(all but South Africa). See Table 2 for a list of Sub-Saharan African countries and their status
under AGOA.
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Table 2. Country Status under AGOA
(as of January 1, 2009)
Status Countries
Not Designated as
Central African Republic; Côte d’Ivoire; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Mauritania; Somalia; Sudan;
Eligible
Zimbabwe.
(8 countries)
AGOA Eligible Only;
Angola; Burundi; Comoros; Republic of the Congo; Democratic Republic of the Congo;
Not
Djibouti; Gabon; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Liberia; Sao Tome and Principe; Seychelles; Togo.
Eligible under
Apparel
Provision (13
countries)
AGOA Eligible,
South Africa
Eligible
for Apparel Provision,
Special Rule Does
Not Apply (1
country)
AGOA Eligible,
Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Cameroon; Cape Verde; Chad; Ethiopia; The Gambia; Ghana;
Eligible
Kenya; Lesotho; Madagascar; Malawi; Mali; Mauritius; Mozambique; Namibia; Niger; Nigeria;
under Apparel
Rwanda; Senegal; Sierra Leone; Swaziland; Tanzania; Uganda; Zambia
Provision,
and Special Rule
Applies (26
countries)
Source: AGOA website maintained by the U.S. Department of Commerce and USTR at http://www.agoa.gov.
AGOA Trade Trends
In 2007, over 98% of U.S. imports from AGOA-eligible countries entered the United States duty-
free, either under the AGOA preference or under most-favored-nation (MFN) tariff rates.37
The value of U.S. total trade with Sub-Saharan Africa increased by about 29% between 2007 and
2008. After at least three years of continuous growth, however, the value of Sub-Saharan Africa’s
exports to the United States decreased in value by about 57% in the first five months of 2009, in
comparison to the same time period in 2008. The value of U.S. exports to the SSA region in 2008
increased by about 29%, from $13.9 billion in 2007, to $18 billion in 2008. In the first six months
of 2009, U.S. exports in value terms decreased about 9%, from $6.5 billion in 2008 to $5.9 billion
in 2009.
In 2008, oil and mineral fuels accounted for about 83% of all U.S. imports from Sub-Saharan
Africa, and 94% of all U.S. imports under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA).38
U.S. petroleum imports from SSA in the first part of 2009 in volume terms did not decrease as
37 United States Trade Representative. 2008 Comprehensive Report on U.S. Trade and Investment Policy Toward Sub-
Saharan Africa and Implementation of the African Growth and Opportunity Act, May 2008. (Hereinafter 2008 USTR
SSA Report).
38 CRS calculations based on data from the U.S. International Trade Commission Trade Dataweb,
http://dataweb.usitc.gov.
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dramatically as they did by value. For example, U.S. imports to the United States in Harmonized
Tariff Schedule (HTS) subheading 2709.00.20 (petroleum oils testing 25 degrees API or more)
decreased only 23% by volume, and imports in HTS subheading 2709.00.10 (petroleum oils
testing under 25 degrees API) actually increased by almost 9% in volume terms. Since these are
the top two products that the United States imports from the region, the rapid decline of the value
of U.S. imports can be primarily attributed to the decline in oil prices in the latter part of 2008
and the first part of 2009. However, decreases in U.S. and global consumption are likely to
continue to have a negative effect on most exports from the region.39
Table 3. Leading U.S. Imports from Sub-Saharan Africa
U.S. Imports for Consumption, Customs Value, Actual U.S. dollars
HTS Description
2007
2008
Jan. – May 2008
Jan – May 2009
27090020 – Petroleum
48,117,120,550 63,444,494,090 27,244,208,997 10,183,251,411
oils, crude, testing 25
degrees A.P.I. or more
27090010 – Petroleum
2,762,071,085 3,877,336,897 1,592,600,433 781,003,768
oils, crude, testing under
25 degrees A.P.I.
87032300 - Motor cars
438,676,528 1,572,007,113 657,522,081 582,536,191
and other motor vehicles
for transport of persons
27101905 – Distillate and
1,186,106,069 1,864,277,592 773,352,542 342,159,600
residual fuel oil (including
blends)
18010000 – Cocoa
409,282,750 589,312,128 375,425,656 290,948,344
beans, whole or broken,
raw or roasted
71023900 –
779,358,051
862,430,835
331,473,838 255,816,093
Nonindustrial diamonds,
worked, but not
mounted or set
71101100 – Platinum,
1,721,839,898 1,284346,223 666,834,629 179,522,029
unwrought or in powder
form
26121000 – Uranium
147,540,085 245,142,014 58,548,065 162,603.125
ores and concentrates
Source: U.S. International Trade Commission Trade Dataweb, http://dataweb.usitc.gov
Notes: Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) descriptions have been abbreviated where necessary to conform to
table constraints.
