Order Code RL33577
U.S. International Trade:
Trends and Forecasts
Updated January 4, 2008
Dick K. Nanto
Specialist in Industry and Trade
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Shayerah Ilias
Analyst in Industry and Trade
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
J. Michael Donnelly
Information Research Specialist
Knowledge Services Group

---

U.S. International Trade: Trends and Forecasts
Summary
This report provides an overview of the current status, trends, and forecasts for
U.S. international trade. The purpose of this report is to provide current data and
brief explanations for the various types of trade flows, particularly U.S. exports,
along with a short discussion of particular trends and points of contention related to
trade policy.
The United States is now running record deficits in its trade with other nations.
In 2006 the U.S. merchandise trade deficit reached $838 billion on a
balance-of-payments (BoP) basis and $817 billion on a Census basis. A surplus in
services trade of $80 billion resulted in a deficit of $759 billion on goods and
services for the year — up $44 billion or 6.2% from the $714 billion deficit in 2005.
While U.S. exports are highly competitive in world markets, these sales abroad are
overshadowed by the huge demand by Americans for imported products. In 2006,
U.S. exports of goods and services totaled $1,446 billion, while U.S. imports reached
$2,204 billion. Since 1976, the United States has incurred continual merchandise
trade deficits with annual amounts fluctuating around an upward trend.
Trade deficits are a concern for Congress because they may generate trade
friction and pressures for the government to do more to open foreign markets, to
shield U.S. producers from foreign competition, or to assist U.S. industries to become
more competitive. As the deficit increases, the risk also rises of a precipitous drop
in the value of the dollar and disruption in financial markets. Compared to a Federal
Reserve index of currencies weighted by importance to U.S. trade, the dollar has lost
a third of its value since 2002. In 2007, the dollar has fallen against major currencies
such as the euro, yen, British pound, Australian dollar, and Canadian dollar.
Overall U.S. trade deficits reflect excess spending (a shortage of savings) in the
domestic economy and a reliance on capital imports to finance that shortfall. Capital
inflows serve to offset the outflow of dollars used to pay for imports. Movements in
the exchange rate help to balance trade. The rising trade deficit (when not matched
by capital inflows) places downward pressure on the value of the dollar which, in
turn, helps to shrink the deficit by making U.S. exports cheaper and imports more
expensive. Central banks in countries such as China, however, have intervened in
foreign exchange markets to keep the value of their currencies stable.
The broadest measure of U.S. international economic transactions is the balance
on current account. In addition to merchandise trade, it includes trade in services and
unilateral transfers. In 2006, the deficit on current account rose to a revised $811.5
billion from a revised $754.8 billion in 2005. In trade in advanced technology
products, the U.S. balance improved slightly from a deficit of $44 billion in 2005 to
a deficit of $38 billion in 2006. In trade in motor vehicles and parts, the $145 billion
U.S. deficit in 2006 was mainly with Canada, Japan, Mexico, Germany, United
Kingdom, and South Korea. In crude oil, major sources of the $225 billion in
imports were Canada, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and Nigeria. This report
will be updated periodically.

---

Contents
Most Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The U.S. Deficit in International Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Savings Shortfalls and the Trade Deficit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Implications of the Trade Deficit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Types of Trade Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
U.S. Merchandise Trade Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Merchandise Trade Balance in Volume Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Current Account Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
U.S. Trade with Selected Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Advanced Technology, Autos, and Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Some Common Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Outsourcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Is the Trade Deficit at a Dangerous Level? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Is Trade with China Merely Replacing That with Southeast Asia? . . . . . . . 26
International Trade Statistics Web Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
List of Figures
Figure 1. Monthly U.S. Balances of Trade in Goods and Services, 2006
and 2007 (in Current Dollars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 2. Month-End Trade-Weighted U.S. Dollar Against Broad,
Major Currencies, and Other Important Trading Partner Indices,
January 2000-January 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3. U.S. Merchandise Exports, Imports, Trade Balance, and
Real Effective Dollar Exchange Rate Index, 1982-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 4. Real U.S. Imports, Exports, and Trade Balance of Goods
(chained 2000 dollars), 1990-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 5. Annual Growth in U.S. Merchandise Exports and Imports,
1982-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 6. U.S. Current Account and Merchandise Trade Balances, 1982-2006 . 13
Figure 7. U.S. Merchandise Trade and Current Account Deficits,
1997-2009 (forecast, in current dollars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 8. U.S. Merchandise Trade Balances with Selected Nations, 2006 . . . . . 17

---

Figure 9. Shares of U.S. Imports of Goods by Affiliation of Foreign Producer,
1998-2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 10. The U.S. Current Account Deficit as a Percent of
Gross Domestic Product, 1985-2008 (forecast) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
List of Tables
Table 1. U.S. Exports, Imports, and Merchandise Trade Balances, 1982-2006 . 10
Table 2. U.S. Merchandise Trade in Volume Terms, 2001-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table 3. U.S. Current Account Balances: 1985-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 4. U.S. Merchandise and Current Account Trade, 2003 to 2010
(Forecast) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 5. U.S. Merchandise Trade Balances with Selected Nations and Groups,
2002-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Table 6. Top U.S. Merchandise Deficit Trading Partners, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Table 7. Top U.S. Trading Partners Ranked by Total Merchandise Trade
in 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table 8. U.S. Current Account Balances With Selected U.S. Trading Partners,
2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 9. U.S. Trade in Advanced Technology Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 10. U.S. Trade in Motor Vehicles and Parts by Selected Countries,
2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 11. U.S. Imports of Crude Oil by Selected Countries, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . 24

---

U.S. International Trade:
Trends and Forecasts
Most Recent Developments
In 2006, the trade deficit in goods reached a record $838.3 billion (balance of
payments [BoP] basis), up $51.1 billion from $787.1 billion in 2005. The 2006
deficit on merchandise trade with China was $232.6 billion (Census basis), with the
European Union (EU-27) was $117.2 billion, with Japan was $88.6 billion, with
Canada was $71.8 billion, with Mexico was $64.3 billion, and with the Asian Newly
Industrialized Countries (Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan) was
$11.8 billion. Imports of goods of $1,861.4 billion increased by $179.6 billion
(10.7%) over 2005. Increases in imports by sector were: crude oil up $40.9 billion,
capital goods except automotive up $38.9 billion, automotive vehicles and parts up
$17.2 billion, and consumer goods up $35.4 billion. Exports of goods of $1,023.1
billion rose by $128.5 billion (14%), particularly of industrial supplies (up $43
billion), capital goods except automotive (up $51.6 billion), automotive vehicles and
parts (up $8.6 billion), and consumer goods (up $13.9 billion). Exports grew faster
than imports, but this was not enough to narrow the trade deficit.
Figure 1 shows the latest monthly balance data for both goods trade and
services trade. The services balance remains positive for the entire period. The
goods trade balance fluctuates each month. For January and February 2007 the
deficit on goods trade was less in 2007 than the corresponding months in 2006. This
reversal of the previous trend of steadily increasing trade deficits began in August,
2006. In March 2007, however, the deficit level exceeded that in March 2006, but
again receded in April through September 2007. The October 2007 deficit in goods
exceeded the deficit for a year earlier. In goods and services, total imports in October
2007 of $199.5 billion were the highest in the year and in U.S. history. Also in
October 2007, total exports of goods and services of $141.7 billion were the highest
in the year and U.S. history. This produced a deficit on goods and services for that
month of $57.8 billion, below the record high set in August 2006 of $67.6 billion.
For July through October 2007, the trade deficit remained below the $60 billion
monthly level. Although U.S. imports increased by 9.2% from September to October
2007, exports increased by an even greater amount of 13.7%. At $141.7 billion, U.S.
good and services exports for October set a record high for 2007.

