ȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
ǯȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ
ȱȱ
ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ
ȱŘǰȱŘŖŖşȱ
ȱȱȱ
ŝȬśŝŖŖȱ
ǯǯȱ
ŚŖŗŚřȱ
ȱȱȱ
Pr
epared for Members and Committees of Congress
ȱȱ
ȱ
¢ȱ
With increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, the extent of effects
on the ocean and marine resources is an increasing concern. One aspect of this issue is the
ongoing process whereby seawater becomes acidified (i.e., ocean acidification) as more CO2
dissolves in it, causing hydrogen ion concentration in seawater to increase. Scientists are
concerned that increasing hydrogen ion concentration could reduce growth or even cause death of
shell-forming animals (e.g., corals, molluscs, and certain planktonic organisms) as well as disrupt
marine food webs and the reproductive physiology of certain species. While not yet fully
understood, the ecological and economic consequences of ocean acidification could be
substantial.
Scientists are concerned that increasing acidification could alter biogeochemical cycles, disrupt
physiological processes of marine organisms, and detrimentally alter marine ecosystems. This
report does not discuss the effects of increasing thermal stress to marine organisms and
ecosystems (e.g., coral bleaching) related to climate change. However, marine ecosystems are
likely to be affected by the synergistic effects of factors involved in both thermal and
acidification processes.
Congress is beginning to focus attention on better understanding ocean acidification and
determining how this concern might be addressed. In the 111th Congress, the Federal Ocean
Acidification Research And Monitoring Act of 2009 (Title XII, Subtitle D, of P.L. 111-11)
directed the Secretary of Commerce to establish an ocean acidification program within NOAA,
established an interagency committee to develop an ocean acidification research and monitoring
plan, and authorized appropriations through FY2012 for NOAA and the National Science
Foundation.
ȱȱȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
What Is Ocean Acidification?.......................................................................................................... 1
At What Rate Is Ocean Acidification Occurring and What Factors Affect This Rate? ................... 1
What Are Some of the Potential Effects of Ocean Acidification?................................................... 3
What Are the Natural and Human Responses That Might Limit or Reduce Ocean
Acidification? ............................................................................................................................... 6
What Is the Federal Government Doing About Ocean Acidification? ............................................ 7
What Is the Congressional Interest in Ocean Acidification? ........................................................... 8
ȱ
Author Contact Information ............................................................................................................ 9
ȱȱȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
On January 30, 2009, a Monaco Declaration, signed by more than 150 marine scientists from 26
countries, called for immediate action by policymakers to reduce carbon dioxide emissions so as
to avoid widespread and severe damage to marine ecosystems from ocean acidification.1 The
Monaco Declaration is based on the Research Priorities Report developed by participants in an
October 2008 second international symposium on “The Ocean in a High-CO2 World,”2 organized
by UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, the Scientific Committee on
Oceanic Research, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the International Geosphere
Biosphere Programme. While not yet fully understood, the ecological and economic
consequences of ocean acidification could be substantial.
ȱ ȱȱǵȱ
The complex interplay between rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the atmosphere and the
ocean’s chemistry is a process that scientists have recognized for decades. As increasing CO2
from the atmosphere dissolves in seawater, seawater chemistry is altered. The prevailing pH of
water near the ocean surface is around 8.1, or slightly alkaline.3 Ocean acidification is the name
given to the ongoing process whereby pH decreases as seawater becomes acidified when
increasing amounts of anthropogenic CO2 from the atmosphere dissolve in seawater. When
atmospheric CO2 dissolves into the ocean, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). Some of the carbonic
acid dissociates in ocean waters, producing hydrogen ions (H+). As the number of hydrogen ions
increases, the pH of the ocean decreases, and the water becomes more acidified.
Scientists are concerned that increasing acidification could alter biogeochemical cycles, disrupt
physiological processes of marine organisms, and detrimentally alter marine ecosystems. This
report does not discuss the effects of increasing thermal stress to marine organisms and
ecosystems (e.g., coral bleaching) related to climate change. However, marine ecosystems are
likely to be affected by the synergistic effects of factors involved in both thermal and
acidification processes.
ȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱǵȱ
Over the past several decades, of the approximately 7 billion metric tons of carbon that all the
countries in the world release as CO2 into the atmosphere each year, the oceans take up about 2
billion tons.4 Between pre-industrial times and 1994, average pH of water near the ocean surface
1 A copy of this declaration is available at http://scrippsnews.ucsd.edu/Releases/doc/MonacoDeclaration.pdf.
2 The full report is available at http://ioc3.unesco.org/oanet/Symposium2008/
ResearchPrioritiesReport_OceanHighCO2WorldII.pdf.
3 The pH scale is an inverse logarithmic representation of hydrogen proton (H+) concentration, indicating the activity
of hydrogen ions (or their equivalent) in the solution. A pH of less than 7.0 is considered acidic, while a pH greater
than 7.0 is considered basic (alkaline); a pH level of 7.0 is defined as “neutral.”
4 Richard A. Feely, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.
(continued...)
ȱȱȱ
ŗȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
is estimated to have decreased (i.e., acidity increased) by almost 0.1 pH unit.5 That increase
sounds small, but it represents an increase of 26% in the concentration of hydrogen ions, because
the pH scale is logarithmic (i.e., water with a pH of 7 is 10 times more acidified than water with a
pH of 8, and 100 times more acidified than water with a pH of 9). Open ocean observational
records of declining pH are available from the Hawaiian Ocean Time-series Station in the Pacific
and the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Station in the Atlantic.6 Up to a point, as atmospheric CO2
continues to increase, the oceans will continue to become more acidified; one estimate suggests
that the rate of CO2 uptake by the oceans could stabilize at around 5 gigatons per year by 2100.7
All gases, such as CO2, are less soluble with increasing water temperature. Thus, marine waters
near the poles have a much greater capacity for dissolving CO2 than do ocean waters in the
tropics. In addition, dissolved CO2 also is transported into ocean depths at these high latitudes
(i.e., deep water formation mechanism) since the lower-temperature waters are of higher density,
causing greater convection to occur than happens in the more stratified tropical oceans. If
temperature were the only factor affecting the rate of ocean acidification and the appearance of
impacts on physical and biological features, these impacts might be more likely to occur in
marine waters nearer the poles. However, in addition to temperature, other factors modulate the
impact of CO2 on marine waters. Respiration adds CO2 to seawater, and photosynthesis removes
it. Deep oceanic water is enriched in CO2 due to respiration in the absence of photosynthesis and,
when brought to the surface by equatorial currents (i.e., upwelling), can place CO2-enriched
seawater in contact with the atmosphere where it can absorb even more CO2. Hence, the tropics
are also vulnerable to near-term effects, most notably tropical reefs. An additional factor is the
potential increase in storm activity at higher latitudes as some climate models suggest.8 CO2 and
other acidic gasses such as nitrogen dioxide are also dissolved in rainwater.9 An increase in North
Atlantic or western North Pacific storms could have significant implications for accelerating
acidification of ocean waters near the surface in those regions.
Key scientific questions concern which factors may affect the future rate of acidification,
especially whether the rate of increase will remain constant in direct relationship to the amount of
CO2 in the atmosphere or whether other factors will result in an acceleration or deceleration of
this acidification rate. There is also the question of equilibrium—that is, how long it might take
the acidification process of ocean waters, should the currently increasing atmospheric emission
rate of CO2 eventually be able to be stabilized or diminished, to come into equilibrium with the
concentration of atmospheric CO2. An adjunct to this question is how long might it take the rate
of ocean acidification to slow (or even begin to decrease) in response to any measures that might
be taken to slow, halt, or even reverse the increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere.
(...continued)
Department of Commerce, World Ocean Forum, Nov. 13-14, 2006, at http://www.thew2o.net/events/oceans/
oa_q_and_a.php and Richard A. Feely et al., “Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans,”
Science (2004), vol. 305, pp. 362-366.
5 James C. Orr et al., “Anthropogenic Ocean Acidification over the Twenty-First Century and Its Impact on Calcifying
Organisms,” Nature, vol. 437 (2005): 681-686.
6 See http://hahana.soest.hawaii.edu/hot/hot_jgofs.html and http://www.bios.edu/research/bats.html.
7 David Archer, “Fate of Fossil Fuel CO2 in Geologic Time,” Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 110 (2005): C09S05,
doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.