Table 4. Leading U.S. Imports from Sub-Saharan Africa Entering Under the AGOA
Preference
Imports for Consumption, Customs Value, actual U.S. dollars
HTS Description
2007
2008
Jan – May 2008
Jan.-May 2009
27090020 – Petroleum
37,116,787,647 48,518,019,968 21,258,903,991 6,914,286,748
oils, crude, testing 25
degrees A.P.I. or more
39 Economist Intelligence Unit, various Country reports, May-July 2009.
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HTS Description
2007
2008
Jan – May 2008
Jan.-May 2009
27090010 – Petroleum
1,771,945,820 2,731,811,660
1,030,626,728 556,518,320
oils, crude, testing
under 25 degrees A.P.I
87032300 - Motor
438,489,364 1,553,389,022
638,931,711 582,536,191
cars and other motor
vehicles for transport
of persons not over
3000cc
27101905 – Distillate
665,351,614 750,982,539 299,138,420 72,710,776
and residual fuel oil
27101125 – Napthas
492,842,636 658,853,842 279,721,906 67,140,715
from petroleum oils
and bituminous
materials
72021150 –
149,736,133 367,406,195 143,855,956 42,954,182
Ferromangananese
containing by weight
more than 4% of
carbon
62046240 – Women’s
254,489,796 256,791,659 84,983,387 80,309,074
or girls’ trousers,
breeches, and shorts,
not knitted or
crocheted, of cotton
87032400 Motorcars
192,956 256,791,659
63,780,594 17,556,675
and other motor
vehicles for transport
of persons, over
3000cc
61103030 – Sweaters
225,374,660 161,602,238 55,397,756 37,847,579
and pullovers, knitted
or crocheted
Source: U.S. International Trade Commission Trade Dataweb, http://dataweb.usitc.gov.
Notes: Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) descriptions have been abbreviated where necessary to conform to
table constraints.
United States-Sub-Saharan Africa Trade and Economic Cooperation Forum
Under AGOA, the President was required to establish within a year of enactment, after
consultation with Congress and the other governments concerned, a United States- Sub-Saharan
Africa Trade and Economic Cooperation Forum (hereinafter referred to as the Forum). The act
stated that the President was to direct certain top officials to host the first Forum meeting with
their counterparts from AGOA-eligible countries and countries attempting to meet AGOA
eligibility requirements.40 The purpose of the Forum is to “discuss expanding trade and
40 Representatives from appropriate Sub-Saharan African regional organizations and government officials from other
appropriate countries in Sub-Saharan Africa also could be invited.
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investment relations between the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa and the implementation
of [AGOA] including encouraging joint ventures between small and large businesses.”
AGOA also required the President to encourage non-governmental organizations and the private
sector to hold similar annual meetings, and it required the President to instruct U.S. delegates to
the Forum to promote a review of HIV/AIDS in each Sub-Saharan African country and the effect
on economic development. It required the President to meet, to the extent practicable, with heads
of governments of Sub-Saharan African countries at least every two years to discuss expanding
trade and investment relations, and the first such meeting should be within one year of enactment.
AGOA was enacted May 18, 2000, and almost a year later, on May 16, 2001, President Bush
established the Forum and announced plans for its first meeting in Washington in October 2001.
The first Forum was held October 29-30, 2001, in Washington, DC. President Bush addressed the
Forum and announced several initiatives: (1) a $200 million Overseas Private Investment
Corporation (OPIC) support facility to give U.S. firms access to loans, guarantees, and political
risk insurance for investment projects; (2) a regional office of the Trade and Development Agency
(TDA) in Johannesburg to help attract new investment; and (3) the Trade for African
Development and Enterprise Program, initially funded at $15 million, to establish regional hubs
to help African businesses in the global market. (These initiatives were implemented; see later
sections.)
The second Forum was held January 13-17, 2003, in Port Louis, Mauritius. In a videotaped
message, President Bush announced that he would ask Congress to extend AGOA beyond its
2008 deadline. He also outlined other U.S. support for Africa, including assignment of U.S.
agricultural officials to the regional business hubs established after the first Forum; a FY2004
budget request for a 50% increase in development assistance; and an additional $200 million over
five years for education and teacher training to the region.
The third Forum was held December 9-10, 2003, in Washington, DC. The fourth Forum took
place in Dakar, Senegal, from July 18-20, 2005. President Bush addressed the fourth Forum
through videotaped remarks, and he announced the African Global Competitiveness Initiative,
which was to provide $200 million over the next five years to improve the competitiveness of
African countries and build their capacity to trade. The fifth Forum was held June 6-7, 2006, in
Washington, DC. The sixth Forum was held in Accra, Ghana, July 18-19, 2007. For the first time,
the sixth Forum combined all three sectors (government, private, and civil society) into one
meeting. The seventh AGOA Forum was held in Washington, DC, on July 14-16, 2008, and
focused on creating a business climate that will encourage private investment and help mobilize
capital to finance investment.
