Order Code RL34687
The Haitian Economy and the HOPE Act
October 1, 2008
J. F. Hornbeck
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
The Haitian Economy and the HOPE Act
Summary
In December 2006, the 109th Congress passed the Haitian Hemispheric
Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement Act of 2006 (HOPE I) to assist
Haiti with expanding trade in the onetime thriving apparel industry as a way to
stimulate economic growth. The act provided special rules for the duty-free
treatment of select apparel imports from Haiti made from less expensive third
country inputs (e.g., non-regional yarns, fabrics, and components) provided Haiti met
rules of origin and eligibility criteria that require making progress on worker rights,
poverty reduction, and anti-corruption measures. Early assessments of the
effectiveness of HOPE I, however, were disappointing. The 110th Congress
responded by amending HOPE I with HOPE II, the Hemispheric Opportunity through
Partnership Encouragement Act of 2008.
HOPE II extended the preferences for 10 years, expanded coverage of duty-free
treatment to more apparel products, particularly knit articles, and simplified the rules
to make them easier to use. In providing preferential access to Haitian apparel
imports, the HOPE Act gives Haitian firms a competitive (price) advantage over
other foreign producers who must pay U.S. duties on apparel exports made from
yarns and fabrics supplied by non-regional (e.g., Asian) producers. Improved
competitiveness of the apparel business is intended to attract long-term investment
to Haiti’s primary export industry as part of a broader strategy to achieve sustainable
economic growth and stability.
HOPE II also amended the eligibility requirements by requiring Haiti to create
a new independent Labor Ombudsman’s Office and establish the Technical
Assistance Improvement and Compliance Needs Assessment and Remediation
(TAICNAR) Program within 16 months of enactment of the legislation. The
TAICNAR program provides technical assistance through the UN International Labor
Organization (ILO) to help Haiti develop the capacity to monitor compliance of
apparel producers in meeting core labor standards. Those that are habitually unable,
or refuse to comply with these standards or to accept technical assistance to remedy
deficiencies, can lose their eligibility for HOPE Act trade preferences.
Unilateral trade preferences for developing countries have played a long-
standing role in U.S. trade policy and Congress designed the HOPE Act as the most
flexible of these arrangements to meet Haiti’s special development needs. The
rationale is based on the United States being the primary market for Haitian apparel
exports. The labor provisions reflect a relatively new approach for incorporating core
labor standards. It is inventive because the tariff preferences are tied directly to firm
performance, the ILO, which wields international credibility, is actively involved,
and it combines government, private sector, and international agency participation
in a model that achieved some success under the U.S.-Cambodia Textile Agreement.
Congressional oversight is mandated and important for ensuring that the HOPE Act
is implemented as intended. Haiti, for its part, will have to find ways to overcome
a legacy of political volatility, economic inequality, and social dissension. Without
the transition to a more equal and stable society, trade preferences may be
overwhelmed by other factors. This report will be updated periodically.
Contents
Political and Social Challenges to Haitian Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Economic Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Macroeconomic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Sector Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Foreign Trade and Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Apparel Assembly in Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The Haiti HOPE Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HOPE I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
HOPE II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Tariff Preferences and Rules of Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Labor Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Appendix. Haiti: Selected Economic Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
List of Figures
Figure 1. Map of Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 2. Growth in GDP, 1998 - 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3. Haiti Direction of Trade, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 4. U.S. Imports of Haitian Apparel, 1989 - 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
List of Tables
Table 1. U.S. Market Share of Haitian Top Five Apparel Exports, 2007 . . . . . . 11
The Haitian Economy and the HOPE Act
In December 2006, the 109th Congress passed the Haitian Hemispheric
Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement Act of 2006 (HOPE I) to assist
Haiti with expanding trade in the onetime thriving apparel industry as a way to
stimulate economic growth.1 The act provided special rules for the duty-free
treatment of select apparel imports from Haiti made from less expensive third
country inputs (e.g., non-regional yarns, fabrics, and components) provided Haiti met
rules of origin and eligibility criteria that require making progress on worker rights,
poverty reduction, and anti-corruption measures. Early assessments of the
effectiveness of HOPE I, however, were disappointing. The 110th Congress
responded by amending HOPE I with HOPE II, the Hemispheric Opportunity through
Partnership Encouragement Act of 2008.2
HOPE II extended the preferences for 10 years, expanded coverage of duty-free
treatment to more apparel products, particularly knit articles, and simplified the rules
to make them easier to use. In providing preferential access to Haitian apparel
imports, the HOPE Act gives Haitian firms a competitive (price) advantage over
other foreign producers who must pay U.S. duties on apparel exports made from
yarns and fabrics supplied by non-regional (e.g., Asian) producers. Improved
competitiveness of the apparel business is intended to attract long-term investment
to Haiti’s primary export industry as part of a broader strategy to achieve sustainable
economic growth and stability. The act also provides a new inventive requirement
to ensure internationally recognized core labor standards are met. This report
discusses the HOPE Act as it relates to the Haitian economy and U.S. trade policy.
Political and Social Challenges to Haitian
Development
Haiti, which shares the western third of the island of Hispanola with the
Dominican Republic (see Figure 1), has endured a long post-colonial history of
poverty, underdevelopment, and political repression. The trend continues today and
the sustainability of Haiti’s tentative political stability remains a nagging question.