---

CRS-2
Figure 1. Monthly U.S. Balances of Trade in Goods and Services,
2006 and 2007 (in Current Dollars)
$Billions
20
Services 2007
Services 2006
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
0
-20
-40
Goods 2006
-60
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Goods 2007
-80
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Source: CRS with Data from the U.S. Department of Commerce
In services, as shown in Figure 1, the U.S. surplus in 2006 increased by about
$2 billion from the beginning to the end of the year, reaching $8.3 billion in
December. The trade surplus in services for January through October of 2007 was
greater than over the corresponding months in 2006. Service imports reached $31.7
billion for October 2007 and exports totaled $40.6 billion, yielding a services surplus
of $8.9 billion.1
For 2006, the trade deficit on goods and services reached a record $758.5 billion
or 5.7% of U.S. gross domestic product (GDP, $13.2 trillion in 2005), up slightly
from 2005. U.S. consumer demand remains strong and continues to pull in imports
at a rapid pace. For 2007, it appears that the trade deficit will decline slightly from
that in 2006. Preliminary statistics for 2007 will be released on February 14, 2008.
The U.S. Deficit in International Trade
International trade in goods and services along with flows of financial capital
affect virtually every person living in the United States. Whether buying imported
clothes, gasoline, computers or cars, or working in an industry that competes with
1 Monthly trade data are available from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis at
[http://www.bea.gov/bea/di/home/trade.htm].

---

CRS-3
imports, or sells products abroad, the influence of international trade on economic
activity is ubiquitous.
The United States in now running record deficits in its trade with other nations.
In 2006 the U.S. merchandise trade deficit reached $817.3 billion on a Census basis
and $838.3 billion on a balance-of-payments basis (BoP). A surplus in services trade
of $79.7 billion produced a deficit of $758.5 billion on goods and services for the
year — up $146.4 billion or 23.9% from the $612.1 billion deficit in 2004. While
U.S. exports are highly competitive in world markets, U.S. sales abroad are
overshadowed by the huge demand by Americans for imported products. In 2006,
U.S. exports of goods and services totaled $1.446 trillion, while U.S. imports reached
$2.204 trillion (BoP). Since 1976, the United States has incurred continual
merchandise trade deficits with annual amounts fluctuating around an upward trend.
For the Congress, the trade deficit and other aspects of international trade enter
into public policy considerations through many portals. At the macroeconomic level,
trade deficits are a concern because they affect U.S. economic growth, interest rates,
labor, and the debt load of the economy. As the trade deficit rises relative to the total
economy, the risk increases that the dollar will weaken, raise prices, disrupt financial
markets, and reduce the economic well being of the population. On the strategic
level, trade ties often lead to a deepening of bilateral relations with other nations that
can develop into formal free trade agreements or political and security arrangements.
Trade also can be used as a tool to accomplish strategic objectives — particularly
through providing preferential trading arrangements or by imposing trade sanctions.
On the microeconomic side, imports of specific products can generate trade
friction and pressures from constituent interests for the government to shield U.S.
producers from foreign competition, provide adjustment assistance, open foreign
markets, or assist U.S. industries to become more competitive.
This report provides an overview of the current status, trends, and forecasts for
U.S. import and export flows as well as certain balances. The purpose of this report
is to provide current data and brief explanations for the various types of trade flows
along with a brief discussion of trends that may require attention or point to the need
for policy changes. The use of trade policy as an economic or strategic tool is beyond
the scope of this report but can be found in various other CRS reports.2 Further detail
on trade in specific commodities, with particular countries or regions, or for different
2 See, for example, CRS Report RL31832, The Export Administration Act: Evolution,
Provisions, and Debate, by Ian F. Fergusson; CRS Report RL33463, Trade Negotiations
During the 110th Congress, by Ian F. Fergusson; CRS Report RL31356, Free Trade
Agreements: Impact on U.S. Trade and Implications for U.S. Trade Policy, by William H.
Cooper; CRS Report RL32371, Trade Remedies: A Primer, by Vivian C. Jones; CRS Report
RL32493, The North Korean Economy: Background and Policy Analysis, by Dick K. Nanto
and Emma Chanlett-Avery; or CRS Report RL33653, East Asian Regional Architecture:
New Economic and Security Arrangements and U.S. Policy, by Dick K. Nanto.

---

CRS-4
time periods, can be obtained from the Department of Commerce,3 U.S. International
Trade Commission,4 or by contacting the authors of this report.
Savings Shortfalls and the Trade Deficit
Overall U.S. trade deficits reflect a shortage of savings in the domestic economy
and a reliance on capital imports to finance that shortfall. A savings shortfall is the
analogue of excessive spending that is financed by borrowing. Households borrow
for consumption; businesses borrow to invest; and the government borrows to cover
its budget deficit. At the international transaction level, the savings shortfall is
manifest when the United States imports capital to pay for its excess of imports (trade
deficit).
Whether this foreign borrowing is beneficial for the U.S. economy depends on
how the imports of capital are used. If they are used to finance investments that
generate a future return at a sufficiently high rate (they raise future output and
productivity), then they may increase the well being of current and future generations.
However, if the imports are used only for current consumption, the net effect of the
borrowing will be to shift the burden of repayment to future generations without a
corresponding benefit to them.
Implications of the Trade Deficit
U.S. trade balances are macroeconomic variables that may or may not indicate
underlying problems with the competitiveness of particular industries or what some
refer to as the competitiveness of a nation. The reason is that overall trade flows are
determined, within the framework of institutional barriers to trade and the activities
of individual industries, primarily by macroeconomic factors such as rates of growth,
savings and investment behavior (including government budget deficits/surpluses),
international capital flows, and exchange rates.5
Increases in trade deficits may diminish economic growth, since net exports
(exports minus imports) are a component of gross domestic product. In the late
1980s and early 1990s, export growth was an important element in overall U.S.
economic growth. In 2006, merchandise exports accounted for about 7.7% of GDP,
compared with 5.9% in 1990. Recently, however, rising trade deficits have reduced
total domestic demand in the economy, but the weakness in the trade sector has been
offset by strong consumer, business, and government demand.
3 Commerce Department data are available at [http://www.bea.gov/].
4 U.S. International Trade Commission data are available at [http://dataweb.usitc.gov/].
5 For further information on trade deficits and the macroeconomy, see CRS Report
RL31032, The U.S. Trade Deficit: Causes, Consequences, and Cures, by Craig K. Elwell
and CRS Report RL33186, Is the U.S. Current Account Deficit Sustainable?, by Marc
Labonte.

---

CRS-5
Many economists fear that the rising U.S. trade and current account6 deficits
could lead to a large drop in the value of the U.S. dollar. The current account deficit
now exceeds 6% of GDP and is placing downward pressure on the dollar. A
weakened dollar boosts exports by making them cheaper, narrowing the U.S. trade
deficit. Compared to a Federal Reserve index of major currencies weighted by
importance to U.S. trade, the dollar has lost a third of its value since 2002 (see
Figure 2). The dollar has fallen against the euro, yen, British pound, Australian
dollar, and Canadian dollar. In fact, the U.S. dollar fell to parity with the Canadian
loonie in September 2007 for the first time in thirty years, and remains roughly in that
range. The dollar’s decline was exacerbated when the Federal Reserve lowered
interest rates on September 18, 2007.
Figure 2. Month-End Trade-Weighted U.S. Dollar Against Broad,
Major Currencies, and Other Important Trading Partner Indices,
January 2000-January 2008
Index
160
Other Important Trading
Partners
140
120
100
80
Major Currencies
60
Broad
40
20
0
Jan -00 Jul -00 Jan-01 Jul-01 Jan-02 Jul-02 Jan-03 Jul-03 Jan-04 Jul-04 Jan-05 Jul-05 Jan-06 Jul-06 Jan-07 Jul-07 Jan -08
Month-Year
Source: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, [http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h10/Summary/].
Notes: Broad Index (January 1997 = 100): Euro Area, Canada, Japan, Mexico, China, United
Kingdom, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Brazil, Switzerland, Thailand,
Philippines, Australia, Indonesia, India, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Russia, Sweden, Argentina,
Venezuela,Chile and Colombia.
Major Currencies Index (January 1993 = 100): Euro Area, Canada, Japan, United Kingdom,
Switzerland, Australia, and Sweden.
Other Important Trade Partners Index (January 1997 = 100): Mexico, China, Taiwan, Korea,
Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Brazil, Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, India, Israel, Saudi Arabia,
Russia, Argentina, Venezuela, Chile and Colombia.
6 U.S. trade in goods and services plus net flows of investment income and remittances.