The eighth AGOA Forum, to be held in Nairobi, Kenya, is scheduled for August 4-6, 2009.
Technical Assistance and Capacity Building
AGOA legislation also directed the President to target U.S. government technical assistance and
trade capacity building in AGOA beneficiary countries (Sec. 122). This mandate includes
assistance to both government and non-governmental actors. The act directs the President to
target technical assistance to governments—(1) to liberalize trade and exports; (2) to harmonize
laws and regulations with WTO membership; (3) to engage in financial and fiscal restructuring;
and (4) to promote greater agribusiness linkages. The act also includes assistance for developing
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private sector business associations and networks among U.S. and Sub-Saharan African
enterprises. Technical assistance is also to be targeted to increasing the number of reverse trade
missions, increasing trade in services, addressing critical agricultural policy issues, and building
capabilities of African states to participate in the World Trade Organization, generally, and
particularly in services. In FY2007 (latest available data), the United States reported obligating
approximately $505 million in trade capacity building (TCB) assistance to Sub-Saharan Africa,
up from $401 million in 2006. Cumulative U.S. TCB from FY2001 to FY2007 amounted to
almost $1.6 billion.41 The Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) accounted for about $376
million (74 percent) of FY2007 TCB assistance for SSA.42
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)
AGOA’s mandate to encourage trade-related technical assistance is primarily implemented by
USAID through the African Global Competitiveness Initiative (AGCI), a Presidential Initiative
which supplanted the Trade for African Development and Enterprise (TRADE) initiative in 2006.
The TRADE initiative had supplanted the Africa Trade and Investment Policy Program (ATRIP),
which operated from 1998 to 2003. These initiatives are generally used to focus activities around
a common goal, but there are AGOA-related activities that are funded by other initiatives within
USAID.
USAID funds various technical assistance programs throughout Africa aimed at improving trade
within the region and between the region and the United States. USAID supports regional efforts
through its regional missions and the four Regional Hubs for Global Competitiveness (Trade
Hubs), located in Ghana, Senegal, Kenya, and Botswana. USAID bilateral missions support
projects in individual African countries. The missions and hubs work on improving trade policy
both regionally and within country governments. They also have programs to improve trade
infrastructure, such as in transportation and energy, and they have enterprise development
programs which often target specific industries, such as handicrafts and shea butter.
As mentioned above, AGOA encourages the establishment of private sector linkages between
U.S. and SSA businesses. To this end, USAID funds an international business linkage program,
South African International Business Linkages (SAIBL), which is implemented by the Corporate
Council on Africa. SAIBL assists black-owned South African companies to prepare business
plans, achieve International Standards Organization (ISO) certification, participate in U.S.-led
trade delegations, attend trade shows in the United States, and identify public and private sector
export financing. It also assists U.S. firms by identifying trade and investment opportunities in
South Africa, by steering U.S. firms to appropriate government and private sector contacts, and
by identifying sources of financing. USAID used to fund a similar linkage program for West
Africa, the West African International Business Linkages (WAIBL), but it no longer funds this
program. The regional trade hubs implement many of the same types of activities as SAIBL,
except that they focus more on promoting trade in general and not just exports to the United
States.
412008 USTR SSA Report, p. 43
42 Ibid.
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Assistant U.S. Trade Representative for Africa (AUSTRA)
Sec. 117 of AGOA supported the creation of this position to serve as the “primary point of contact
in the executive branch for those persons engaged in trade between the United States and Sub-
Saharan Africa,” and the chief adviser to the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) on trade and
investment issues pertaining to Africa. This position previously had been established by President
Clinton in 1998. One primary function of AUSTRA is to make the yearly determinations as to
which countries are eligible for AGOA benefits generally, and also its special textile and apparel
benefits. The AUSTRA also sponsors projects for WTO training for SSA trade negotiators,
provides support for the Trade Advisory Committee on Africa, and maintains the
http://www.agoa.gov website. The AUSTRA produced the AGOA Competitiveness Report, which
was submitted to Congress on July 13, 2005. Mandated by the AGOA Acceleration Act of 2004,
this report provides an analysis of potential economic growth sectors in Africa, barriers to growth
in those sectors, and recommendations for U.S. technical assistance to assist in overcoming those
barriers.43
Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC)
Since the enactment of AGOA, Sub-Saharan Africa has been one of OPIC’s stated priorities. At
the end of 2005, 15% of OPIC’s total portfolio was in the region. As of May 2008, OPIC’s
exposure in the region was more than $2 billion.44 In FY2006, OPIC supported 14 projects in
SSA, or 20% of the year’s 70 projects in total. OPIC has focused on projects to strengthen the
region’s basic financial infrastructure and housing sectors.45
OPIC works in Africa and globally through three basic products including political risk insurance,
finance (loan guarantees and direct loans), and investment funds. In 2005, OPIC provided $250
million in financing to establish two private equity investment funds in Africa. The first of these
new funds is managed by Emerging Markets Partnership (EMP), and it targets infrastructure
investments and related industries in Africa. The second fund, Ethos Fund V, aims to promote the
expansion of medium-sized enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa, emphasizing South Africa and the
manufacturing and services sectors. These funds are in addition to three funds currently supported
by OPIC, which are the $20 million Africa Growth Fund, the $110 million Modern Africa Growth
and Investment Fund, and the ZM Africa Investment Fund. As initially planned, all three of these
latter funds are currently divesting their assets.
Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im)
AGOA expressed the sense of Congress that the Ex-Im Bank should continue to expand its
financial commitments to its loan guarantee and insurance programs to African countries. The
legislation also commended the Bank’s Sub-Saharan Africa Advisory Committee for its work in
fostering economic cooperation between the United States and SSA. This committee was
43 See AGOA Competitiveness Report, http://www.ustr.gov/assets/Document_Library/Reports_Publications/2005/
asset_upload_file604_7857.pdf.
44 2008 USTR SSA Report, p. 70.
45 Report of the Overseas Private Investment Corporation on the Host Country Development and U.S. Economic
Effects of OPIC-Assisted Projects, Fiscal Year 2006. Submitted pursuant to Section 240A of the Foreign Assistance
Act of 1961, as amended, March 2007.
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reauthorized to September 30, 2011 (P.L. 109-438).46 The 2006 legislation reauthorizing the Bank
reaffirmed the SSA mandate, and also required the Bank to report annually on its efforts to
improve its working relationship with the African Development Bank and other African
institutions.47
The Ex-Im Bank does not finance imports into the United States. However, it does provide loans
and guarantees for U.S. exports to the region, some of which can be used to manufacture goods
eligible for import to the United States under AGOA. This financing can cover manufacturing
equipment, the purchase of U.S. fabric, yarn, and thread necessary for eligibility under AGOA
textile provisions, or other raw materials or components used for manufacturing. Ex-Im operates
in all 48 SSA countries, although Bank activity and eligibility for specific programs vary
according to risk factors. In FY2007, Ex-Im Bank authorized 127 transactions totaling about $424
million in 18 SSA countries. According to its estimates, Ex-Im Bank covered approximately 3.1%
of the total $14.1 billion of U.S. exports to SSA. By contrast, Ex-Im typically covers about 1% of
U.S. exports worldwide.48 In FY2006, Africa accounted for about 2.8% of the total authorizations
of the Bank. At the end of the fiscal year, Ex-Im Bank’s exposure in SSA was about $2.5 billion,
or 4.3% of its total global exposure.49 By contrast in FY2002, Africa accounted for 2.3% of the
loan guarantees and 5% of the medium-term insurance instruments supported by the Bank with a
total exposure of $3.2 billion.50
In order to increase its lending activities in Africa, the Bank began its Africa Pilot Program
(STIPP) in 1999 to provide short-term export credit to Sub-Saharan African countries, many of
whom are not eligible for other Ex-Im financial instruments. This program was initially funded at
$100 million. Ex-Im also announced in 2000 a pilot program to provide export credits to African
countries to purchase U.S. HIV/AIDS medicines.51 This program allows countries to extend
payment of these pharmaceutical purchases to five years from standard repayment terms of six
months. These export credits have covered two contracts valued at $15 million for medicines and
HIV detection equipment to Nigeria and Togo.52 In addition, the Bank reported that as a result of
Paris Club sovereign debt restructuring negotiations, it had entered into agreements to restructure
or to forgive public sector debt obligations totaling $92 million with eight Sub-Saharan African
nations in FY2002. These agreements wrote off all of the Bank’s public sector debt exposure in
Mozambique, Tanzania, and Uganda.53
U.S. and Foreign Commercial Service (USFCS)
In Sec. 125 of AGOA, Congress found that USFCS presence in SSA had been reduced since the
1980s and that the level of staffing in 1997 (seven officers in four countries) did not “adequately
service the needs of U.S. businesses attempting to do business in Sub-Saharan Africa.”54
46 Export-Import Bank Reauthorization Act, 12 U.S.C. 635(b)(9)(B)(iii).
47 CRS Report RL33440, Export-Import Bank: Reauthorization, by James K. Jackson.
48 Ex-Im Bank Africa Update, January 2008.
49 Ex-Im Bank, 2006 Annual Report.
50 Ex-Im Bank, 2002 Annual Report.
51 See “Short-Term Africa Pilot Program,” http://www.exim.gov/africa-i/afr02fac.html.
52 Conversation with Export-Import Bank Official, February 6, 2003.
53 Ex-Im, 2002 Annual Report, p. 39.
54 AGOA, Sec. 125(a)(4).
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Accordingly, the legislation required the posting of at least 20 USFCS officers in not less than 10
countries in SSA by December 31, 2001 “subject to the availability of appropriations.”55 USFCS
was instructed by Congress to open offices in Ghana and Senegal, with the stipulation that
additional funds would be added to its overall budget. According to a USFCS official, these
additional funds never materialized. Presently, USFCS has nine officers in six SSA countries:
Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and South Africa.