Since the end of the Duvalier dictatorship in 1986, Haiti has struggled to
institutionalize democracy, and so far has been unable to overcome a legacy of poor
governance, gross economic inequality, and social unrest. The presidency has
alternated between Jean-Bertrand Aristide, René Préval, and interim placeholders,
none of whom has been able to establish a well-functioning and broadly accepted
1 Title V of the Tax Relief and Health Care Act of 2006 (H.R. 6111/P.L. 109-432).
2 Title XV of the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (H.R. 6124/P.L. 110-246) —
the “Farm Bill.”
CRS-2
government, let alone change the underlying fundamentals of inequality in Haitian
society. The legacy of authoritarianism has continued to unfold in the recent
democratically elected administrations of both Aristide and Préval. Préval’s second
administration, begun in 2006, initially sparked a ray of hope among the masses, but
his rule has since been marred by decisions that have weakened the fledgling
institutional democracy.3
Figure 1. Map of Haiti
Source: Map Resources. Adapted by CRS.
The post-dictatorial political system is new, fragile, and in many ways,
susceptible to criticism that it has failed to establish a functioning government. After
two years into his second non-consecutive term, Préval’s leadership, vision, and
strategy to address longstanding poverty and unemployment are coming under
question. His delay in appointing a confirmable Prime Minister, in conducting
Senate elections, and in initiating widely supported constitutional reform (particularly
to amend a repetitive, expensive, and so far unworkable electoral system) has
compromised the government’s legitimacy. The multiparty system, rather than
consolidating politics, may be slipping further into factional partisanship, evidence
for some of the failure to promote a “political culture of participation.”4 Multiple
3 A detailed summary of political events may be found in: CRS Report RL32294, Haiti:
Developments and U.S. Policy Since 1991 and Current Congressional Concerns, by
Maureen Taft-Morales. For an analysis of Haiti’s authoritarian tradition and obstacles to
democratization, see Fatton, Robert Jr. Haiti’s Predatory Republic: The Unending
Transition to Democracy. Boulder: Lynne Reinier Publishers. 2002.
4 Perito, Robert M. Haiti: Hope for the Future. United States Institute of Peace. Special
(continued...)
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observers note that the government bureaucracy suffers from a historic endemic
corruption, acting to enrich itself while failing to delivery basic services to the
Haitian people.5
Haiti’s uneven social structure lies at the heart of its apparent state of perpetual
crisis. Haitian society has small middle and working classes, and is dominated by the
chasm between a tiny minority of wealthy elite and the impoverished masses, the
latter of which have little power or participation in governing. Politics since the
transition to democracy in 1986 has not altered this precarious relationship. The
highly skewed distribution of power and resources, and the underlying fear it
generates, have made the transition to democracy difficult. Haiti’s political future
remains tenuous as long as entrenched economic and social patterns remain
unchanged.6
Security remains a persistent problem, rooted in the history of violence
stemming from political and economic inequality. It manifests in the often random
violence of gangs and paramilitary groups. Security is currently being enforced by
the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Few seem to
question the need for a prolonged military presence, but concerns linger over the
sovereignty issues it raises. The ability of MINUSTAH to handle an escalation of
social upheaval is another key question, particularly if conditions continue to
deteriorate as they did during the food riots in April 2008.
Economic Background
It is in this dysfunctional political and social landscape that the challenge of
economic growth and development must be addressed. Internally, expectations that
the Haitian government will deliver on changing the day-to-day conditions of a
population immersed in poverty will be difficult to ignore, yet many doubt they can
be easily fulfilled. Externally, vast amounts of foreign aid expose the legacy
challenge to development in a country devoid of the basic cornerstones of growth.
The restoration of growth remains the primary economic goal and is a necessary
condition for development. Even if policies can ignite a sustainable growth trend,
however, they will not provide the foundation for long-term political and social
stability if they cannot begin to address the underlying extreme social inequality.
4 (...continued)
Report 188. June 2007. p. 6.
5 Fatton, Haiti’s Predatory Republic, pp. 10, 14 and 112-17; Transparency International.
Corruption Perceptions Index, 2007 (Haiti ranked 177 out of 179) and; U.S. Department of
State. Haiti: Country Report on Human Rights Practices, 2007. March 2008. pp. 1 and 8.
6 Fatton, Haiti’s Predatory Republic, pp. 197-205 and Perito, Haiti: Hope for the Future,
pp. 2-7.
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Macroeconomic Performance
Haiti’s dismal economic growth trend epitomizes its developmental paralysis.
From 1960 to 2000, average real growth in per capita income was a dismal -0.7%,
by far the worst performance in the Western Hemisphere. Growth returned briefly
in the 1970s, led by export-oriented assembly industries, but Haiti experienced a
prolonged economic downturn in the 1980s (as did most countries in the region)
leading to social and political unrest that ultimately contributed to the overthrow of
the Duvalier dictatorship in 1986.
In 1991, following an interim government, Aristide emerged briefly as the first
elected president, only to be deposed by a military coup within a few months. To
force the return of the democratically elected government, the United States and other
countries responded to the coup with a trade embargo under the auspices of the
Organization of the American States (OAS) and the United Nations (UN). Although
its success in changing political behavior has been questioned, its economic effects
were concrete and devastating. Haiti was already experiencing a decline in output,
employment, and income, but the trend mushroomed during the 1991-1994 embargo.
