Order Code RS21048
Updated July 29, 2008
U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF):
Background and Issues for Congress
Andrew Feickert
Specialist in Military Ground Forces
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Summary
Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations
and the Administration has given U.S. SOF greater responsibility for planning and
conducting worldwide counterterrorism operations. The progress of mandated SOF
growth and SOF’s role in irregular warfare (IW) are potential policy issues for
congressional consideration. This report will be updated as events warrant.
Background
Overview. Special Operations Forces (SOF) are small, elite military units with
special training and equipment that can infiltrate into hostile territory through land, sea,
or air to conduct a variety of operations, many of them classified. SOF personnel undergo
rigorous selection and lengthy specialized training. The U.S. Special Operations
Command (USSOCOM) oversees the training, doctrine, and equipping of all U.S. SOF
units.
Command Structures. In 1986, Congress expressed concern for the status of
SOF within overall U.S. defense planning and passed measures (P.L. 99-661) to
strengthen its position. These actions included the establishment of USSOCOM as a new
unified command. USSOCOM is headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa,
FL. The Commander of USSOCOM is a four-star officer who may be from any service.
Commander, USSOCOM reports directly to the Secretary of Defense, although an
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict and
Interdependent Capabilities (ASD/SOLIC&IC) provides immediate civilian oversight
over many USSOCOM activities.
Army Special Operations Forces. U.S. Army SOF (ARSOF) include
approximately 30,000 soldiers from the Active Army, National Guard, and Army Reserve
who are organized into Special Forces, Ranger, and special operations aviation units,
along with civil affairs units, psychological operations units, and special operations
support units. ARSOF Headquarters and other resources, such as the John F. Kennedy

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Special Warfare Center and School, are located at Fort Bragg, NC. Five active Special
Forces (SF) Groups (Airborne) are stationed at Fort Bragg and at Fort Lewis, WA, Fort
Campbell, KY, and Fort Carson, CO. Special Forces soldiers — also known as the Green
Berets — are trained in various skills, including foreign languages, that allow teams to
operate independently throughout the world. In FY2008, the Army began to increase the
total number of Army Special Forces battalions from 15 to 20, with one battalion being
allocated to each active Special Forces Group. Two Army National Guard SF groups are
headquartered in Utah and Alabama. An elite airborne light infantry unit specializing in
direct action operations1, the 75th Ranger Regiment, is headquartered at Fort Benning, GA,
and consists of three battalions. Army special operations aviation units, including the
160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) headquartered at Fort Campbell,
KY, feature pilots trained to fly the most sophisticated Army rotary-wing aircraft in the
harshest environments, day or night, and in adverse weather.
Some of the most frequently deployed SOF assets are civil affairs (CA) units, which
provide experts in every area of civil government to help administer civilian affairs in
operational theaters. The 95th Civil Affairs Brigade (Airborne) is the only active CA unit,
and plans call for the brigade to expand from one to four battalions by 2009.2 All other
CA units reside in the Reserves and are affiliated with conventional Army units.
Psychological operations units disseminate information to large foreign audiences through
mass media. The active duty 4th Psychological Operations (PSYOPS) Group (Airborne)
is stationed at Fort Bragg, and two Army Reserve PSYOPS groups work with
conventional Army units.
Air Force Special Operations Forces. The Air Force Special Operations
Command (AFSOC) includes about 13,000 active and reserve personnel. AFSOC is
headquartered at Hurlburt Field, FL, along with the 720th Special Tactics Group, the 18th
Flight Test Squadron, and the U.S. Air Force Special Operations School. The 16th Special
Operations Wing (SOW) relocated from Hurlburt Field to Cannon Air Force Base (AFB)
in 2007.3 AFSOC plans to activate the 1st SOW at Hurlburt Field using elements of the
16th SOW.4 The 352nd Special Operations Group is at RAF Mildenhall, England, and the
353rd Special Operations Group, is at Kadena Air Base, Japan. Reserve AFSOC
components include the 193rd Special Operations Wing, Air National Guard, stationed at
Harrisburg, PA, the 280th Combat Communications Squadron, Air National Guard,
stationed at Dothan, AL, and the 919th Special Operations Wing, Air Force Reserve,
1 Direct action operations are short-duration strikes and other small-scale offensive actions
conducted as a special operation in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive environments and
which employ specialized military capabilities to seize, destroy, capture, exploit, recover, or
damage designated targets. Direct action differs from conventional offensive actions in the level
of physical and political risk, operational techniques, and the degree of discriminate and precise
use of force to achieve specific objectives.