Commercial Service officers seek to facilitate the development of markets for U.S. exporters in
the countries where they are stationed. Officers assisting U.S. exporters provide evaluations of
potential business partners in the country, facilitate U.S. business contacts with local firms,
identify potential local distributors or agents of U.S. exports, provide local financing options, and
arrange partner background checks. Commercial Service officers also prepare the Country
Commercial Guides which chronicle the business environment of the country.
Sec. 125(c) of the legislation directs the International Trade Administration (ITA) to develop an
initiative (a) to identify the best U.S. export prospects to the region; (b) to identify tariff and non-
tariff barriers that impede U.S. exports to Africa; and (c) undertake discussions with African
states to increase market access for these goods and services. This activity is being carried out by
the ITA in its Market Access and Compliance Unit (MAC). The Unit states that U.S. firms face
entrenched tariff and other trade barriers in many African countries, and that its current staff of
nine staffers is not adequate to cover the SSA region. In FY2003, MAC was given budget
authority to add four analysts and negotiators to address these issues.56
Trade and Development Agency (TDA)
Although not tasked with specific directives in AGOA, the TDA contributes to trade capacity
building in Africa by funding project planning studies, including feasibility studies, training
programs and orientation visits (reverse trade missions in which foreign government officials visit
U.S. manufacturers). TDA targets activities that could generate significant U.S. export potential,
that could facilitate access to natural resources important to the United States, and that are a
priority for host nations and international development efforts. In FY2006, TDA obligated funds
for 62 projects in SSA for a total of $10.6 million, or approximately 22% of its program
expenditures.57
Multilateral Initiatives
In addition to domestic agency programs, the United States participates in several multilateral
institutions that provide trade capacity building in Africa and other developing-country regions.
The World Bank and regional development banks all provide trade capacity building assistance,
mainly in the form of loans.
The Integrated Framework (IF) is the main multilateral initiative in trade capacity building. It is a
process that assists Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to integrate trade issues into their national
55 AGOA, Sec. 125(b).
56 International Trade Administration, “Budget Estimates FY2003,” Exhibit 13, p. 65; Conversation with ITA official,
March 6, 2003.
57 U.S. Trade and Development Agency, 2006 Annual Report.
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development strategies. The IF process begins with a diagnostic study of trade challenges and
opportunities in the LDC, and is meant to result in better targeted and coordinated assistance by
all donors. Six international institutions collaborate on the IF, including the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Trade Center (ITC), the United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the
World Bank, and the WTO. The IF is funded by an IF Trust Fund, composed of voluntary
contributions from multilateral and bilateral donors. Total contributions to this trust fund equaled
$49.66 million as of March 2007, of which the United States contributed $800,000.58
As of November 2007, 23 of the 29 LDCs that had completed the IF trade diagnostic process
were in Sub-Saharan Africa. An additional six SSA countries (out of 11 total) had started the
diagnostic process, and three more (out of five total) were under consideration to begin the IF
process.
Several issues have been raised with regard to the IF. The IF was established partly to achieve
greater donor coordination, and it is not yet clear whether it will have this effect. In many
countries, coordination is an ad hoc activity, achieved as a result of personal relationships rather
than through institutional coordination. Thus far, IF work has centered on preparing strategies for
trade capacity building, and there has been little coordinated implementation of these strategies.59
Another concern is that the IF process has raised expectations among the participating LDCs, and
these expectations may not be fulfilled by the IF process.
The United States has also provided SSA countries with technical assistance and TCB support on
a wide range of WTO-related issues such as trade facilitation, services, and sanitary and
phytosanitary measures in coordination with the other multilateral institutions mentioned above.60
The United States has also provided technical support for the efforts of some SSA countries, such
as Ethiopia (still in negotiations) and Tonga (WTO accession July 2007) to accede to the WTO.61
Regional Cooperation and Free Trade Agreements
AGOA declares the policy position that free trade agreements (FTAs) should be negotiated, where
feasible, between interested countries in SSA and the United States in order to serve as a catalyst
for increasing trade and investment. Regional economic agreements among SSA countries are
also encouraged in AGOA.
Discussion of potential partners for free-trade agreements has revolved around South Africa and
SACU, but several other regional groupings may prove to be partners for future trade agreements
with the United States. The Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common
Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the East African Community (EAC), and the
West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) have all taken steps to begin the process
of economic integration, either through trade liberalization or through steps to promote monetary
union. While these groups are being encouraged in their attempts at regional integration, they are
58 See the Integrated Framework website, http://www.integratedframework.org.
59 Susan Prowse, “Mega-Coherence: The Integrated Framework,” Trade and Aid: Partners or Rivals in Development
Policy. Cameron May: 2006.