The embargo targeted fuel imports (not food, but supplies were delayed), and all
exports. Overall, by 1994, per capita income had fallen by 30% in three years and
unemployment peaked at 75%.7
Sectoral effects were highly pronounced. Employment in the assembly
manufacturing industry (apparel, electronics, sporting goods), centered in Port-au-
Prince, fell by over 80%, shedding 32,000 jobs. One estimate of the multiplier effect
suggests that the embargo eliminated some 200,000 jobs in the formal sector.8 Most
assembly plants closed permanently, with only apparel rebounding in the aftermath
of the embargo. The inability to import agricultural inputs (fertilizers, seeds) or
export agricultural goods had similarly devastating effects on that sector’s
production. In addition, because oil imports were blocked, there was a sudden
increase in the production of charcoal, accelerating the ecologically destructive trends
in deforestation and soil erosion, further damaging agricultural production.9
Trade was renewed in 1995, but economic growth oscillated for the next decade,
hampered by recession, flooding, and ongoing political turmoil. In the post-embargo
period, annual GDP growth for the decade ending 2006 averaged only 1.1%, lower
than Haiti’s 1.4% average population growth rate, a recipe for perpetuating chronic
unemployment, poverty, and emigration pressures. As seen in Figure 2, Haiti’s
economic growth has lagged badly compared to Latin America and the Caribbean as
a whole, a region that is itself known for its poor long-term growth record. Growth
has been positive since 2005, but given that many underlying problems remain
unresolved, its sustainability is far from certain (see data in Appendix).
7 Gibbons, Elizabeth D. Sanctions in Haiti: Human Rights and Democracy under Assault.
Westport: Praeger Publishers. 1999. pp. 13 and 18.
8 Ibid., p. 11, citing United Nations data.
9 Ibid., pp. 10-14 and The World Bank. Haiti: Options and Opportunities for Inclusive
Growth. Washington, D.C. June 1, 2006. pp. 1-5.
CRS-5
Haiti is the poorest country in the region. In 2006, per capita income was a
meager $1,700 on a purchasing power basis (adjusted for price differences across
countries), and 78% of the population lives on less than $2 per day. Inequality is
extreme; Haiti has the most highly skewed income patterns in the Americas with
nearly half of the nation’s earnings going to the top 10% of the income distribution.10
Real wages have fallen since 2000, and although inflation has declined and real
interest rates have stabilized, they may yet face upward pressures from sharp price
increases in food and energy.
Figure 2. Growth in GDP, 1998 - 2007
Source: United Nations. Economic Commission on Latin America and the Caribbean. Preliminary
Overview of the Economies of Latin America 2007, p. 156.
To consolidate the short growth trend begun in 2005, Haiti will have to address
a core area of under performance, the lack of productivity growth. Persistently low
or negative productivity is the result of negligible investment in private enterprise,
human and social capital (e.g., education and health care), and public infrastructure.
It is highly pronounced in the agricultural sector, where primitive methods and
ancient equipment perpetuate low yields, lack of growth in cultivated land, and
inadequate food supplies, some the legacy of the “decapitalization” of the sector
during the 1991-1994 embargo. Investment in manufacturing and public sectors has
also been sparse, jeopardizing prospects for longer-term growth.11
10 This is one measure of poverty. Compare with neighboring Dominican Republic with a
per capita income of $7,140 and with 16% of the population living on less than $2 per day.
World Bank. World Development Indicators 2007, pp. 40, 60 and 66.
11 See United Nations. Economic Commission on Latin America and the Caribbean.
(continued...)
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Sector Issues
Slow growth is also apparent at the sectoral level. Agricultural production
represents 25% of GDP and employs up to 70% of the work force, but it has
stagnated for decades and declined for five years in a row until expanding by 3.0%
in 2007. Agricultural growth is limited by the small amount of arable land, overuse
of soil, and poor irrigation. It is also constrained by poor rural infrastructure,
destructive agricultural practices, and frequent hurricanes and other natural disasters.
Rice, sugar, and coffee are produced at a fraction of levels achieved decades earlier.
Haiti currently produces little of these traditional exports and output of staples has
long been insufficient to meet domestic food needs. Haiti, therefore, must import
large amounts of food stuffs. Rising international prices of basic foods compound
Haiti’s inability to feed itself, to the point of igniting food riots in April 2008.12
Manufacturing constitutes only 7.6% of GDP and has shown no growth over the
past decade. It, nonetheless, is the major foreign exchange earner and holds out some
promise for employment growth. Manufacturing is dominated by food processing
(47.2%) and apparel assembly (21.1%). Construction and public works account for
another 7.7% of GDP and grew by 6.3% over the last two years. These trends reflect
recent, new public sector investment and provide one option for employment growth
of low-skilled workers. The services sector constitutes 51% of GDP and is led by
restaurant and hotel industries (tourism is not a major factor), which together account
for 27% of GDP. It grew by nearly 6% in 2007.13
Foreign Trade and Investment
Haiti has a historically unhealthy dependence on foreign commerce and finance,
from the colonial days of the sugar trade to the current assistance provided by
developed countries. Total trade (exports plus imports) equals 60% of GDP, but the
trade imbalance is large with a deficit equal to 33% of GDP. Haiti is in a difficult
position because slow growth in output and exports means that it must rely on foreign
sources for basic commodities such as food and oil, as well as manufactured and
capital goods. The problem is made worse by deteriorating terms of trade, as prices
of oil and other commodity imports rise relative to Haiti’s export prices.
11 (...continued)
Economic Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2006-2007. Santiago, July 2007.
pp. 256-259; Global Insight. Haiti. May 29, 2007; The World Bank, Haiti: Options and
Opportunities for Inclusive Growth, pp. 5-6; and Gibbons, Sanctions in Haiti, pp. 15-16.
12 République d’Haiti. Minitere de l’Economie et des Finances. Institut Haitien de
Statistique et d’Informatique. Les Comptes Economiques en 2007 and Banque de la
République D’Haiti. Produit Interieur Brut Par Secteur; ECLAC, Statistical Yearbook for
Latin America and the Caribbean 2007.