2 Kevin Maurer, “Newly Formed 95th Civil Affairs Brigade Activates,” Fayetteville Times,
August 18, 2006.
3 Michael Sirak, “Air Force Assigns Special Operations Wing to Cannon Air Force Base,”
Defense Daily, June 22, 2006.
4 Ibid.

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stationed at Duke Field, FL. AFSOC’s three active-duty flying units are composed of
more than 100 fixed and rotary-wing aircraft.
Naval Special Operations Forces. The Naval Special Warfare Command
(NSWC) is located in Coronado, CA. NSWC is organized around eight SEAL Teams
and two SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) Teams. Two of these eight SEAL Teams are
deployed at any given time, with each SEAL Team consisting of six SEAL platoons each,
consisting of two officers and 16 enlisted personnel. The major operational components
of NSWC include Naval Special Warfare Groups One and Three stationed in San
Diego, CA, and Naval Special Warfare Groups Two and Four in Norfolk, VA. These
components deploy SEAL Teams, SEAL Delivery Vehicle Teams, and Special Boat
Teams worldwide to meet the training, exercise, contingency and wartime requirements
of theater commanders. NSWC has approximately 5,400 total active-duty personnel —
including 2,450 SEALs and 600 Special Warfare Combatant-Craft Crewmen (SWCC) —
as well as a 1,200-person reserve component of approximately 325 SEALs, 125 SWCC
and 775 support personnel. SEALs are considered the best-trained combat swimmers in
the world, and can be deployed covertly from submarines or from sea-based aircraft.
Marine Special Operations Command (MARSOC).5 On November 1, 2005,
DOD announced the creation of the Marine Special Operations Command (MARSOC)
as a component of USSOCOM. MARSOC consists of three subordinate units — the
Marine Special Operations Regiment, the Foreign Military Training Unit, and the Special
Operations Support Group — totaling approximately 2,600 Marines. MARSOC
Headquarters, the Foreign Military Training Unit, and the Special Operations Support
Group are stationed at Camp Lejeune, NC. The Marine Special Operations Regiment has
its headquarters at Camp Lejeune and has an element stationed at Camp Pendleton, CA.
MARSOC has reportedly deployed Foreign Military Training Teams to Africa and South
America and two Marine Special Operations Battalions have been activated — one on
each coast.6
Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC). According to DOD, the JSOC
is “a joint headquarters designed to study special operations requirements and techniques;
ensure interoperability and equipment standardization; plan and conduct joint special
operations exercises and training; and develop joint special operations tactics.”7 While
not official acknowledged by DOD or USSOCOM, JSOC, which is headquartered at
Pope Air Force Base, NC, is widely believed to command and control what are described
as the military’s three special missions units — the Army’s Delta Force, the Navy’s SEAL
5 Information in this section is taken from DOD Press Release No. 1127-05, dated November 1,
2005, Subject: Secretary of Defense Approves Marine Special Operations Command; Donna
Miles, “Marine Corps to Join U.S. Special Operations Command,” American Forces Press
Service, November 1, 2005; and Christian Lowe, “U.S. Marine Corps to Create Special
Operations Unit,” Defense News, November 1, 2005.
6 Statement by General Bryan D. Brown, Commander, U.S. Special Operations Command, before
the House Subcommittee on Terrorism, Unconventional Threats and Capabilities, “Current
Manning, Equipping, and Readiness Challenges Facing Special Operations Forces,” January 31,
2007, p. 4.
7 USSOCOM website [http://www.socom.mil/components/components.htm], accessed March 19,
2008.

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Team Six, a joint unit allegedly designed to conduct clandestine operations, as well as
the 75th Ranger Regiment, the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment and the Air
Force’s 24th Special Tactics Squadron.8 JSOC’s primary mission is believed to be
identifying and destroying terrorists and terror cells worldwide.