60 2008 USTR Report, p. 40.
61 Ibid.
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not immediate prospects for FTAs with the United States. Background on these groups appears in
an Appendix.
FTA Negotiations with the Southern African Customs Union FTA
(SACU)62
On November 4, 2002, then-USTR Robert B. Zoellick notified Congress that negotiations would
be initiated with the members of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU). These
negotiations began in June 2003, and were postponed indefinitely in April 2006. The United
States and SACU reportedly could not agree on the scope and level of ambition of the
negotiations. In addition, given SSA’s generally low levels of economic, administrative, and
regulatory development, many countries in the region are not yet in the position to enact the types
of policies and reforms that would be required for a comprehensive FTA with the United States.63
However, an FTA reportedly remains the long-term objective of both the United States and the
SACU.64
Currently, the United States and SACU are continuing talks for a Trade, Investment, and
Development Cooperation Agreement (TIDCA), which may lead to an eventual FTA. The scope
of the TIDCA is undefined, and may focus on some of the “behind the border” issues from the
FTA negotiations, such as intellectual property rights and investment issues. The United States
does not have a TIDCA with any other country or group. A TIDCA may proceed without
extension of Trade Promotion Authority (TPA)65, because it does not include the market access
provisions of an FTA.
SACU is a customs union composed of South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, and
Swaziland. The original SACU agreement dates from the colonial government in 1910 and was
renegotiated with the apartheid government in 1969. A new agreement to more fully integrate the
smaller states into decision-making for the area, which was previously dominated by South
Africa, was signed on October 21, 2002. The agreement is characterized by free movement of
goods within SACU, a common external tariff, and the common revenue pool which is
apportioned among the member states.
A large degree of economic integration exists among the SACU states because of the agreement,
perhaps contributing to the U.S. decision to negotiate an FTA with SACU, rather than just South
Africa. However, South Africa is the dominant economy of the region, accounting for 87% of the
population, and 92% of the gross domestic product of the customs area. U.S. merchandise exports
to SACU totaled $4.6 billion in 2006, led by aircraft, vehicles, construction and agricultural
equipment, and computers. U.S. merchandise imports from SACU totaled $8.4 billion, and were
composed of minerals such as platinum, diamonds, titanium, iron and steel, textiles and apparel,
vehicles, and automotive parts.66
62 For more information, see CRS Report RS21387, United States-Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Free
Trade Agreement Negotiations: Background and Potential Issues, by Danielle Langton.
63 2008 USTR Report, p. 41.
64 Ibid, p. 41.
65 For more information on TPA renewal, see CRS Report RL33743, Trade Promotion Authority (TPA): Issues,
Options, and Prospects for Renewal, by J. F. Hornbeck and William H. Cooper.
66 U.S. International Trade Commission data website, at http://dataweb.usitc.gov.
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U.S. Trade and Investment Framework Agreements (TIFA)
The USTR regards TIFAs as important tools for strengthening economic relations with key SSA
countries and regional organizations.67
As of September 2007, the United States has negotiated TIFAs with Ghana, Liberia, Mauritius,
Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, and South Africa, and with the COMESA and UEMOA regional
arrangements. Generally, TIFAs commit the signatories to expand trade of goods and services, to
encourage private sector investment, and to resolve problems and disputes through consultation
and dialogue. To facilitate these objectives, the signatories of each agreement have established a
Council on Trade and Investment to provide a venue for consultation on trade issues of interest or
concern to the parties, and to work toward the removal of impediments to trade and investment
flows. TIFAs are often considered to be first steps to the negotiation of free trade agreements.
U.S. Bilateral Investment Treaties (BIT)
BITs help protect U.S. foreign direct investment and promote economic growth by advancing
important reforms and encouraging the adoption of liberal policies that facilitate and support
foreign investment.68As of September 2007, the United States has signed BITs with Cameroon,
Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville), Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa),
Mozambique, and Senegal. The goals of the BIT are to protect U.S. investments abroad, and to
encourage market-oriented domestic policy in host countries. Generally, BITs ensure national
treatment for U.S. investments, limits on expropriations, free repatriation of funds, limitations on
the imposition of trade-distorting or inefficient practices on U.S. investments—including
requirements in hiring—and the right of submission of investment disputes to international
arbitration. These treaties are promoted by the U.S. government as a method of encouraging the
development of international law and trade standards within the partner country.
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)
NEPAD is a key policy vehicle of the African Union (AU), whose leaders formulated and adopted
the initiative in July 2001. Described by its proponents as a multi-sector, sustainable development
policy framework, NEPAD seeks to reduce poverty, increase economic growth, and improve
socio-economic development prospects across Africa. Major NEPAD aims are to attract greater
investment and development aid to Africa, reduce the continent’s debt levels, and broaden global
market access for African exports. NEPAD emphasizes increased democratization, political
accountability, and transparency in governance in African states as primary means of achieving its
goals.69
67 2008 USTR SSA Report, p. 42.