8 See the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Technical Paper on Climate Change and Water, available at
http://www.ipcc.ch/meetings/session28/executive_summary.pdf.
9 Rainwater is naturally acidic at a pH of around 5.6, and downwind of pollution sources has been measured as low as
pH 3.0.
ȱȱȱ
Řȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
Additional questions relate to how ocean circulation, which eventually controls CO2 uptake rate,
might change in response to rising temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions.
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ǵȱ
Since the marine environment is complex and some of the likely changes may be years in the
future, the potential effects identified in this section, although many are supported by laboratory
experimentation, are primarily conjecture and/or forecasts. However, field studies are beginning
to provide a more direct view of potential ocean acidification problems.10
A lower pH affects marine life in the oceans and is related to other changes in ocean chemistry. In
addition to the lower pH, another consequence of the increased amount of dissolved CO2 in the
ocean is the production of more bicarbonate ions (HCO 1-
3 ). As more CO2 dissolves into the ocean,
bicarbonate ions form at the expense of carbonate ions (CO 2-
3 ), which scientists often describe by
the following reaction:
CO
2-
1-
2 + CO3 + H2O = 2HCO3
The abundance and availability of carbonate ions are critical to many shell-forming marine
organisms. At current average ocean pH levels (about 8 or above), ocean waters near the surface
have ample carbonate ions to support shell formation and coral growth. However, as increased
amounts of carbonic acid form in the ocean from higher CO2 levels in the atmosphere, pH gets
lower and the amount of carbonate ions in the oceans decreases, resulting in fewer carbonate ions
available for making shells.
Organisms make biogenic calcium carbonate for their shells by combining calcium ions (Ca2+)—
which are abundant in the oceans—with carbonate ions to form solid calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Marine organisms such as corals and pteropods precipitate one mineral type of calcium carbonate
called aragonite, and other organisms such as foraminifera and coccolithophorids use another
type called calcite. A third type of calcium carbonate—high magnesium calcite—is precipitated
by echinoderms (sea urchins, starfish, and sea cucumbers) and some coralline algae. Under
present conditions of ocean chemistry, these forms of calcium carbonate are relatively stable in
waters near the ocean surface, except for certain areas of high upwelling activity.11 Water near the
ocean surface currently is supersaturated with respect to calcite, high magnesium calcite, and
aragonite,12 meaning that organisms easily can form shells from all of these mineral types.
However, as more carbonic acid is formed in water near the ocean surface from higher levels of
CO2 in the atmosphere, the level of saturation decreases. If the ocean waters become
10 See, for example, K. K. Yates and R. B. Halley, “Diurnal Variations in Rates of Calcification and Carbonate
Sediment Dissolution in Florida Bay,” Estuaries and Coasts, v. 29 (2006): 24-39; and K. K. Yates and R. B. Halley,
CO 2-
3 Concentration and pCO2 Thresholds for Calcification and Dissolution on the Molokai Reef Flat, Hawaii,”
Biogeosciences, v. 3 (2006): 357-369.
11 Results from a 2007 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration survey along the U.S. West Coast
documented the first undersaturated waters at the ocean surface along the California coast, brought to the surface by
seasonal upwelling. See Richard A. Feely et al., “Evidence for Upwelling of Corrosive “Acidified” Water onto the
Continental Shelf,” Science, v. 320, no. 5882 (June 13, 2008): 1490-1492.