USSOCOM Budget
FY2009 Budget Request.9 USSOCOM’s FY2009 Presidential Budget request
is $5.727 billion. Over half — $3.7 billion — is for Operations and Maintenance, with
$1.5 billion for Research, Development, Technology, and Evaluation (RDT&E).
House and Senate Markup of FY2009 National Defense Authorization
Act (H.R. 5658).10 The House Armed Services Committee authorized $5.9 billion, an
increase of $185.8 million, primarily to provide resources for 8 of USSOCOM’s 10
unfunded priorities, including improved surveillance capabilities, personal protection
gear, aircraft countermeasures, radios, and night imagers. The Senate Armed Services
Committee fully funded the $5.7 billion budget request and added an additional $20
million for intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and tracking technologies. The
House and Senate Appropriations Committees have not scheduled a mark-up of the
FY2009 defense appropriations bill.
Current Issues
Continued SOF Growth.11 As mandated by the 2006 Quadrennial Defense
Review (QDR) SOF continues to expand. USSOCOM added 6,643 military and civilians
in 2007. By the end of FY2009, USSOCOM hopes to grow to 55,890 civilian and
military personnel, of which 43,745 will be active duty military, 4,310 Guard, 2,560
Reserves, and 5,275 government civilians. These increases roughly translate into adding
five additional Special Forces battalions, four additional Ranger companies, 300
additional SEALs, 2,500 Marine Special Operations Forces, and additional special
operations aviators. This expansion is intended to relieve the global shortfall of U.S.
SOF, as about 80% of SOF are deployed to the U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM)
area of operations, which has resulted in a shortage of SOF in other regions.12 The
emphasis on USCENTCOM has resulted in a dilution of skill levels for some SOF
members who under normal circumstances could be assigned to other areas of the world
where they would be using and refining different languages, cultural skills, and
8 Sean D. Naylor, “JSOC to Become Three-Star Command,” Army Times, February 13, 2006.
9 Information in this section is from the Statement of Admiral Eric T. Olson, Commander, United
States Special Operations Command, before the Senate Armed Services Committee on the
Posture of Special Operations Forces, March 4, 2008.
10 House Armed Services Subcommittee Press Release on H.R. 5658: FY2009 National Defense
Authorization Act, May 15, 2008 and Senate Armed Services Committee Press Release: Senate
Armed Services Committee Completes Markup of National Defense Authorization Bill for Fiscal
Year 2009, May 1, 2008.
11 Ibid.
12 Information in this section is from William H. McMichael, “Some Spec Ops Skills Being Lost,
Official Says,” Army Times, June 23, 2008.

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operational tactics. In addition, the high concentration of U.S. SOF in the USCENTCOM
region has hindered USSOCOM efforts to establish what it describes as a “global network
of persistent presence rather than an episodic presence.”
SOF and Irregular Warfare (IW).13 It is anticipated that the forthcoming 2008
National Defense Strategy will require the Services to focus more on IW while accepting
greater risk in traditional combat capability.14 The House version of the FY2009 National
Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 5658) directs DOD to designate an Assistant Secretary
of Defense to be responsible for IW matters and also calls for the establishment of an
Executive Agent for IW.15 Some believe that DOD might designate USSOCOM as the
Executive Agent for IW. USSOCOM, which had previously been considered by some as
too focused on direct action missions, is said to be focusing increasingly more on indirect
warfare and its application to IW.16 With this emphasis on IW, some senior DOD
officials have suggested that general-purpose forces need to become “more SOF-like”in
terms of responsiveness and the ability to adapt.17 DOD’s ongoing Roles and Missions
review reportedly will attempt to establish “the right division of responsibilities for
special operations troops and general-purpose forces across the spectrum of irregular
warfare, including for counterinsurgency and foreign internal defense.”18 Within this
context, it is possible that general-purpose forces might be assigned a greater share of
foreign internal defense and training, advisory, and assistance missions, which have
traditionally fallen to SOF units. This shift in mission could have a number of operational
implications for U.S. SOF units.