---

CRS-6
Although a weakened dollar helps to reduce U.S. trade imbalances, it also may
reduce the dollar’s attractiveness to foreign investors. If foreign investors stop
offsetting the deficit by buying dollar-denominated assets, the value of the dollar
could drop — possibly precipitously. In that case, U.S. interest rates would have to
rise to attract more foreign investment; financial markets could be disrupted; and
inflationary pressures could increase. In the International Monetary Fund’s May
2006 consultation with the United States, for example, its directors reiterated their
long-standing concerns about the large U.S. current account deficit. They stated that
“there is broad agreement that the large U.S. current account deficit ... cannot be
sustained indefinitely. Although a gradual adjustment is the most likely outcome,
delaying progress increases the risk of fanning protectionist sentiment or disorderly
foreign exchange market conditions.”7
Currently, foreign investment in dollar assets along with purchases of securities
by central banks of countries, such China and Japan, have been sufficient to keep the
value of the dollar from falling too far. These central banks have intervened in
currency markets to keep their exchange rates relatively stable with respect to the
dollar, although Japan claims not to have intervened since spring of 2004. This
intervention adds to the foreign currency reserves held by these countries. Japan’s
central bank held $946 billion in foreign currency reserves (end of November 2007),8
and the Bank of China held $1,434 billion (end of September 2007).9 In U.S.
Treasury securities, as of October 2007, Japan held $592 billion and China $388
billion.10 On July 21, 2005, China announced a 2.1% revaluation of its currency, but
the value of the renminbi has appreciated only a few more percentage points since
then (indicating that China may still be intervening in currency markets).11
A recent development in foreign country holdings of dollars and other reserve
currencies is that some are turning toward creating sovereign wealth funds. These
are funds owned by governments that are invested in stocks, bonds, property, and
other financial instruments denominated in dollars, euros, or other hard currency. For
China, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and oil-exporting nations, the source of capital
for these funds is coming from governmental holdings of foreign exchange. For
China and Japan, for example, foreign exchange reserves have traditionally been
invested by their respective central banks primarily in low-yielding but low-risk
7 IMF, 2005 Article IV Consultation with the United States of America. Concluding
Statement of the IMF Mission. May 31, 2006.
8 Statistics on Japanese international reserves are released on a monthly basis by the
Japanese Ministry of Finance and available at [https://www.mof.go.jp/english/gaijun/
e1911.htm].
9 Statistics on Chinese international reserves are available from the Chinability website, a
non-profit website that provides Chinese economic and business data and analysis, at
[http://www.chinability.com/].
10 Statistics on foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities are available at
[http://www.treasury.gov/tic/mfh.txt]. For further information, see CRS Report RS22331,
Foreign Holdings of Federal Debt, by Justin Murray and Marc Labonte.
11 For further information, see CRS Report RL32165, China’s Currency: Economic Issues
and Options for U.S. Trade Policy, by Wayne M. Morrison and Marc Labonte.

---

CRS-7
government bonds, i.e., U.S. Treasury securities. The purpose of sovereign wealth
funds is to diversify investments and to earn a higher rate of return. China, for
example, is creating a fund of more than $200 billion that already has bought a 10%
($3 billion) share (non-voting) of the initial public offering of the Blackstone Group,
a U.S. private equity group. Morgan Stanley research estimates that such sovereign
wealth funds could hold up to $12 trillion by 2015.12 Depending on how these funds
are managed and what leverage they acquire, they could affect U.S. interest rates
(foreign purchases of U.S. Treasury securities tend to reduce U.S. interest rates),
corporate activities (if funds buy significant voting shares of companies), and foreign
access to technology and raw materials. The U.S. trade deficit provides some of the
foreign exchange that goes to finance these sovereign wealth funds.
How long can the United States keep running trade deficits? U.S. deficits in
trade can continue for as long as foreign investors are willing to buy and hold U.S.
assets, particularly government securities and other financial assets.13 Their
willingness depends on a complicated array of factors including the perception of the
United States as a safe haven for capital, relative rates of return on investments,
interest rates on U.S. financial assets, actions by foreign central banks, and the
savings and investment decisions of businesses, governments, and households. The
policy levers that influence these factors that affect the trade deficit are held by the
Federal Reserve14 (interest rates) as well as both Congress and the Administration
(government budget deficits and trade policy), and their counterpart institutions
abroad.
In the 110th Congress, legislation directed at the trade deficit is taking several
strategies. Some address trade barriers by particular countries, particularly China.
Others are aimed at preventing manipulation of exchange rates or at imposing import
duties to compensate for the arguably undervalued Chinese currency.15 Other bills
seek to find domestic substitutes for imported oil, or require the President or a policy
group to take certain actions if the trade deficit exceeded a threshold amount (for
instance, a bilateral trade deficit of $10 billion or 2% of GDP). Legislation is tracked
in other CRS reports dealing with trade.
12 Morgan Stanley, Currencies, How Big Could Sovereign Wealth Funds Be by 2015?
Morgan Stanley Research, May 3, 2007.
13 See Mann, Catherine L. Is the U.S. Trade Deficit Sustainable? Washington, Institute for
International Economics, 1999. 224 p. See also: CRS Report RL33274, Financing the U.S.
Trade Deficit, by James K. Jackson. CRS Report RL31032, The U.S. Trade Deficit: Causes,
Consequences, and Cures, by Craig K. Elwell.
14 For details, see CRS Report RS20826, Structure and Functions of The Federal Reserve
System, by Pauline Smale.
15 For legislation related to trade with China and the Chinese currency, see CRS Report
RL33536, China-U.S. Trade Issues, by Wayne M. Morrison.

---

CRS-8
Types of Trade Data
The U.S. government compiles trade data in four different ways. The data on
goods trade are first compiled on a Census basis. Bilateral and sectoral data are
reported only on a Census basis. The Census numbers are then adjusted and reported
monthly on a balance of payments (BoP) basis that includes adjustments for
valuation, coverage, and timing and excludes military transactions. The data are
finally reported in terms of national income and product accounts (NIPA). The NIPA
data also can be further adjusted to include correcting for inflation to gauge
movement in trade volumes as distinct from trade values. Conceptually, this
procedure is analogous to adjusting macroeconomic data from nominal to real values.
The Census Bureau also reports imports on a c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and freight)
basis which includes the value of insurance, international shipping, and other charges
incurred in bringing merchandise to U.S. ports of entry. The customs (or f.a.s. — free
alongside ship) data do not include these supplementary costs. U.S. import data are
reported on a customs basis with insurance and freight charges counted in U.S.
services trade. Other countries, however, commonly report merchandise import
figures that include insurance and freight charges. This tends to overstate their
imports and understate their trade surpluses with the United States.
U.S. Merchandise Trade Balance
The merchandise (goods) trade balance is the most widely known and frequently
used indicator of U.S. international economic activity (see Figure 3). In 2006, total
U.S. merchandise trade amounted to $2,884 billion, with exports of $1,023 billion
and imports of $1,861 billion (BoP basis). The U.S. merchandise trade deficit rose
6.5% in 2006 to $838 billion following a 17.6% rise in 2005 and a 22% rise in 2004.
The rate of increase in the deficit, therefore, is beginning to taper off.