68 Ibid.
69 This paragraph was prepared by Nicolas Cook, Analyst in African Affairs. For more information, see CRS Report
RS21353, New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), by Nicolas Cook, and CRS Report RS21332, The
African Union, by Nicolas Cook.
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European Union Activity
By way of comparison, the European Union (EU) has also been active in promoting trade
between itself and the countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. The EU-South Africa Agreement on
Trade, Development, and Cooperation entered into force on January 1, 2000. This agreement
creates a free-trade area between the participants during a 12-year asymmetric transition period.
The EU pledges to remove tariffs on 95% of imports from South Africa during a 10-year period
with most products granted duty-free status in 2002. South Africa will remove duties on 86% of
its tariff lines during a 12-year period with most eliminations occurring between 2006-2012.
Notably, the agreement does not provide tariff relief to several important South African
agricultural exports, nor to aluminum.
The Cotonou Agreement, signed in Cotonou, Benin between the European Union and 71 African,
Caribbean, and Pacific nations (ACP) in February 2000, extends non-reciprocal, duty-free access
for industrial and processed agricultural goods to the EU market granted by the 4th Lomé
Convention to the end of 2007. The extent of the duty-free access conferred by Cotonou was
subsequently enhanced in March 2001 by the “Everything but Arms” initiative, which granted
LDCs tariff-free access to all goods, except for sugar, rice, and bananas, for which products a
tariff-rate quota system will be maintained during a phase-out period ending in 2009. Provisions
of the Cotonou Agreement call for the negotiation of trade liberalization agreements with regional
economic partnerships that could include the regional African groupings discussed in the
Appendix. Preliminary negotiations on the Regional Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs)
began on September 27, 2002 and were supposed to conclude before the expiration of the
Cotonou Agreement on December 31, 2007. Many African countries opposed signing EPAs
because that would mean opening up their markets to EU imports. In the end, a temporary
compromise was reached: most African countries signed “interim EPAs” to keep their EU trade
preferences as they were under the Cotonou Agreement.
AGOA: Current and Future Challenges
Several issues may be important to Congress in the oversight of AGOA. These issues concern the
termination of the WTO Multi Fiber Agreement, the diversification of beneficiary country and
industry participants, the continued eligibility of certain countries for AGOA benefits, the
HIV/AIDS epidemic, and the participation of U.S. small business in AGOA.
• Termination of the Multi Fiber Agreement. Article 2 of the WTO’s Agreement
on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) terminated the worldwide system of quotas for
textile and apparel trade on January 1, 2005. Observers expressed concern that
this would spell the end of the African apparel assembly industry, because
African producers would be unable to compete on world markets without the
quota-free advantage. After the ATC termination, apparel exports under AGOA
declined, but the industry has not been completely decimated. One explanation
for this is that the United States still imposes tariffs averaging 18% on most
apparel articles, which gives AGOA beneficiaries an advantage.70
70 For more information on the ATC, see CRS Report RL34106, U.S. Clothing and Textile Trade with China and the
World: Trends Since the End of Quotas, by Michael F. Martin.
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• Diversification of AGOA Exports. While textile and manufacturing industries
make up a growing part of U.S. imports under AGOA, these imports are dwarfed
by AGOA imports from the petroleum and mining sectors. These industries are
highly capitalized and do not provide extensive employment opportunities for
African workers. AGOA benefits are also concentrated in few countries.
Moreover, several AGOA-eligible countries export very little under the program.
If a goal of the program is to increase African country participation, it may be
achieved through continued targeted trade capacity building and technical
assistance. Agriculture is an important source of income for African workers, and
increasing agriculture exports under AGOA could help raise incomes and spur
economic growth. African countries may also begin to export light manufactures,
with improved capacity, infrastructure, and policies to encourage investment.
• Eligibility Standards. A country’s eligibility for AGOA benefits may become a
subject of controversy. Some observers feel that the President must strictly
enforce eligibility requirements to ensure continued adherence to reforms.
However, others have cited the unpredictability of a country’s AGOA benefits
from year to year as a source of investment risk, and have suggested minimum
eligibility terms of greater than the current one year. Another suggestion includes
allowing Congress to override the President’s decision to terminate AGOA
benefits through legislation. Several countries have been considered candidates
for losing AGOA eligibility. In December 2003, the President declared Eritrea
and the Central African Republic to be ineligible for AGOA. In December 2004,
Cote d’Ivoire was declared ineligible as well. Lesotho, which is considered an
AGOA success story, has been the subject of persistent complaints from
indigenous labor groups regarding working conditions in newly developed textile
plants. Swaziland has received warnings from the State Department that its
human rights record does not meet AGOA eligibility requirements. As of January
1, 2009, Mauritania was removed from AGOA eligibility. Several countries have
questionable commitment to privatization and tariff reform.