AFSOC Initiatives. AFSOC officials expect to have the first CV-22 tilt rotor
squadron operational in early 2009. 19 This first AFSOC Osprey squadron will have six
aircraft and nine crews. The Osprey will eventually replace AFSOC’s MH-53 Pave Low
helicopters, which were officially retired in 2008. AFSOC is also accelerating efforts to
replace the aging AC-130U gunship fleet with a lighter version — perhaps a modified
13 DOD’s Irregular Warfare (IW) Joint Operating Concept (JOC), September 11, 2007, defines
IW as a violent struggle among state and non-state actors for legitimacy and influence over the
relevant populations. IW favors indirect and asymmetric approaches, though it may employ the
full range of military and other capabilities, in order to erode an adversary’s power, influence,
and will. It is an inherently protracted struggle that will test the resolve of our nation and strategic
partners.
14 Jason Sherman, “Defense Strategy Urges More Investment in Irregular Capabilities,”
InsideDefense.com, July 24, 2008.
15 House Armed Services Committee Press Release, “ House Armed Services Committee Passes
H.R. 5658: FY 2009 National Defense Authorization Act,” May 18, 2008, p. 22.
16 Richard Lardner, “Commando Leaders Shift Away from Rumsfeld Strategy,” Norfolk
Virginian-Pilot, May 11, 2008.
17 Goeff Fein, “OEF, OIF Demonstrating U.S. Forces Will Need to be More SOF-Like,”
InsideDefense.com, June 11, 2008.
18 Christopher J. Castelli “Pentagon Must Fix Shortfalls in Key Irregular Warfare Missions,”
InsideDefense.com, May 22, 2008.
19 Nathan Hodge, “AFSOC to Stand Up First Osprey Unit in 2009,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, May
28, 2008, p. 10.

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version of the C-27B Joint Cargo Aircraft (JCA).20 AFSOC is said to working to increase
the number of MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) it uses
to support special operations missions by about two-thirds in the FY2010 Program
Objective Memorandum (POM).21
Issues for Congress
Growth in SOF “Operators”.22 Admiral Olson testified to the Senate Armed
Services Committee that USSOCOM had achieved 89% of FY2007 QDR growth. This
growth represents all of USSOCOM, including staff, support, and civilian personnel, but
is not clear how successful efforts have been to add “operators” such as SEAL Team
members, Army Special Forces A Team members, and Army Rangers serving in Ranger
Battalions. Congress may decide to examine USSOCOM growth in detail and look at
growth in terms of specific military specialties, including “operators” and support
personnel, to include growth in the officers and enlisted grades. It is possible that the
89% aggregate 2007 growth showcased by USSOCOM might actually “hide” lower levels
of growth in certain key specialty areas and growth in the officer and enlisted ranks.
Slower than required growth of SOF operators could hinder the creation of additional
Special Forces Battalions and SEAL units and affect USSOCOM’s goal of establishing
a more persistent world-wide presence.
SOF and Irregular Warfare (IW). A shift in national defense strategy to IW
could have a number of implications for U.S. SOF. One is that more foreign internal
defense and training, advisory, and assistance missions could be transferred to general-
purpose forces, which could potentially free up SOF units, that normally would be
assigned these missions, for other operations. The call for general-purpose forces to
become more “SOF-like” might facilitate IW operations and remove some of the
operational burden from SOF, but in order to achieve this “transformation” of general-
purpose forces, SOF resources and personnel would likely be dedicated to this effort,
which could preclude their availability for operational missions. The possibility that
USSOCOM could be designated the Executive Agent for IW raises the concern that the
command, which is already responsible for planning and conducting worldwide
counterterrorism operations, might be overextended in terms of its responsibilities. If
USSOCOM is designated Executive Agent for IW, it is possible that the command will
require additional personnel and funding to fulfill this mandate. Another consideration
in this case is that USSOCOM might need to undertake efforts to ensure that they
maintain the proper balance between direct and indirect actions as IW, as currently
defined, places heavy emphasis on the “indirect approach.”
20 John Reed, “AFSOC Quickly Working to Field Next-Generation Light Gunship,”
InsideDefense.com, June 27, 2008.
21 John Reed, “AFSOC Working to Increase Drone Fleet by Two-Thirds in POM-10 Build,”
InsideDefense.com, July 18, 2008.
22 Information in this section is from the Statement of Admiral Eric T. Olson, Commander, United
States Special Operations Command, before the Senate Armed Services Committee on the
Posture of Special Operations Forces, March 4, 2008.

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