---

CRS-9
Figure 3. U.S. Merchandise Exports, Imports, Trade Balance, and
Real Effective Dollar Exchange Rate Index, 1982-2006
$ Billions
Exchange Rate Index
2200
300
2000
1800
Real Effective Dollar
1600
Exchange Rate (Right Scale)
Imports
200
1400
1200
, ,
, ,
, ,
1000
,
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
, , , ,
800
,
, , , , , ,
100
600
400
Exports
200
0
0
-200
Trade Balance
-400
-100
-600
-800
-1000
-200
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06
Year
Sources: U.S. Department of Commerce; IMF. Note: Exchange Rate, 1995= 100.
U.S. merchandise exports (as shown in Table 1 and Figure 4), decreased in
2001 and 2002 in response to the global slowdown, but generally have been
increasing each year. As shown in Figure 4, the growth of imports has also been
steady, although they too fell by 4.4% in 2001 before recovering in 2002. In 2003,
import growth was nearly double export growth, although in 2004, export growth
almost caught up with that of imports, and in 2005, the rate of increase for both
dropped slightly (11% for exports and 14% for imports). In 2006, exports grew by
14%, while imports grew by 11%. Exports grew faster than imports, but the trade
deficit still increased. This is because U.S. imports are about 82% greater than U.S.
exports, so exports must grow 82% faster than imports just for the deficit to remain
constant.

---

CRS-10
Table 1. U.S. Exports, Imports, and Merchandise Trade
Balances, 1982-2006
(billions of U.S. dollars)
Census basis
Balance of payments basis
Exports
Imports
Trade
Exports
Imports
Trade
Year
(f.a.s.a)
(customs b)
Balance
(f.a.s.a)
(customs b) Balance
1982
212.3
243.9
-31.6
211.2
247.6
-36.4
1983
201.7
261.7
-60.0
201.8
268.9
-67.1
1984
218.7
330.5
-111.8
219.9
332.4
-112.5
1985
212.6
336.4
-123.8
215.9
338.1
-122.2
1986
226.4
365.7
-139.3
223.3
368.4
-145.1
1987
253.9
406.3
-152.4
250.2
409.8
-159.6
1988
323.3
441.9
-118.6
320.2
447.2
-127.0
1989
362.9
473.4
-110.5
359.9
477.7
-117.8
1990
392.9
495.2
-102.3
387.4
498.4
-111.0
1991
421.8
487.1
-65.3
414.1
491.0
-76.9
1992
448.2
532.6
-84.4
439.6
536.5
-96.9
1993
464.8
580.5
-115.7
456.9
589.4
-132.5
1994
512.6
663.2
-150.6
502.9
668.7
-165.8
1995
584.7
743.5
-158.8
575.2
749.4
-174.2
1996
625.1
795.3
-170.2
612.1
803.1
-191.0
1997
689.2
869.7
-180.5
678.4
876.5
-198.1
1998
682.1
911.9
-229.8
670.4
917.1
-246.7
1999
695.8
1,024.6
-328.8
684.0
1,030.0
-346.0
2000
781.9
1,218.0
-436.1
772.0
1,224.4
-452.4
2001
730.9
1,142.3
-411.4
718.7
1,145.9
-427.2
2002
693.5
1,163.6
-470.1
681.8
1,164.7
-482.9
2003
724.8
1,257.1
-532.3
713.1
1,260.7
-547.6
2004
818.8
1,469.7
-650.9
807.5
1,477.1
-669.6
2005
906.0
1,673.5
-767.5
894.6
1,681.8
-787.2
2006
1,036.6
1,853.9
-817.3
1,023.1
1,861.4
-838.3
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. International
Transactions Accounts Data.
Note: Goods on a Census basis are adjusted to a BoP basis to include changes in ownership that occur
without goods passing into or out of the customs territory of the United States, to eliminate
duplication, and to value transactions according to a standard definition. Export adjustments include
counting military sales as services not goods, adding private gift parcels, and foreign official gold sales
from U.S. private dealers. Import adjustments include adding in inland freight in Canada and foreign
official gold sales to U.S. private dealers, and subtracting imports by U.S. military agencies.
a. Exports are valued on an f.a.s. basis, which refers to the free alongside ship value at the port of
export and generally include inland freight, insurance, and other charges incurred in placing the
goods alongside the carrier at the port of exportation.
b. Imports are valued as reported by the U.S. Customs Service, known as Customs basis, and exclude
import duties, the cost of freight, insurance, and other charges incurred in bringing merchandise
to the United States.

---

CRS-11
Merchandise Trade Balance in Volume Terms
Like other economic variables, exports and imports, reported in terms of their
values, can change merely because prices change. Trade data, therefore, can be
adjusted for inflation by dividing by a chained price index (chained price indexes are
weighted by two-year averages) to generate real or volume data (some trade
commodities actually are reported in volume terms [e.g., tons of wheat]). The real
data provide a more accurate picture of how the underlying flows of merchandise are
changing. As with the nominal trade deficit, the real deficit continues to widen.
Figure 4. Real U.S. Imports, Exports, and Trade Balance of Goods
(chained 2000 dollars), 1990-2006
$ Billions
2000
1750
U.S. Exports
+
+
1500
+
1250
U.S. Imports
+
+
+
+
+
1000
+
+
750
+
+
+
500
+
+
+
+
250
0
-250
-500
-750
Trade Balance
-1000
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06
Year
Source: CRS with data from U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.
As shown in Table 2 and Figure 5, the constant-dollar value, or physical
volume, of merchandise exports increased by 9.9% in 2006, up from 7.5% in 2005
and 9.0% in 2004. The physical volume of imports rose by 6.0% in 2006, down from
6.6% in 2005 and 11.3% in 2004, but up from 4.9% in 2003. Because the growth of
merchandise imports is higher than the growth of exports and because imports exceed
exports by more than 80% on a physical volume basis, exports would have to grow
more than 80% faster than imports just for the U.S. trade deficit in terms of volume
to remain constant. In 2005 and 2006, export growth actually exceeded import
growth, but the deficit still increased. In recent years, the deficit in volume terms has
varied relative to the deficit in value terms partly because of fluctuations in oil import
prices (when oil prices rise, the deficit in value rises relative to that in volume terms).

---

CRS-12
Table 2. U.S. Merchandise Trade in Volume Terms, 2001-2006
(billions of chained 2000 dollars)
Export
Import
Real Trade
Year
Exports
Growth
Imports
Growth
Balance
2001
736.3
-6.1
1,204.1
-3.2
-467.8
2002
707.0
-4.0
1,248.2
3.7
-541.2
2003
719.8
1.8
1,309.3
4.9
-589.5
2004
784.4
9.0
1,457.0
11.3
-672.6
2005
843.5
7.5
1,553.6
6.6
-710.1
2006
927.4
9.9
1,646.9
6.0
-719.5
Source: CRS calculations from Bureau of Economic Analysis, National Income and Products
Accounts data, Table 4.2.6, [http://www.bea.gov/].
Figure 5. Annual Growth in U.S. Merchandise Exports and Imports,
1982-2006
Percent
30
Import
25
Growth
20
Export Growth
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06
Year
Source: Underlying data from U.S. Department of Commerce.