13 Ibid.
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Haiti’s trade relationship with the world is dominated by the United States, with
which it ran a $192 million deficit in 2007.14 The United States accounted for nearly
75% of Haiti’s exports followed in order of magnitude by the Dominican Republic
(8.5%), the European Union (5.8%), and Canada (2.9%) – see Figure 3. The United
States also accounted for 55% of Haiti’s imports followed by the Netherland Antilles
(14.9%), the European Union (7.9%), and China (4.8%). Haiti exports primarily
apparel, which accounts for 75%-80% of foreign earnings and for over 90% of total
exports to the United States. Cacao, mangoes, and coffee compose the small basket
of agricultural exports.
Figure 3. Haiti Direction of Trade, 2007
Source: IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics, March 2008.
A return to economic growth is critical to finance the trade deficit in the long
run. In the near term, however, there is no alternative to relying on foreign sources
of income, principally remittances, foreign aid, and grants. Transfers finance Haiti’s
fiscal and current account deficits, but they are no substitute for production and
export-driven financing. They promote long-term dependency and create technical
problems, such as exchange rate appreciation that exacerbates Haiti’s structural trade
deficit, with no concomitant growth in productivity or output that is typically
associated with an export-driven exchange rate appreciation. These transfers, which
are so necessary for Haiti’s short-term survival, are dependent on the fortunes of
expatriate citizens and the generosity of foreign governments, leaving Haiti with little
control over the future of its economic well-being.15
14 U.S. Department of Commerce data reported in the World Trade Atlas.
15 This point is made by the IMF, which speaks to the need for Haiti eventually to return to
a more normal pattern of investment and export-led growth rather than rely on international
donors indefinitely. International Monetary Fund. Haiti: Selected Issues and Statistical
Appendix. IMF Country Report No. 07/292. August 2007. p. 17.
CRS-8
Haiti has a poorly diversified export sector, overly dependent on one type of
product and a single foreign market, a strategy that has so far shown little lasting
effect on long-term development.16 The current risk to this export structure becomes
increasingly clear with the U.S. economic slowdown, which may diminish demand
for Haitian goods and increase unemployment of Haitian expatriates in the United
States, with predictably negative effects on export earnings and remittances.17
Haiti’s trade dependence is most pronounced on the import side. Haiti imports
manufactured goods, machinery, transportation equipment, raw materials, energy,
and food. It is unable to produce most of these needs and will be a large net importer
for the indefinite future. Haiti’s vulnerability became acute with the rise in food and
energy prices, which has had a huge budgetary effect. From 2002 to 2007, the value
of food and energy imports rose 57% and 159% respectively, even as volume
declined slightly. Petroleum accounts for 25%-30% of total imports. This trend
points to two fundamental problems. First, higher import prices decrease purchasing
power, making food and energy more expensive. Second, to compensate, there is a
more severe substitution effect, in which other goods must be given up to spend more
on food and energy. This effect may be seen in the decline of manufactured imports,
which fell by 37% from 2002 to 2007.18
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Haiti has been historically very low. Net FDI
inflows ranged from $4 billion in 2000 to $14 billion in 2004, with a spike to $160
billion in 2006. This change appears to be a limited boost in investment in the
construction and tourist industries. Construction activity in the public and private
sector has expanded briskly, but FDI inflows are not expected to continue at this
recent high rate.19 One approach to attracting FDI to Haiti rests on reinvigorating the
apparel industry, a strategy that the U.S. Congress supported with the HOPE Acts.
Apparel Assembly in Haiti
Although agriculture is the single most important sector of the Haitian economy
for both jobs and output, apparel assembly is the core export industry and a possible
source of fairly quick employment growth in the formal sector. The fortunes of the
apparel sector have paralleled the broader trends of the economy, which have been
subject to tremendous social and political turbulence. Historically, the apparel
16 Dupuy, Alex. Globalization, the World Bank, and the Haitian Economy. In: Knight,
Franklin W. And Teresita Martínez-Vergne, eds. Contemporary Caribbean Cultures and
Societies in a Global Context. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 2005. pp.
51-52.
17 Banque de la République D’Haiti. Exportations d’Haiti par Produits. At central bank
website: [http://www.brh.net/pibsecteur.pdf], and Economist Intelligence Unit. Country
Outlook: Haiti. February 2008.
18 Ibid., Importations d’ Haiti, February 2008.
19 Ibid., Résumé de la Balance des Paiements d’Haiti, February 2008 and Economic
Commission on Latin America and the Caribbean, Economic Survey of Latin America and
the Caribbean, 2006-2007, p. 259.
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heyday in Haiti lasted from the 1960s through the end of the Duvalier dictatorship in
1986. The troubled transition to democracy, including the 1991 military coup and
trade embargo that followed, caused a massive downturn in production for eight
years. Since 1994, the Haiti apparel industry has entered into a slow and tentative
period of rebuilding.
Employment and output data on the apparel industry are sketchy. At its peak
in the 1980s, Haitian apparel industry sources estimate that the number of jobs
ranged from 60,000 to 100,000. The 1991-94 trade embargo effectively closed
apparel operations, causing employment to fall to near zero for a short time, as many
apparel manufacturers apparently left Haiti for Honduras and other sites in the region.