12 Surface ocean waters in the tropics are currently supersaturated by a factor of more than 3.
ȱȱȱ
řȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
undersaturated, then shells made from all of these minerals would tend to dissolve. Shells made
from high magnesium calcite would tend to dissolve first, at lower concentrations of carbonic
acid (and thus at higher pH values) than would shells made from aragonite. Shells made from
calcite would dissolve at higher concentrations of carbonic acid than those made from aragonite.13
Thus, organisms that incorporate high magnesium calcite (i.e., echinoderms and some coralline
algae) are likely to be the “first responders” to ocean acidification.14 Ocean waters at depths of
thousands of feet are undersaturated with respect to all forms of biogenic calcite, which is why
most of the shells from dead organisms that “rain” down from the ocean surface dissolve before
reaching the ocean floor.15 Some suggest that marine surface waters closer to the poles may
become undersaturated within the next 50 years.16 Researchers at the Antarctic Climate and
Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre have demonstrated significant reductions in shell mass
and thickness of several Southern Ocean marine plants and animals that appear consistent with
the projected effects of recent increased acidification of the ocean.17
In response to ocean acidification, scientists have projected that mussel and oyster calcification,
and thus shell strength, could decrease significantly by the end of the 21st century, according to
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s IS92a scenario.18 There is also the concern that
increased acidification may cause marine calcium carbonate sediments to dissolve with potential
detrimental effects on species and communities residing in and on these sediments.19 Since many
of these organisms provide food or modify habitat for other organisms, the well-being of these
carbonate-dependent species will affect other species. Because of these interrelationships, the
potential indirect effects of acidification on other marine organisms is not well understood. While
some have raised concerns that ocean acidification, by negatively affecting calcifying plankton
species, could shift ecological balances so as to increase populations of some noncalcifying
species, there appears to be no significant relationship between jellyfish abundance and acidified
conditions, and any role of pH in structuring zooplankton communities is believed to be
tenuous.20
There are also concerns that increasing acidification of ocean waters could alter the ability of
some organisms to conduct essential biochemical and physiological processes.21 For example,
13 See Railsback, Some Fundamentals of Mineralogy and Geochemistry, at http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/
Fundamentals/820HMC-LMCSolubilities05LS.pdf.
14 Andreas J. Andersson, Fred T. Mackenzie, and Nicholas R. Bates, “Life on the Margin: Implications of Ocean
Acidification on Mg-Calcite, High Latitude and Cold-Water Marine Calcifiers,” Marine Ecology Progress Series, v.
373 (2008): 265-273.
15 Recent research suggests that no more than about 30% of the calcium carbonate produced in the surface ocean each
year is buried in shallow or deep sea sediments; the rest dissolves on its way down the water column. See Feely et al.
(2004), p. 365.
16 Orr et al. (2005).
17 Bruce Mapstone, “Acid Oceans in the Spotlight,” Antarctic Climate and Ecosystem News, edition 4 (August 2008):
1.
18 Frederic Gazeau et al., “Impact of Elevated CO2 on Shellfish Calcification,” Geophysical Research Letters, v. 34, no.
7 (Apr. 16, 2007): L07603 (5 p.).
19 M. Gehlen, L. Bopp, and O. Aumont, “Short-term Dissolution Response of Pelagic Carbonate Sediments to the
Invasion of Anthropogenic CO2: A Model Study,” Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., v. 9 (Feb. 16, 2008): Q02012.
20 A. J. Richardson and M. J. Gibbons, “Are Jellyfish Increasing in Response to Ocean Acidification?,” Limnology and
Oceanography, v. 53, no. 5 (2008):2040-2045.
21 Hans-O. Pörtner, “Ecosystem Effects of Ocean Acidification in Times of Ocean Warming: A Physiologist’s View,”
Marine Ecology Progress Series, v. 373 (2008): 203-217.
ȱȱȱ
Śȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
scientists have found that, when exposed to water of pH 7.7, roughly equivalent to acidity levels
predicted for the year 2100, sea urchin sperm swam much more slowly. Overall, fertilization fell
by 25%, and in almost 26% of cases where the eggs were fertilized, they did not survive long
enough to develop into larvae.22 While marine invertebrates in general, and their early
developmental stages in particular, are believed to be more sensitive to environmental
disturbance, available data to assess their vulnerability to ocean acidification is contradictory.23
Although evidence suggests that larval and juvenile fish are more susceptible to changes in ocean
water pH than adults, larval and juvenile fish exposed to exceedingly high CO2 concentrations
(more than 100 times current levels) suffered little apparent harm.24 Fish appear to be among the
more tolerant marine animals.25 These scientists believe that “the relative tolerance of fish may
relate to high capacity for internal ion and acid-base regulation via direct proton excretion, and an
intracellular respiratory protein that results in a high oxygen-carrying capacity and substantial
venous oxygen reserve.”