---

CRS-13
Current Account Balance
The current account provides a broader measure of U.S. trade because it
includes services, investment income, and unilateral transfers in addition to
merchandise trade. (See Figure 6.) The balance on services includes travel,
transportation, fees and royalties, insurance payments, and other government and
private services. The balance on investment income includes income received on
U.S. assets abroad minus income paid on foreign assets in the United States.
Unilateral transfers are international transfers of funds for which there is no quid pro
quo. These include private gifts, remittances, pension payments, and government
grants (foreign aid). Data on the current account lag those on trade by several
months.
Figure 6. U.S. Current Account and Merchandise Trade Balances,
1982-2006
$Billions
200
0
-200
-400
Current Account Balance
Merchandise Trade
Balance
-600
-800
-1000
82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06
Year
Source: CRS with data from U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.
Table 3 summarizes the components of the U.S. current account. In 2006, the
U.S. deficit on current account increased to $811.5 billion from $754.8 billion in
2005. As a share of U.S. GDP, this deficit rose to 6.2% in 2006. This is
considerably above the caution level used by the International Monetary Fund of 5%.
Since the dollar is used as an international reserve currency, however, the United
States can run trade deficits without the same downward pressure on the value of the
dollar as other nations. Historically, the current account deficit fell from a then
record-high $160.7 billion in 1987 to $79.0 billion in 1990, and switched to a $3.7
billion surplus in 1991 (primarily because of payments to fund the Gulf War by Japan
and other nations). However, since a slight decline in 1995, the current account
deficit has been increasing significantly except for a slight dip in 2001 because of the
U.S. recession.

---

CRS-14
Table 3. U.S. Current Account Balances: 1985-2006
(billions of U.S. dollars)
Merchandise
Investment
Net
Current
Calendar
Trade
Services
Income
Unilateral
Account
Year
Balance a
Balance b
Balance c
Transfers d
Balance e
1985
-122.2
0.3
25.7
-22.0
-118.2
1986
-145.1
6.5
15.5
-24.1
-147.2
1987
-159.6
7.9
14.3
-23.3
-160.7
1988
-127.0
12.4
18.7
-25.3
-121.2
1989
-117.7
24.6
19.8
-26.2
- 99.5
1990
-111.0
30.2
28.6
-26.7
-79.0
1991
-76.9
45.8
24.1
10.8
3.7
1992
-96.9
57.8
24.2
-33.1
-48.0
1993
-132.5
62.3
25.3
-37.1
-82.0
1994
-165.8
67.4
17.1
-36.8
-118.0
1995
-174.2
77.9
20.9
-34.1
-109.5
1996
-191.0
87.1
22.3
-38.6
-120.2
1997
-198.1
89.8
12.6
-45.2
-140.9
1998
-246.7
81.7
4.3
-53.2
-214.9
1999
-346.0
82.6
13.9
-50.6
-300.1
2000
-452.4
74.1
21.0
-58.8
-416.4
2001
-427.2
64.5
25.2
-51.9
-389.4
2002
-482.9
61.1
10.0
-64.0
-475.2
2003
-547.3
52.5
46.3
-71.2
-519.7
2004
-669.6
54.1
27.6
-81.6
-665.3
2005
-787.1
72.8
48.1
-88.5
-754.8
2006
-838.3
79.7
36.6
-89.6
-811.5
Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. International Transactions. On the Internet at
[http://www.bea.gov/bea/international/bp_web/list.cfm?anon=71].
a. On a BoP basis.
b. Includes travel, transportation, fees and royalties, insurance payments, other government and
private services, and investment income.
c. Income receipts on U.S. assets abroad minus income payments on foreign assets in the United
States.
d. International transfers of funds, such as private gifts, pension payments, and government grants for
which there is no quid pro quo.
e. The trade balance plus the service balance plus investment income balance plus net unilateral
transfers, although conceptually equal to the current account balance, may differ slightly as a
result of rounding.
Since the merchandise trade balance comprises the greater part of the current
account, the two tend to track each other. Unlike the merchandise trade balance,
however, the services account registered a $79.7 billion surplus in 2006. Since
Americans are such large investors in foreign economies, the United States
traditionally also has a surplus in its investment income. The deficit in unilateral
transfers (primarily dollars sent abroad by foreign workers and recent immigrants)
at $89.6 billion in 2006 continued to rise and has reached more than triple the level
of the late 1980s.

---

CRS-15
Forecasts
According to Global Insight, Inc., a leading U.S. economic forecasting firm, in
2007 the U.S. merchandise (goods) trade deficit is projected to decline to about
$820.5 billion on a balance of payments basis and to continue to decline in 2008 and
2009 before beginning to rise again in 2010 (see Table 4 and Figure 7). The U.S.
current account deficit likewise is projected to decline from the peak of $811.5
billion in 2006 to $774.1 billion in 2007. After additional dips in 2008 and 2009, the
current account deficit is forecasted to increase again in 2010.
Table 4. U.S. Merchandise and Current Account Trade,
2003 to 2010 (Forecast)
(billions of U.S. dollars)
Forecast
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Merchandise Trade
Exports
Actual
713.4
807.5
894.6 1,023.1
—
—
—
—
Global Insight
—
—
—
— 1,150.5 1,290.2 1,419.7 1,527.9
Imports
Actual
1260.7 1472.9 1,681.8 1,861.4
—
—
—
—
Global Insight
—
—
—
— 1,989.3 2,095.3 2,204.0 2,330.6
Trade Balance
Actual
-547.3
-665.4
-787.1
-838.3
—
—
—
—
Global Insight
—
—
—
—
-820.5
-784.3
-764.1
-782.5
Services Trade Balance
Actual
52.5
54.1
72.8
79.7
—
—
—
—
Global Insight
—
—
—
—
106.6
137.8
158.6
178.0
Current Account Balance
Actual
-519.7
-665.3 -754.8 -811.5
—
—
—
—
Global Insight
—
—
—
—
-774.1
-686.6
-663.6
-689.7
Sources: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis and Global Insight (BoP basis).

---

CRS-16
Figure 7. U.S. Merchandise Trade and Current Account Deficits,
1997-2009 (forecast, in current dollars)
$Billions
200
Actual
Forecast
0
-200
-400
Goods Trade
-600
-800
Current Account
-1000
97
98
99 2000 01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
Year
Sources: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis and Global Insight (BoP basis).
U.S. Trade with Selected Nations
The overall U.S. merchandise trade balance consists of deficits or surpluses with
each trading partner. Many economists view the overall figure as more significant
than bilateral trade balances, since rising deficits with some nations are often offset
by declining deficits or growing surpluses with others. Nonetheless, abnormally
large or rapidly increasing trade deficits with particular countries are often viewed
as indicators that underlying problems may exist with market access, the
competitiveness of particular industries, currency misalignment, or macroeconomic
adjustment. Figure 8 and Table 5 show U.S. trade balances with selected nations.