In its rebuilding, Haitian apparel assembly increased employment to a high of
between 20,000 and 22,000, but by 2008 industry sources estimated that it had settled
to approximately 18,000 employees operating in 17 plants.20
Figure 4. U.S. Imports of Haitian Apparel, 1989 - 2007
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. International Trade Administration. Office of Textiles and
Apparel. http://otexa.ita.doc.gov/
Apparel output data are not available from industry sources. Because over 90%
of apparel production is exported to the United States, U.S. import data can serve as
a reasonable proxy for production trends. Figure 4 shows the trend of U.S. imports
of Haitian apparel by volume. Note that imports were falling in the tumultuous
aftermath of the Duvalier dictatorship. The downward trend hit bottom during the
1991-94 trade embargo. With a temporary return to relative political calm, U.S.
20 Prepared statement by Haitian apparel representatives before the USITC and United States
International Trade Commission. Textiles and Apparel Effects of Special Rules for Haiti on
Trade Markets and Industries. Investigation No. TR-5003-1. November 8, 2007. p. 2-1.
CRS-10
imports (again as a reflection of output) rose, but fell again after 2000 as production
was lost to competition, and continuing political uncertainty kept investors at bay.
Growth renewed after 2002 with industry restructuring, but employment failed to
return to levels achieved two decades earlier. By 2006, a new downturn is
noticeable, likely related to two events that occurred at that time: the end of global
textile quotas put in place under the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement
on Textiles and Clothing (ATC), and implementation of the Dominican Republic-
Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR), which shifted
regional U.S. tariff preferences for apparel in favor of Central America.21
Haiti’s apparel industry faces many challenges. Among the more significant are
highly efficient competitors both in the region and in Asia, domestic political
instability, poor infrastructure (especially roads and ports), a high cost of capital, and
the required use of higher-cost U.S. inputs (e.g., yarns, fabrics, components) for duty-
tree entry into the United States, which the HOPE Act addresses. To improve its
competitiveness, the industry underwent major restructuring after 2000. Where once
it had been a relatively diversified producer, it adopted a leaner, low-cost business
model based on high-volume production that could take advantage of Haiti’s low-
skilled labor pool.
Haiti can compete at the low end of the U.S. apparel market based on its low
wages, quality products, and proximity to the United States, which is consistent with
its current stage of development. For the most part, Haiti’s production is limited to
simple knits and some woven products. Approximately 80% of Haiti’s exports are
knits (e.g., t-shirts and sweatshirts), but the more complicated production of woven
goods (e.g., jeans and khaki pants) is growing. Haiti’s top five apparel products
account for 96.7% of U.S. apparel imports from the country.22 As may be seen in
Table 1, they constitute 4.1% of global U.S. imports of those goods. For this basket
of goods, Haiti’s primary competition is Central America, the Dominican Republic
and Southeast Asia (ASEAN),23 rather than China. China, which accounts for only
7.1% of U.S. imports of these goods, has effectively ceded their production (mostly
knits) to countries with lower-skilled, lower-cost work forces.
21 Ibid.
22 Knit shirts, cotton (34.9%), knit shirts, man-made fabrics (33.2%); underwear (22.4%)
trousers (4.4%), knit blouses (1.8%), and other (3.3%). U.S. Department of Commerce,
Office of Textiles and Apparel (OTEXA).
23 The Association of Southeast Asian Nations: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore,
Thailand, Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Cambodia.
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Table 1. U.S. Market Share of Haitian Top Five
Apparel Exports, 2007
(in percent)
Apparel Article
Haiti
CAFTA-DR*
ASEAN
China
Other
World
Knit shirt, cotton
7.5
38.2
14.2
4.9
35.3
100.0
Knit Blouse
0.3
24.5
30.0
9.1
36.1
100.0
Underwear, cotton
2.7
49.3
13.8
5.6
28.5
100.0
Knit shirt, man-
12.7
40.0
15.1
6.1
26.1
100.0
made fiber
Trousers
1.2
37.3
19.3
7.1
32.2
100.0
Total
4.1
37.3
19.3
7.1
32.2
100.0
Data Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. OTEXA.
*The Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
Rejuvenating Haiti’s apparel assembly industry has been criticized as a growth
strategy for its lack of development potential, but it has survived as a niche
production strategy in a highly competitive industry. Supporters of the sector argue
that given Haiti’s limited options for rebuilding its economy in the short term, the
apparel sector offers one relatively quick response to high unemployment. Apparel
assembly has also allowed manufacturing to remain in Haiti that might otherwise
have migrated to Asia or Central America.24 Haiti’s apparel industry relies entirely
on foreign producers for yarns and fabrics. In most cases, they are produced by firms
in the United States and the Dominican Republic. Four major foreign producers
contract with Haitian apparel plants: Gildan (Canada); Hanes (U.S.); Willbes (South
Korea); and Grupo M (Dominican Republic).
In 2003, Grupo M, a Dominican firm, began a mutually beneficial apparel co-
production arrangement in Haiti. The effort is highlighted by a new plant in a foreign
trade zone (Compagnie Development Industriel – CODEVI) in Ouanaminthe, Haiti
on the northern border with the Dominican Republic. Grupo M, the only Dominican
company operating a co-production plant, provides management training and
guidance and plans to turn operation of the facility over fully to Haitian managers.
It has also worked with the Haitian government in providing the necessary
infrastructure investment, including water and electricity, the excess of which is
made available to the surrounding community. Selection and training of Haitian
workers is rigorous and the jobs are highly coveted.25
24 Dupuy, op. cit., pp. 64-65 and Prepared statement by Haitian apparel representatives
before the USITC and United States International Trade Commission. Textiles and Apparel
Effects of Special Rules for Haiti on Trade Markets and Industries. Investigation No. TR-
5003-1. November 8, 2007. pp. 2-1 thru 2-6.