The fossil record indicates that marine organisms may be quite sensitive to ocean acidification—
about 55 million years ago, a large injection of CO2 into the deep ocean, presumably resulting
from a massive methane release, was followed by the extinction of some species of benthic
foraminifera.26 Others caution that these paleo-events may be imperfect analogs to current
conditions.27
Some have raised questions downplaying the potential harm to coral reefs from ocean
acidification. Differences of opinion exist on the relative effects of climate change as expressed in
increased CO2 when compared to increased ocean temperature. Opinion has been expressed that,
in marine systems, increased temperature may have detrimental effects comparable to or larger
than those seen from increased CO2 concentration, for corals and for phytoplankton.28 Although
calcification rates in massive Porites coral were reported to have declined over a 16-year study
period by approximately 21% in two regions on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, these findings
were consistent with studies of the synergistic effect of elevated seawater temperatures and CO2
concentrations on coral calcification.29 While ocean acidification may not appear currently to be
killing corals, such acidification is slowing development of coral larvae into juvenile colonies.30
22 Jon N. Havenhand, Fenina-Raphaeia Buttler, Michael C. Thorndyke, and Jane E. Williamson, “Near-Future Levels
of Ocean Acidification Reduce Fertilization Success in a Sea Urchin,” Current Biology, v. 18, no. 15 (August 2008):
651-652.
23 S. Dupont and M. C. Thorndyke, “Impact of CO2-Driven Ocean Acidification on Invertebrates Early Life History—
What We Know, What We Need to Know and What We Can Do,” Biogeosciences Discussions, v. 6 (2009): 3109-
3131.
24 A. Ishimatsu et al., “Effects of CO2 on Marine Fish: Larvae and Adults,” Journal of Oceanography, v. 60, no. 4
(2004): 731-741.
25 V.J. Fabry et al., “Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Fauna and Ecosystem Processes,” ICES Journal of
Marine Science, v. 65 (2008): 414-432.
26 J. C. Zachos et al., “Rapid Acidification of the Ocean During the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum,” Science, v.
308 (2005): 1611-1615.
27 Scott C. Doney et al., “Ocean Acidification: The Other CO2 Problem,” Annual Review of Marine Science, v. 1
(January 2009): 169-192.
28 Clinton E. Hare et al., “Consequences of Increased Temperature and CO2 for Phytoplankton Community Structure in
the Bering Sea,” Marine Ecology Progress Series, v. 352 (2007), p. 14.
29 T. F. Cooper et al., “Declining Coral Calcification in Massive Porites in Two Nearshore Regions of the Northern
Great Barrier Reef,” Global Change Biology, v. 14 (2008): 529-538.
30 R. Albright et al., “Effect of Aragonite Saturation State on Settlement and Post-Settlement Growth of Porites
(continued...)
ȱȱȱ
śȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
In support of the ability of certain corals to survive decreasing pH, stony and soft corals have
been grown successfully in open systems with water from a saltwater well at a pH between 7.5
and 7.8 since the 1970s.31 However, given the high level of adaptation in corals to facilitate
calcification via complex processes, at least some corals may be sensitive to changes in pH
because of adaptation to invariant pH, with evidence coming primarily from the discovery that
periods of high CO2 in the geological past were often also periods of low aragonite-coral
abundances and diversity.32 Others have found that certain species of coral survive in the
laboratory at a pH 7.3 to 7.6 after their calcified structure dissolves by functioning similar to sea
anemones, and retaining the ability to recalcify when pH is increased.33 However, in the natural
marine environment, predation could be a significant factor in limiting the viability of such
“naked” corals, and it is unlikely that such organisms could form reefs and attract the diverse
community that constitutes a coral reef.
Concern has also arisen that lower ocean water pH will diminish low-frequency (below 10 KHz)
sound absorption in the ocean, increasing noise levels within the auditory range critical for
environmental, military, and economic interests.34 Frequency-dependent decreases to sound
absorption related to the current decrease in pH of about 0.1 pH unit may exceed 12%, and an
anticipated pH decrease of 0.3 pH units by mid-century may result in an almost 40% decrease in
sound absorption. It is unknown how marine mammals might be affected by and adapt to an
ocean increasingly transparent to sound at low frequencies.
ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱǵȱ
Several natural feedback mechanisms can act to moderate the process of acidification. The more
acidified the ocean becomes, the less CO2 will be taken up by dissolution. In addition, the warmer
the seawater becomes, the less CO2 will dissolve. Speculative questions exist related to what
might occur should the oceans reach an equilibrium in their ability to take up CO2 and
atmospheric CO2 levels continue to increase. Even with increasing concentrations of atmospheric
CO2, the oceans are not likely to reach pH values of less than 7 (neutral).
Our ability to reduce ocean acidification through artificial means is unproven. Proposals have
suggested the addition of chemicals to the ocean, such as (1) using iron compounds to stimulate
planktonic algae growth whereby the increased photosynthesis might capture/remove dissolved
CO2, or (2) using limestone to neutralize (i.e., buffer) the more acidified streams and rivers near
where they enter oceans and close to sources of limestone or add limestone powder directly to the
(...continued)
astreoides Larvae,” Coral Reefs, v. 27, no. 3 (2008): 485-490.
31 M. J. Atkinson, B. Carlson, and G. L. Crow, “Coral growth in high nutrient, low-pH seawater: a case study of corals
cultured at the Waikiki Aquarium, Honolulu, Hawaii,” Coral Reefs, v. 14, no. 4 (1995): 215-223.
32 Personal communication, John W. McManus, Director, National Center for Coral Reef Research, Rosenstiel School
of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, February 21, 2009.
33 Maoz Fine and Dan Tchernov, “Scleractinian Coral Species Survive and Recover from Decalcification,” Science, v.
315, no. 5820 (March 30, 2007): 1811.
34 Keith C. Hester et al., “Unanticipated Consequences of Ocean Acidification: A Noisier Ocean at Lower pH,”
Geophysical Research Letters, v. 35 (2008): L19601, doe:10.1029/2008FL034913.
ȱȱȱ
Ŝȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
ocean where deeper, lower pH water upwell.35 Other measures might include habitat
restoration/creation, such as planting seagrass. Unless a massive global effort is mounted, these
techniques will at best be effective only on a very local scale. In addition, manipulation of ocean
chemistry has the potential to damage or otherwise alter the marine environment and ecosystems.
Reducing CO2 emissions to the atmosphere and/or removing CO2 from the atmosphere (i.e.,
carbon sequestration) currently appear to be the only practical ways to minimize the risk of large-
scale and long-term changes to the acidity of marine waters. Because of the continuing increase in
CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and its residence time there, acidification of the oceans will likely
continue for a long time. Even if atmospheric CO2 were to return to pre-industrial levels, it would
likely take tens of thousands of years for ocean chemistry to return to a condition similar to that
occurring at pre-industrial times more than 200 years ago.36
ȱ ȱȱȱ ȱȱȱ
ȱǵȱ
Much of the current federal attention to ocean acidification focuses on research to better
understand the chemical processes involved and to become better able to predict how ocean
ecosystems might respond to increasing acidification.
The National Science Foundation (NSF) was the first federal agency to become involved in
research related to ocean acidification. The modern surveys of CO2 status in the oceans can be
traced to the NSF-sponsored Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS), which originated in
recommendations from a National Academy of Sciences workshop in 1984.37 The more modern
concerns over ocean acidification arose from a May 2004 Paris workshop chaired by the now-
president of the National Academy of Sciences, Ralph Cicerone.38 In April 2005, NSF, the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Geological Survey
sponsored a workshop on the impacts of ocean acidification on coral reefs and other marine
calcifiers.39 In October 2008, NOAA and NSF commissioned an 18-month comprehensive
national study by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences of how
CO2 emissions absorbed into the oceans may be altering fisheries, marine mammals, coral reefs,
and other natural resources.40 This study was required by Section 701 of P.L. 109-479.41
35 L. D. D. Harvey, “Mitigating the Atmospheric CO2 Increase and Ocean Acidification by Adding Limestone Powder
to Upwelling Regions,” Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 103 (2008): C04028, 21 p.
36 The Royal Society, Ocean Acidification due to Increasing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, Policy Document 12/05
(June 2005), 60 p.