---

CRS-17
Figure 8. U.S. Merchandise Trade Balances with Selected Nations,
2006
Country
China
-233
Japan
-88
Canada
-73
Mexico
-64
Germany
-48
Venezuela
-28
Malaysia
-24
Nigeria
-26
Saudi Arabia
-24
Deficit
Italy
-20
Ireland
-20
South Korea
-13
Taiwan
-15
Thailand
-14
United Kingdom
-8
France
-13
Russia
-15
India
-12
Sweden
-10
Singapore
7
Belgium
7
United Arab Emirates
11
Hong Kong
Surplus
10
Australia
10
Netherlands
14
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
$ Billions
Source: CRS with data from the U.S. Department of Commerce (Census basis).
Most of the U.S. trade deficit can be accounted for by trade with China, Japan,
Canada, Mexico, and Germany. Trade with the oil exporting countries, particularly
Venezuela, Nigeria, and Saudi Arabia, also is in deficit. U.S. trade surpluses occur
in trade with the Netherlands, Australia, Hong Kong, and the United Arab Emirates.
The U.S. trade deficit with China has soared over the past decade. From $32
billion in 1995 to $100 billion in 2000 and $233 billion in 2006, the negative net
balance in trade with China has grown to account for 28% of the total U.S. trade
deficit.16 The U.S. trade deficit with China exceeded that with Japan for the first time
in the year 2000 and now is more than twice as large.
China claims that its trade is less imbalanced than U.S. data indicate. Chinese
trade data differ from those of the United States primarily because of the treatment
of Hong Kong as an entrepot. Since Hong Kong is a separate customs area from
mainland China, Beijing counts Hong Kong as the destination for its exports sent
there, even though the goods may be transshipped to other markets. For example,
China would count a laptop computer that is assembled in Shanghai but shipped
through Hong Kong before being exported to the United States as a sale to Hong
Kong. By contrast, the United States and many of China’s other trading partners
16 For details and policy discussion, see CRS Report RL31403, China’s Trade with the
United States and the World, by Thomas Lum and Dick K. Nanto, or CRS Report RL33536,
China-U.S. Trade Issues, by Wayne M. Morrison.

---

CRS-18
count Chinese exports that are transshipped through Hong Kong as products from
China not Hong Kong, including goods that contain Hong Kong components or
involve final packaging in Hong Kong. The United States also counts Hong Kong
as the destination of U.S. products sent there, even those that are then reexported to
China. However, the PRC counts many of such reexported goods as U.S. exports to
China. So by U.S. figures, U.S. exports to China tend to be understated, while by
Chinese figures, Chinese exports to the U.S. tend to be understated. The net result
is that China’s reported trade surplus with the United States at $144 billion in 2006
is about 60% of the reported U.S. deficit with China of $233 billion.
Table 5. U.S. Merchandise Trade Balances with Selected
Nations and Groups, 2002-2006
(millions of U.S. dollars, Census basis)
Country
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Total
-468,263
-532,350
-650,930
-767,477
-817,304
North America
-853,110
-92,319
-111,547
-128,230
-136,056
Canada
-48,165
-51,671
-66,480
-78,486
-71,782
Mexico
-37,146
-40,648
-45,067
-49,744
-64,274
Europe
-93,355
-105,603
-119,907
-132,269
-123,016
European Union 27
-86,377
-98,521
-109,999
-123,123
-117,216
United Kingdom
-7,540
-8,967
-10,274
-12,445
-8,103
Germany
-35,876
-39,281
-45,850
-50,567
-47,763
France
-9,224
-12,166
-10,342
-11,432
-12,822
Italy
-14,164
-14,854
-17,413
-19,485
-20,109
Netherlands
8,462
9,742
11,839
11,623
13,787
Russia
-4,473
-6,171
-8,930
-11,344
-15,127
Pacific Rim Countries
-310,170
331,869
405,298
-469,223
-513,662
Japan
-69,979
-66,032
-75,562
-82,519
-88,568
China
-103,065
-124,068
-161,938
-201,545
-232,589
Newly Industrialized
-22,080
-21,217
-21,883
-15,782
-11,783
Countries (NICS)
Singapore
1,416
1,422
4,238
5,532
6,916
Hong Kong
3,266
4,669
6,513
7,459
9,829
Taiwan
-13,766
-14,152
-12,879
-12,757
-15,165
Republic of Korea
-12,996
-13,157
-19,755
-16,016
-13,362
South/Central
-17,952
-26,883
-37,183
-50,460
-44,706
American Countries
Argentina
-1,602
-732
-357
-462
797
Brazil
-3,405
-6,699
-7,263
-9,064
-7,136
Colombia
-2,022
-2,629
-2,751
-3,387
-2,557
OPEC
-34,433
-51,064
-71,843
-92,867
-105,289
Venezuela
-10,664
-14,305
-20,153
-27,557
-28,131
Indonesia -7,087
-6,999
-8,139
-8,960
-10,346
Saudi Arabia
-8,369
-13,473
-15,702
-20,380
-24,049
Nigeria
-4,888
-9,377
-14,694
-22,618
-25,630
Sources: United States Census Bureau, Foreign Trade Statistics. For other countries and further
detail, see U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services Annual Revision for 2006, FT 900 (07-04),
released June 8, 2007.
Note: Trade Balance equals Total Exports (f.a.s. value) minus General Imports (Customs value).

---

CRS-19
Table 6 lists the U.S. top deficit trading partners in merchandise trade, on a
Census basis. In 2000, China overtook Japan as the top U.S. deficit trading partner.
After, China, the next highest deficit trading partners are Japan, Canada, Mexico,
Germany, and Venezuela.
Table 6. Top U.S. Merchandise Deficit Trading Partners, 2006
(millions of U.S. dollars)
Country
Balance
U.S. Exports
U.S. Imports
China
-232,589
55,186
287,774
Japan
-88,568
59,613
148,181
Canada
-71,782
230,656
302,438
Mexico
-64,274
133,979
198,253
Germany
-47,763
41,319
89,082
Venezuela
-28,132
9,002
37,134
Nigeria
-25,630
2,234
27,863
Malaysia
-23,989
12,544
36,533
Saudi Arabia
-24,050
7,640
31,689
Ireland
-20,010
8,516
28,526
Italy
-20,109
12,546
32,655
Taiwan
-15,165
23,047
38,212
Russia
-15,127
4,701
19,828
Algeria
-14,354
1,102
15,456
Thailand
-14,320
8,147
22,466
Korea
-13,362
32,442
45,804
France
-12,822
24,217
37,040
India
-11,775
10,056
21,831
Indonesia
-10,346
3,079
13,425
Sweden
-9,745
4,126
13,870
United Kingdom
-8,103
45,410
53,513
Brazil
-7,136
19,231
26,367
Austria
-5,318
2,986
8,304
Norway
-4,691
2,394
7,085
South Africa
-3,039
4,462
7,501
Chile
-2,779
6,786
9,565
Colombia
-2,557
6,709
9,266
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services Annual
Revision for 2006, FT 900 (07-04), released June 8, 2007.
Note: Data are on a Census basis. Exports are valued f.a.s.; imports are valued Customs.
As shown in Table 7, in 2006, Canada again was America’s largest total
merchandise trading partner, but China passed Mexico to take second place in the
ranking. Fourth was Japan, then Germany, and the United Kingdom. South Korea
ranked seventh. Table 7 lists the United States’ top trading partners ranked by trade
turnover. Trade with Canada accounts for 18% of total U.S. trade. Canada is the
largest supplier of U.S. imports but China is rising fast and could surpass Canada in
2007. By far, Canada is the top purchaser of U.S. exports with Mexico second, Japan
third, and China fourth.