25 Discussions with Haitian and Dominican representatives in Ouanaminthe and Santo
Domingo, April 20-26, 2008. From a historical perspective, this area has been an important
border crossing, but also the site of significant conflict between the two countries.
Communities on both sides of the border support the plant for the benefits it provides as the
(continued...)
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Grupo M remains competitive in the U.S. apparel market by producing fabric
in the Dominican Republic (from U.S. yarns) and sending cut components to Haiti
for assembly (sewing) using Haiti’s low-wage labor force. Haiti assembly sector
wage rates are the lowest in the region, on par with those in Bangladesh.26 The
USITC estimates that they may average as little as one-third of those in the
Dominican Republic.27 Assembled articles are then returned to the Dominican
Republic for washing and finishing. CODEVI produces t-shirts, jeans, and knit
trousers and employs 2,000-2,500 workers and employment could double over the
next few years. The entire line of Hanes t-shirts is produced through the co-
production process.
The plant began operations because of the advantage that Haiti’s low-cost labor
afforded Grupo M’s production process, but unilateral trade preferences provided
additional incentives to produce in Haiti. In particular, the use of flexible sourcing
arrangements provides a competitive advantage to apparel production in Haiti and
was a major factor in the decision to expand operations by Grupo M. The
determination of the U.S. Congress to modify the tariff preferences and rules of
origin in the original HOPE Act was driven by a sense that they could be a critical
factor in the renewed development of Haitian apparel assembly operations.28
The Haiti HOPE Act
Congress first provided trade preferences to the Caribbean region in the
Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (CBERA) of 1983. They did not, however,
cover textile or apparel goods.29 In 2000, Congress passed the Caribbean Basin
Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA), which provided additional incentives on a
temporary basis to select textile and apparel articles assembled or knit-to-shape by
firms in designated beneficiary countries in the Caribbean region. In general, to
qualify for the tariff preferences, the articles had to be made from inputs produced
in the United States or the region. The HOPE Acts build on this precedent, providing
benefits exclusively for Haitian apparel exports as a way to support growth and
development in Haiti.
25 (...continued)
major income generator in the region.
26 The World Bank, Haiti: Options and Opportunities for Inclusive Growth, pp. 22-23.
27 The USITC compiled average wage rates for apparel workers in the Caribbean, which
suggest that Haiti’s wages were, on average, one-third that of the Dominican Republic and
one-half that of Nicaragua, its nearest competitor. USITC. Textiles and Apparel: Effects
of Special Rules for Haiti on Trade Markets and Industries. Publication 4016. June 2008.
p. 2-3.
28 Ibid.
29 In 1986, President Reagan, by Executive Order, authorized a Special Access Program
(SAP) for eligible Caribbean countries that allowed a guaranteed annual amount of apparel
imports that was subject to duties only on the amount of value added abroad.
CRS-13
The HOPE Acts offer duty-free treatment for U.S. apparel imports from Haiti
under rules that allow for more flexible sourcing of materials than those offered to
Haiti and other Caribbean countries under the CBTPA. The basic difference is that
under the CBTPA, apparel goods receive duty-free treatment if assembled or knit-to-
shape from U.S. yarns and fabrics.30 Under the HOPE Acts, duty-free treatment is
extended to apparel articles if wholly assembled or knit-to-shape in Haiti from
materials (yarns, fabric, and components) sourced from any country provided a
minimum portion of the materials is produced by a country that is party to a U.S.
trade preferential arrangement or free trade agreement (FTA).
In effect, the rules allow Haiti, unlike other countries, to export apparel that uses
limited amounts of lower-cost inputs from anywhere in the world and still enter the
United States free of duty. Because the United States is the dominant market for
Haitian apparel, the economic benefit conveyed from the preferences is expected to
have a significant effect on investment, output, and employment in that sector.
HOPE I
In December 2006, the 109th Congress passed the Haitian Hemispheric
Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement Act of 2006 (HOPE I) as Title V
of the Tax Relief and Health Care Act of 2006 (H.R. 6111/P.L. 109-432). Referred
to as HOPE I, the act provided special rules for the duty-free treatment of select
apparel imports from Haiti made from third-country yarns and fabrics, provided Haiti
met rules of origin and eligibility criteria. To be eligible, Haiti had to make progress
toward establishing a market economy, the rule of law, the elimination of barriers to
U.S. trade and investment, policies to reduce poverty, a system to combat corruption,
and protection of internationally recognized worker rights.
The act required that all eligible exports had to be shipped directly from Haiti.
It also established an overall cap on total qualified apparel imports equal to 1%-2%
of total U.S. apparel imports. It included a short supply rule that allowed duty-free
treatment of goods made from fabrics found to be in “short supply,” as defined in all
other preference arrangements and FTAs of the United States, and gives preferences
to wire harness automotive imports.
At the heart of HOPE I are three specific new rules of origin. First, quotas for
the duty-free treatment of apparel articles that meet the 50% to 60% value-added
content requirement from countries that are a party to a U.S. FTA or are beneficiary
countries under a unilateral preference arrangement. There are no restrictions on the
source of the remaining inputs. Second, additional quotas for duty-free treatment of
woven apparel that could not meet the 50%-60% value-added rule (allowing all
inputs for these articles to be sourced from anywhere in the world). Third, a single
transformation rule of origin that allowed for duty-free treatment of brassieres made
30 Knit apparel may also use fabric made in a CBTPA beneficiary country. Other rules and
exceptions exist. United States International Trade Commission. Textiles and Apparel
Effects of Special Rules for Haiti on Trade Markets and Industries. Investigation No. TR-
5003-1. November 8, 2007. p. 1-5.