37 For additional background, see http://www1.whoi.edu/jgofMission.html.
38 Ralph Cicerone, “The Ocean in a High CO2 World,” Eos, v. 85, no. 37 (September 14, 2004): 351, 353.
39 J. A. Kleypas et al., Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Other Marine Calcifiers: A Guide for Future
Research, report of a workshop held April 18-20, 2005, St. Petersburg, FL, sponsored by NSF, NOAA, and the U.S.
Geological Survey (June 2006), 88 p.
40 See http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2008/20081020_oceanacid.html.
41 This measure requires the Secretary of Commerce to request that the National Research Council study acidification
of the oceans and how this process affects the United States.
ȱȱȱ
ŝȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
A variety of programs conducted within the NOAA help to gain a better understanding of ocean
acidification.42 The Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory’s CO2 shipboard measurements and
monitoring buoys provide data that help discern seasonal changes in the oceanic carbon system.
The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory monitors changes in CO2 and pH
through the use of chemical sensors on ships and moorings. NOAA’s Repeat Hydrography
Program provides data on the large-scale changes to the carbon system and rates of ocean
acidification over decadal time scales. Sea Grant supports research on the effects of ocean
acidification on coral reefs in Hawaii. NOAA’s Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
participated in the Ocean-Carbon Cycle Model Intercomparison Project (OCMIP2) to develop an
international collaboration to improve the predictive capacity of carbon cycle models. NOAA’s
Alaska Fisheries Science Center has been conducting exposure studies of blue king crab larval
survival due to reduced pH and has developed an ocean acidification research plan.43 NOAA’s
Southwest Fisheries Science Center has been evaluating the long-term impacts of low pH on
marine plankton in the California Current and off Antarctica. Projects funded by the NOAA
Global Carbon Cycle program at NOAA laboratories and universities provide information to
address the CO2 and pH changes in the ocean. NOAA estimates that its annual expenditures for
these ocean acidification research and related programs in FY2008 were about $4.3 million; for
FY2009, NOAA has requested $4.06 million.44
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has a number of space projects that
contribute to a better understanding of ocean acidification.45
ȱ ȱȱȱ ȱȱȱ
ǵȱ
Congressional attention is focused primarily on addressing the cause of ocean acidification—
increasing atmospheric CO2.46 Legislative attention to ocean acidification focuses on authorizing
and funding research to increase knowledge about ocean acidification and its potential effects on
marine ecosystems.
In the 111th Congress, the Federal Ocean Acidification Research And Monitoring Act of 2009
(Title XII, Subtitle D, of P.L. 111-11) directed the Secretary of Commerce to establish an ocean
acidification program within NOAA, established an interagency committee to develop an ocean
acidification research and monitoring plan, and authorized appropriations through FY2012 for
NOAA and the National Science Foundation.
42 Testimony by Dr. Richard A. Feely, NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, before the House
Committee on Science and Technology, Subcommittee on Energy and Environment, June 5, 2008.
43 Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Forecast Fish, Shellfish, and Coral Population Responses to Ocean Acidification in
the North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea, National Marine Fisheries Service (Juneau, AK: August 2008), AFSC
Processed Report 2008-7, 35 p.
44 Personal communication from Jonathan Kelsey, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of Legislative Affairs,
NOAA, (202) 482-0809, Dec. 11, 2008.
45 See http://oco.jpl.nasa.gov/, http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/about/, http://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/SeaWiFS/, and
http://so-gasex.org/media.html.
46 See CRS Current Legislative Issue “Climate Change”, available at http://apps.crs.gov/cli/cli.aspx?
PRDS_CLI_ITEM_ID=2645&from=3&fromId=2522.
ȱȱȱ
Şȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
In comparison to previous sessions of Congress, legislative interest in ocean acidification
expanded significantly in the 110th Congress.47
ȱȱ ȱ
Eugene H. Buck
Peter Folger
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Specialist in Energy and Natural Resources Policy
gbuck@crs.loc.gov, 7-7262
pfolger@crs.loc.gov, 7-1517
47 For more details on ocean acidification legislation in the 110th Congress, see the section “Climate Change” in CRS
Report RL33813, Fishery, Aquaculture, and Marine Mammal Legislation in the 110th Congress, by Eugene H. Buck.
ȱȱȱ
şȱ