---

CRS-20
Table 7. Top U.S. Trading Partners Ranked by Total
Merchandise Trade in 2006
(millions of U.S. dollars)
Rank
Country
Total Trade
Balance
U.S. Exports U.S. Imports
1
Canada
533,094
-71,782
230,656
302,438
2
China
342,960
-232,589
55,186
287,774
3
Mexico
332,232
-64,274
133,979
198,253
4
Japan
207,794
-88,568
59,613
148,181
5
Germany
130,401
-47,763
41,319
89,082
6
United Kingdom
98,923
-8,103
45,410
53,513
7
Korea
78,246
-13,362
32,442
45,804
8
Taiwan
61,259
-15,165
23,047
38,212
9
France
61,257
-12,822
24,217
37,040
10
Malaysia
49,077
-23,989
12,544
36,533
11
Venezuela
46,136
-28,132
9,002
37,134
12
Brazil
45,598
-7,136
19,231
26,367
13
Italy
45,201
-20,109
12,546
32,655
14
Saudi Arabia
39,329
-24,050
7,640
31,689
15
Ireland
37,042
-20,010
8,516
28,526
16
India
31,887
-11,775
10,056
21,831
17
Thailand
30,613
-14,320
8,147
22,466
18
Russia
24,529
-15,127
4,701
19,828
19
Sweden
17,996
-9,745
4,126
13,870
20
Algeria
16,558
-14,354
1,102
15,456
21
Indonesia
16,504
-10,346
3,079
13,425
22
Chile
16,351
-2,779
6,786
9,565
23
Colombia
15,975
-2,557
6,709
9,266
24
South Africa
11,963
-3,039
4,462
7,501
25
Austria
11,290
-5,318
2,986
8,304
26
Norway
9,479
-4,691
2,394
7,085
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services Annual
Revision for 2006, FT 900 (07-04), released June 8, 2007.
Notes: Total trade = imports + exports. Data are on a Census basis. Exports are valued f.a.s.; imports
are valued Customs.
Table 8 lists trade balances on goods, services, and income, net unilateral
transfers and current account balances for selected U.S. trading partners. While trade
in services, flows of income from investments, and remittances home by foreign
workers are considerably smaller than merchandise flows, as the economy has
become more globalized and service oriented, these components of the current
account have become more important. In many cases, the bilateral current account
balances are quite different from bilateral balances on merchandise trade only.

---

CRS-21
Table 8. U.S. Current Account Balances With
Selected U.S. Trading Partners, 2006
(millions of U.S. dollars)
Merchandise
Investment
Net
Current
Trade
Services
Income
Unilateral
Account
Country
Balance a
Balance b
Balance c
Transfers d
Balance e
All Countries
-838.3
79.7
36.6
-89.6
-811.5
Mexico
-67.3
7.5
0.2
-11.1
-70.7
Canada
-75.1
15.5
18.5
0.4
-40.7
Asia and Pacific
-409.8
32.1
-38.9
-15.1
-431.7
China
-233.1
3.6
-26.7
-2.1
-258.2
Japan
-91.0
16.5
-35.7
1.6
-108.5
S. Korea
-14.4
4.2
-0.1
-0.6
-10.9
European Union
-120.2
14.3
1.7
-1.9
-106.2
Germany
-48.5
-7.0
-2.4
0
-57.9
United Kingdom
-9.0
9.8
-15.5
3.6
-11.1
Latin America
-112.6
12.2
18.9
-29.1
-110.6
Middle East
-36.1
-0.2
-2.5
-12.7
-51.5
Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, International Transactions Account Data.
a. On a BoP basis.
b. Includes travel, transportation, fees and royalties, insurance payments, other government and
private services, and investment income.
c. Income receipts on U.S. assets abroad minus income payments on foreign assets in the United
States.
d. International transfers of funds, such as private gifts, pension payments, and government grants for
which there is no quid pro quo.
e. The trade balance plus the service balance plus investment income balance plus net unilateral
transfers, although equal to the current account balance, may differ as a result of rounding.
For example, since Japan has invested considerable amounts in securities,
equities, and in factories in the United States, the United States ran a deficit of $35.7
billion in investment income with that country in 2006. This more than offset the
surplus of $16.5 billion in trade in services with Japan. As a result, the current
account deficit with Japan of $108.5 billion in 2006 exceeded the bilateral
merchandise trade deficit of $91 billion. Likewise with China; the U.S. deficit on
investment income of $26.7 billion far overshadowed the U.S. surplus of $3.6 billion
in services.
In 2006, a different situation existed with the European Union and Canada. In
2006, the United States earned a $1.7 billion surplus in investment income with the
EU while the U.S. surplus in services came to $14.3 billion. These two flows offset
a merchandise deficit of $120.2 billion to produce a U.S. current account deficit of
$106.2. From Canada the United States received $18.5 billion in investment income
plus a surplus in services trade of $15.5 billion. Hence, the current account deficit
with Canada at $40.7 billion was lower than the $75.1 billion merchandise trade
deficit.
The rising deficit with many countries in investment income reflects the
accumulating debt relative to the world of the United States. Inflows of capital to
compensate for the U.S. trade deficit and low U.S. savings rate help to maintain the

---

CRS-22
value of the dollar, but interest paid and other income that accrues to that capital is
often repatriated to the home countries. That means more capital must be invested
in the United States or the United States must export more to compensate for the
outflows of investment income. In 2006, the overall U.S. balance on investment
income registered a surplus of $36.6 billion. Imbalances in investment income with
certain countries have been growing and could become a problem in the future.
Advanced Technology, Autos, and Oil
Table 9 shows U.S. trade in advanced technology products. This includes about
500 commodity codes representing products whose technology is from a recognized
high technology field (e.g., biotechnology) or that represent the leading technology
in a field. The United States long ran a surplus in these products, but that surplus
dropped sharply in 2000 and turned into a deficit in 2002. In 2003, the deficit in U.S.
trade in advanced technology products jumped 65% to $27.4 billion, again rose in
2004 and in 2005, but declined in 2006 to $38.1 billion. This does not necessarily
imply the United States is losing the high technology race, since many of the high
technology imports are from U.S. companies (particularly electronics manufacturers)
who assemble the products overseas. However, this growing deficit may warrant
closer policy scrutiny.
Table 9. U.S. Trade in Advanced Technology Products
(billions of U.S. dollars)
Year
U.S. Exports
U.S. Imports
Trade Balance
1990
93.4
59.3
34.1
1995
138.4
124.8
13.6
1996
154.9
130.4
24.5
1997
179.5
147.3
32.2
1998
186.4
156.8
29.6
1999
200.3
181.2
19.1
2000
227.4
222.1
5.3
2001
200.1
195.3
4.8
2002
178.6
195.2
-16.6
2003
180.2
207.0
-26.8
2004
201.4
238.3
-36.9
2005
216.1
259.7
-43.6
2006
252.7
290.8
-38.1
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services. FT-900, issued
monthly.
Notes: Includes about 500 of some 22,000 commodity classification codes that meet the following
criteria: (1) contains products whose technology is from a recognized high technology field (e.g.,
biotechnology), (2) represent leading edge technology in that field, and (3) constitute a significant part
of all items covered in the selected classification code. Data are on a BoP basis.

---

CRS-23
Table 10 provides data on trade in passenger cars with major automobile
producing nations for 2006. This does not include foreign cars assembled in the
United States. The United States incurs the largest deficits in this trade with Japan,
Mexico, Germany, Canada, and South Korea.17
Table 10. U.S. Trade in Motor Vehicles and Parts by
Selected Countries, 2006
(millions of U.S. dollars)
Trading Partner
U.S. Exports
U.S. Imports
Trade Balance
Total World
109,177
254,167
-144,990
Japan
2,291
60,212
-57,921
Mexico
17,065
48,976
-31,911
Germany
6,818
26,594
-19,776
Canada
57,079
68,982
-11,903
Korea
750
12,369
-11,619
United Kingdom
1,983
6,788
-4,805
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services, FT-900, issued
monthly.
Table 11 shows imports of crude petroleum by major country source. In 2006,
the United States imported $225 billion in crude oil or 13% of all imports. Roughly
half comes from the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) with
Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and Nigeria the predominant suppliers. Imports from Iraq
are recovering with $11 billion worth in 2006. Over 40% of U.S. petroleum imports
come from non-OPEC sources, primarily Canada and Mexico.18
17 For information on the automobile industry, see CRS Report RL32883, U.S. Automotive
Industry: Recent History and Issues, by Stephen Cooney and Brent D. Yacobucci.
18 For policy discussion, see CRS Report RS22204, U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of
Rising Oil Prices, by James K. Jackson.