CRS-14
from components sourced anywhere in the world, provided the garments are cut and
sewn or otherwise assembled completely in Haiti, the United States, or both.
HOPE I soon came under criticism for being ineffective. In 2007, the first year
of operation, only 3% of Haitian apparel imports entered under HOPE I, the rest still
entering duty free under the CBTPA.31 Among the major criticisms of HOPE I
were:32
! the three-year program was too short to attract new investment;
! the 50% value added rule was too high;
! a more liberal value-added rule like that given wovens was needed
for knits because they represent 80% of Haitian apparel production;
! the requirement of direct shipping from Haiti was cumbersome and
costly since apparel finishing (e.g., washing; applications) had to be
done in the Dominican Republic and then the articles shipped back
to Haiti for export to the United States; and,
! the overall cap on imports was too small.
In addition, U.S. textile producers objected to the preferences, contending that
because they permitted use of third-party fabrics and other inputs, they were
effectively displacing textile jobs in the United States and the Caribbean with those
in Asia. U.S. producers also argued that the rules of origin were vague and difficult
to enforce, and that the tariff preferences could result in diverting apparel production
to Haiti from other countries in the region that had apparel trade preferences in
agreements with the United States.33 The USITC found that in 2007, Haiti imports
of yarns and fabrics from China and Hong Kong increased significantly, possibly in
part as a response to HOPE I. In general, however, because Haiti accounts for less
than 1% of total U.S. apparel imports, the USITC opined that HOPE I had a
“negligible” effect on the U.S. textile industry. In addition, there was little evidence
of trade diversion from other apparel manufacturers in the region.34
HOPE II
Because early assessments of the effectiveness of HOPE I expressed
disappointment with its progress, and Haiti’s economic and social conditions were
deteriorating in 2008, the 110th Congress passed the Hemispheric Opportunity
through Partnership Encouragement Act of 2008 (HOPE II) as part of Title XV of the
31 USITC, Textiles and Apparel: Effects of Special Rules for Haiti on Trade Markets and
Industries, pp. 2-11 and 3-1.
32 Communications with Haitian and Dominican industry representatives, also summarized
in USITC testimony and USITC, Textiles and Apparel: Effects of Special Rules for Haiti on
Trade Markets and Industries, pp. 3-9 thru 3-10.
33 United States International Trade Commission. Textiles and Apparel Effects of Special
Rules for Haiti on Trade Markets and Industries. Investigation No. TR-5003-1. November
8, 2007. pp. 31-34 and testimony submitted jointly by the American Manufacturing Trade
Action Coalition and the National Council of Textile Organizations.
34 USITC, Textiles and Apparel: Effects of Special Rules for Haiti on Trade Markets and
Industries, p. 3-1.
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Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (H.R. 6124/P.L. 110-246) — the “Farm
Bill.” Referred to as HOPE II, it amended the original HOPE legislation. Both
Houses of Congress were able to agree on bill language relatively quickly and
without formal hearings, expediting the legislative process.
Tariff Preferences and Rules of Origin. As with HOPE I, duty-free
treatment is provided to apparel articles that are wholly assembled or knit-to-shape
in Haiti. The specific rules of origin determine the amount of third party inputs that
can be used in the manufacturing process and still receive duty-free treatment. Broad
design changes to the HOPE Act include extending all tariff preferences for a period
of 10 years ending September 30, 2018, allowing direct shipment of final goods from
either Haiti or the Dominican Republic, and clarifying the quantitative limitation
(cap) rules to ensure that 1) articles not subject to a specific cap do not count toward
the overall value-added cap; 2) articles subject to one cap do not count toward
another cap; and 3) HOPE benefits are understood to be extended in addition to any
other benefits conveyed under CBERA.
Amended rules of origin allow for duty-free treatment of imports of Haitian
apparel regardless of the source of inputs (yarns, fabrics, components) with the major
changes being an increase in the cap of woven articles and the addition of a new
capped benefit for knit articles. Detailed changes include:
! maintaining the value-added rule, but freezing the overall cap on
eligible apparel articles to 1.25% of total U.S. apparel imports. The
original five-year sunset provision is maintained, allowing the cap
to expire in 2012 because it is unlikely to be exceeded and was
viewed as complicated to interpret in relation to other caps;
! increasing the annual cap for select woven apparel imports to 70
million square meter equivalents (SMEs);
! adding a new duty-free rule for knit apparel (with multiple
exclusions) capped annually at 70 million SMEs;
! adding a new uncapped duty-free rule (under the single
transformation rule) for brassieres, selected womens’ and girls’
sleepwear, luggage, and handbags;
! adding a new uncapped “3 for 1” earned import allowance (EIA). It
allows producers to claim a credit for the export of apparel articles
made from qualifying inputs that can be used in exchange for
exporting articles duty-free made from non-qualifying inputs in a 3
for 1 ratio. Qualifying woven fabric must be wholly formed in the
United States from yarns wholly formed in the United States.
Qualifying knit fabric and knit-to-shape components must be wholly
formed or knit-to-shape in the United States or any country or
combination thereof that is a party to a U.S. free trade agreement or
a beneficiary country under a unilateral preference arrangement,
from yarns wholly formed in the United States.
! clarifying that the“short supply” rule, or benefits given for the use of
non-U.S. fabric and yarns not available in commercial quantities, is
uncapped and expanded to include all fabric and yarns in short
supply lists in other U.S. preference arrangements and FTAs.