• HIV/AIDS. The HIV/AIDS pandemic continues to destabilize the economies of
Africa and threatens any progress achieved by AGOA as additional income is
spent, not to raising living standards, but to treat a population afflicted with the
disease. Due to the disease, life expectancy is falling in several AGOA-eligible
countries and in the region as a whole. Even with the advantages that AGOA
preferences confer, investors may be deterred from the region by high medical
costs, by constant replacement of workers stricken with the disease and the
attendant training costs, and by the destabilizing risks associated with a society
containing a large, dying population.
• Small Business Participation. Small business accounts for about 55% of the
U.S. GDP, and employs a large portion of American workers. U.S. small
businesses, however, only participate in limited trade with Africa, and reportedly
very few in the small business community know about AGOA. Some observers
have noted that U.S. small businesses may benefit from AGOA, and in the
process help provide avenues for diversifying African exports. Small business is
also important in Africa, and increased partnership may result in better
participation on both continents. The U.S. government could become involved in
increasing awareness of AGOA among the small business community, and
providing opportunities for partnership.
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Appendix. Regional Economic Integration Among
Sub-Saharan Africa Nations
Southern African Development Community (SADC)
This group is composed of the nations of Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland,
Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Originally formed by front-line states to lessen economic
dependence on the apartheid regime in South Africa, the group expanded to include South Africa
in 1994. The 1996 Protocol on Trade committed each signatory to remove duties and non-tariff
barriers to SADC members within 12 years, to provide national treatment for each other’s goods,
and to bind existing tariffs at current levels.
The economic dominance of South Africa makes economic integration of the SADC region more
problematic. South Africa accounts for 82% of the GDP of the region, and it comprises 62% of
the region’s intra-SADC imports and 70% of the SADC region’s exports.71 With per-capita
income at approximately $3,000, it dwarfs the average per-capita income of many of the other
states. In addition, smaller states within SADC are concerned about their lack of economic
competitiveness as their home markets are opened up to goods from South Africa. The reliance of
many governments on duty revenue has also become a source of concern in implementing
reductions of tariff barriers.
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
Founded in 1982 as the Preferential Trade Area of Eastern and Southern Africa, current member
states of the COMESA include Angola, Burundi, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda,
Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. On October 31, 2000, nine states
of COMESA (Djibouti, Egypt, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Sudan, Zambia and
Zimbabwe) launched a free trade area that eliminated tariffs on goods originating in the member
states. These states have also worked towards establishing coordinated policies in other areas
such as rules-of-origin, dispute settlement, applications of safeguard measures, and uniform
customs procedures. The group agreed on a common external tariff in May 2007, and as of May
2008, 13 COMESA countries had joined the COMESA Free Trade Area and eliminated tariffs on
all items produced in member countries.72 The goal of monetary union by 2025 is expected to be
advanced by the introduction of limited currency convertibility and improved coordination of
fiscal and monetary policy during this time period.
East African Community (EAC)
Comprised of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, this organization seeks to revive historic tariff-free
trade that had been established among the three British colonies in 1923. However, this
71 Beverly M. Carl, Trade and the Developing World in the 21st Century (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers,
2001), p. 205.
72 2008 USTR SSA Report, p. 37.
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cooperation broke down in the 1970s due to widespread transshipments and the varied economic
paths of its participants. The three countries re-established the community in 1999 and have made
plans for an asymmetric tariff schedule, in which Kenya will immediately reduce its tariff to zero,
while Uganda and Tanzania will have four years in which to reciprocate. The outlook for this
grouping is also complicated by a dominant country presence. Most industrial trade in the bloc
originates from Kenya, and there is little bilateral trade between Tanzania and Uganda.
Nonetheless, two neighboring countries, Rwanda and Burundi, have been invited to join.
West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA)
This grouping was originally created to administer the CFA franc (Communauté financière
africaine), a currency formerly tied to the French franc prior to its disappearance in 2000 (it is
still backed by the French treasury). Its members are Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali,
Niger, Senegal, Togo, and Guinea-Bissau, the sole non-francophone member. The member states
have espoused the long-term goal of a full economic union with a common market,
macroeconomic convergence, regulatory harmonization, and a common investment policy. A
preferential tariff arrangement was concluded for member states in 1995, and a customs union
with a common external tariff of 22% became operational in 2000. UEMOA countries have
established a common accounting system, periodic reviews of member countries’ macroeconomic
policies, a regional stock exchange, and the legal and regulatory framework for a regional
banking system.73 Efforts are also being made to harmonize UEMOA with another regional bloc,
the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).74
Author Contact Information
Vivian C. Jones
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
vcjones@crs.loc.gov, 7-7823
Acknowledgments
This report was originally written by Danielle Langton.
73 2008 USTR SSA Report, p. 39
74 Ibid.
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