---

CRS-24
Table 11. U.S. Imports of Crude Oil by Selected Countries, 2006
(quantity and customs value)
Quantity
Customs Value
Country
(Thousand barrels)
($million)
Total World
3,873,914
225,156
OPEC Total
2,098,249
126,171
Saudi Arabia
514,424
30,218
Venezuela
521,207
28,752
Nigeria
391,854
26,042
Algeria
186,780
12,386
Angola
181,674
11,295
Iraq
194,424
11,147
Kuwait
67,539
3,737
Other OPEC
40,345
2,595
Non-OPEC Total
1,775,665
98,985
Canada
626,054
33,031
Mexico
566,566
30,595
Ecuador
97,911
5,344
Colombia
56,728
3,456
Russia
45,449
2,985
United Kingdom
44,380
2,919
Congo
43,779
2,830
Brazil
48,045
2,809
Norway
44,071
2,506
Other Non-OPEC
163,092
12,510
Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services, FT-900, issued
monthly, and World Trade Atlas, using Harmonized Schedule (HS) 270900 for crude oil.
Some Common Perceptions
This section of the report addresses a few common perceptions about trade that
can be validated by data.

Outsourcing
A common perception is that an increasing amount of U.S. imports are actually
goods manufactured overseas by U.S. affiliated companies. U.S. manufacturers have
moved production abroad in search of lower production costs or other economic
advantages and are sending their product back to the American market.
Figure 9 shows the percentage of U.S. imported products by affiliation of the
foreign producer. The total value of such imports from foreign affiliates of U.S.
parent companies rose from $39.3 billion in 1982 to $209.1 billion in 2004, but the

---

CRS-25
percentage of total U.S. imports accounted for by these imports has been fairly
constant at around 15%. In 1982, such imports accounted for 15.9% of total imports,
while in 2004 they accounted for 14.2% of the total. These are products such as
American branded computers assembled in China in a subsidiary affiliated with a
U.S. company.
The share of imports from foreign parent companies with affiliates in the United
States has been rising somewhat — from 21.0% in 1982 to 21.7% in 2004. These
reflect the growing foreign direct investment in the United States and include imports
such as transmissions from a Japanese automaker for use in its assembly plant
located in the United States.
Imports from unaffiliated foreigners accounts for about 60% of all imported
goods. Their share has risen somewhat from 63.2% in 1982 to 64.1% in 2004. 2004
data is the latest currently available.
Figure 9. Shares of U.S. Imports of Goods by Affiliation of Foreign
Producer, 1998-2004
Percent
100%
From Foreign Parents of U.S. Affiliates
80%
From Foreign Affiliates of U.S. Parents
60%
40%
From Unaffiliated Foreigners
20%
0%
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Year
Source: CRS with Data from U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.
Note: 2004 data is latest available as of 11/20/07.
Is the Trade Deficit at a Dangerous Level?
The International Monetary Fund has used its experience with currency and
exchange rate crises to say that caution should be exercised when a nation’s current
account deficit reaches a level of 5% of gross domestic product. At this level,
nations have difficulty borrowing to finance imports and the nation’s exchange rate
may come under severe downward pressure. The United States is a special case,
since the dollar is a secondary medium of exchange (one can use dollars in many

---

CRS-26
foreign countries without exchanging them for local currency) and dollars are used
extensively as an official reserve currency by national banks. Still, the IMF has been
warning that the size of the U.S. current account deficit could cause a large
depreciation of the dollar and disrupt financial markets.
Figure 10 shows the U.S. current account balance as a percent of nominal U.S.
gross domestic product (GDP). It grew in magnitude from near zero in 1980 to 3.4%
in 1987, dropped into negative 0.1% in 1991 and rose to 6.2% in 2006 (exceeding the
5% level considered to warrant caution by the International Monetary Fund). The
current account balance-GDP ratio is expected to remain above the IMF caution level
for 2007. However, beginning in 2008 through 2010, it is predicted to decline to
below the IMF caution level.
Figure 10. The U.S. Current Account Deficit as a Percent
of Gross Domestic Product, 1985-2008 (forecast)
Percent
7
Actual
Forecast
6.1 6.2
6
5.7
5.6
5
4.7
4.8
4.5
4.4
4.4
IMF Caution Level
4.2
3.8
4
3.3 3.4
3.2
2.8
3
2.4
2.4
1.8
2
1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5
1.3
1.2
0.8
1
0
-0.1
-1
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
Year
Sources: Data from U.S. Department of Commerce. Forecasts by Global Insight, Inc.
Is Trade with China Merely Replacing That with Southeast
Asia?
Some observers claim that the rising U.S. imports from China are merely
displacing those from other East Asian nations. Labor intensive industries, such as
apparel, shoes, and consumer electronics, that produce for export to the United States
and other industrialized nations are simply moving to China from Southeast Asian
nations, including South Korea, and Taiwan. The overall level of imports from Asia
is not changing. Its composition is just shifting toward China.

---

CRS-27
For specific industries, the shift in imports from traditional Asian exporting
nations to China is clear. In woven apparel (HS 62), for example, in 1990, Hong
Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan accounted for 33.4% of U.S. imports as compared
to China with a 14.7% share. By 2006, China accounted for 31.3% of such imports,
as compared to 4.9% for Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan combined.
In terms of overall imports, however, U.S. imports from Hong Kong, Taiwan,
and South Korea rose from $50.6 billion (10.2% of total U.S. imports) in 1990 to
$92.0 billion (5.0% of total) in 2006, while imports from China rose from $15.2
billion (3.3% of total) in 1990 to $287.8 billion (15.5% of total) in 2006.19 Clearly,
the share of U.S. imports from Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea has been
falling, while the share of imports from China is rising. The value of U.S. imports
from both, however, continues to rise, while the value of those from China is rising
faster.
The large U.S. trade deficit with China, moreover, is not just a transfer of the
deficit from other Asian nations to China. The U.S. trade deficit with Hong Kong,
Taiwan, and South Korea has gone from $17.9 billion (17.5% of the total U.S.
deficit) in 1990 to $18.7 billion (2.3% of the total) in 2006. U.S. trade with Hong
Kong actually went from a deficit to a surplus. The U.S. trade deficit with China,
meanwhile, went from $41.1 billion (10.2% of the total U.S. trade deficit) in 1990
to $232.6 billion (28.5% of the total) in 2006. What actually is happening is that the
U.S. trade deficit is rising with most regions of the world, particularly with Asia,
including China, and it also is rising with Canada and Mexico, the European Union,
and with oil exporting countries.
International Trade Statistics Web Resources
Listed below are a list of resources available online for international trade
statistics.
The single most authoritative, comprehensive, and frequently-published trade
data statistical source is the monthly “FT900”. Its actual title is U.S. International
Trade in Goods and Services. The FT-900 is issued monthly by the U.S. Census
Bureau and the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis. It provides information on the
U.S. trade in goods and services (balance, exports, and imports) in specific
commodities and end-use categories and with selected countries. The report also
provides information on trade in advanced technology, petroleum, and motor vehicle
products. The report is available from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis at
[http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/rels.htm]. Under “International” click on latest
news release.
Information on trade in specific commodities, with particular regions, or for
different time periods also can be obtained from the U.S. International Trade
Commission at [http://dataweb.usitc.gov/].
19 The numbers are comparable for all Asian countries.

---

CRS-28
Historical and current U.S. exchange rate data are available from the Federal
Reserve Bank of St. Louis at [http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/].
Information on foreign country holdings of U.S. Treasury securities are available
at [http://www.treasury.gov/tic/].

---