CRS-16
Labor Provisions. HOPE II also amended the eligibility requirements by
requiring Haiti to create a new independent Labor Ombudsman’s Office and to
establish the Technical Assistance improvement and Compliance Needs Assessment
and Remediation (TAICNAR) Program within 16 months of enactment of HOPE II
legislation.
The labor ombudsman is to be appointed by the President of Haiti and report
directly to him. The office’s major functions include 1) maintaining a registry of
apparel and textile producers who seek to use the trade preferences; 2) implementing
and overseeing the TAICNAR program; 3) receiving and directing appropriate
comments to the Haitian Department of Labor and the United Nations International
Labor Organization (ILO) regarding labor conditions and complaints; and 4)
overseeing compliance with ILO core labor standards.35
The TAICNAR program provides technical assistance through the ILO to help
Haiti develop the capacity to monitor compliance of registered apparel producers in
meeting core labor standards. Those that are habitually unable, or refuse to comply
with these standards or to accept technical assistance to remedy deficiencies, can lose
their eligibility for HOPE Act trade preferences. The TAICNAR program is also
required to help build government capacity to inspect facilities, enforce labor laws,
and resolve labor disputes. The ILO is to issue a report every six months evaluating
the progress of each producer in meeting the goals of the TAICNAR program. The
President of the United States is also to produce an annual report for Congress on the
progress in implementing the labor provisions.
Outlook
As discussed above, Haiti faces enormous obstacles to sustainable economic
growth and development.36 Congress responded to Haiti’s long-term economic
challenges in part by creating and then expanding the HOPE Act. Unilateral trade
preferences for developing countries have played a long-standing role in U.S. trade
policy and Congress designed the HOPE Acts as the most flexible of these
arrangements to address Haiti’s special circumstances. As the poorest country in the
Western Hemisphere, it has the greatest need for development assistance.
Because the United States is the primary market for Haitian apparel exports,
trade preferences may affect export and production levels enough to help rejuvenate
the apparel industry. This could help Haiti’s struggling economy by providing
additional incentives to invest in an industry that has the potential to create
employment relatively quickly and which is also the largest foreign exchange earner
35 Defined in the statute as: 1) freedom of association; 2) the effective recognition of the
right to bargain collectively; 3) the elimination of all forms of compulsory or forced labor;
4) the effective abolition of child labor and a prohibition on the worst forms of child labor;
and 5) the elimination of discrimination in respect to employment and occupation.
36 These have been made worse by Hurricanes Fay and Gustav, which tore through Haiti in
August 2008. U.S. Agency for International Development notes that U.S. assistance for
hurricane relief reached $30 million as of September 30, 2008.
CRS-17
in the country. Apparel exports to the United States have stagnated since 2005 and
turning this trend around would be an important indication that the preferences might
be having the desired effect.
Trade preferences are also only one policy response, limited to affecting one
sector of the economy. Success, therefore, may face many other challenges presented
by Haitian society that will require much deeper political and social reform. HOPE
II does support social reform by requiring that internationally recognized core labor
standards be enforced and strictly monitored. The approach is inventive because the
tariff preferences are tied directly to firm performance, the ILO, which wields
international credibility, is actively involved, and it combines government, private
sector, and international agency participation in a model first defined in the U.S.-
Cambodia Textile Agreement that has received highly favorable reviews.37
Congressional oversight is also clearly mandated in the HOPE Act and will
likely be a defining factor in assuring it continues to be implemented as intended and
in ways that support Haiti’s long-term development. Haiti, for its part, will have to
find ways to overcome a legacy of political volatility, economic inequality, and social
dissatisfaction. Without the transition to a more equal and stable society, trade
preferences may be overwhelmed by other factors.
37 See attachment entitled Harnessing Global Forces to Create Decent Work: A Successful
Experiment in the Cambodian Apparel Sector in: Polaski, Sandra. The Fight Against
Global Poverty and Inequality: The World Bank’s Approach to Core Labor Standards and
Employment. Hearing testimony before the House Committee on Financial Services.
October 3, 2007.
CRS-18
Appendix. Haiti: Selected Economic Indicators
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
GDP Growth (%)
0.9
-1.0
-0.3
0.4
-3.5
1.8
2.3
3.3
Per Capita
-0.8
-2.7
-1.8
-1.2
-5.0
0.2
0.7
1.6
GDP Growth (%)
Inflation Rate (%)
14.1
14.2
9.9
39.3
22.8
15.1
13.2
9.0
Real Int. Rate (%)
6.1
20.5
10.7
-9.7
13.9
12.3
19.5
24.5
Avg. Real Wage (%
-11.9
-11.6
-8.9
33.5
-14.4
-13.2
-12.0
-7.6
change)
Gross Fixed Capital
27.3
27.3
28.0
28.8
28.9
28.8
28.8
28.8
Form. (% of GDP)
Current Acct. Bal.
-3.0
-3.8
-2.8
-1.6
-1.5
0.9
-0.4
0.2
(% GDP)
Current Acct. Bal. –
-8.2
-6.6
w/out grants (%)
Net FDI ($ mil)
13.0
4.0
6.0
14.0
6.0
26.0
160.0
75.0
Terms of trade (index)
100.0
101.2
100.2
98.7
96.0
92.4
88.9
83.9
Source: United Nations Economic Commission on Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).
Statistical Yearbook for Latin American and the Caribbean 2007. March 2008 and International
Monetary Fund. Haiti: Second Review Under the Three-Year Arrangement Under the Poverty
Reduction and Growth Facility. March 2008.