Order Code RL33550
Trade Remedy Legislation:
Applying Countervailing Action
to Nonmarket Economy Countries
Updated December 6, 2007
Vivian C. Jones
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division

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Trade Remedy Legislation: Applying Countervailing
Action to Nonmarket Economy Countries
Summary
Concern regarding the mounting U.S. trade deficit with China (which is
designated a nonmarket economy country according to U.S. trade laws), combined
with China’s refusal to allow its exchange rate to float, has led some in Congress to
introduce legislation proposing to make countervailing duty laws applicable to China
and other nonmarket economy countries. This legislation seeks to provide for the
assessment of additional duties on imports whose production and/or importation are
found to be subsidized by a public entity in their country of origin and are injurious
to a U.S. producer of similar merchandise. Antidumping, another kind of trade
remedy action, addresses products sold in the United States at less than their fair
value (as defined by law) in a similar manner.
Although antidumping (AD) and countervailing duty (CVD) laws and
procedures generally parallel each other, CVD laws contain no specific provisions
for investigations on imports from nonmarket economy (NME) countries, while the
AD statute does provide such guidelines.
Initial administrative attempts in 1983 to apply countervailing remedies to
allegedly subsidized imports from several NME countries led to determinations by
the International Trade Administration (ITA) of the Department of Commerce (the
U.S. agency charged with determining the existence and extent of subsidies) that
subsidies within the meaning of the countervailing law, cannot be found in
nonmarket economies. These ITA determinations were challenged in the U.S. Court
of International Trade (CIT), which held that they were “not in accordance with the
law,” reversed them, and remanded the cases to the ITA. On appeal, the U.S. Court
of Appeals for the Federal Circuit reversed, and reinstated the ITA’s original
determinations — thus affirming that the ITA has the discretion not to apply the
CVD law to NME countries.
The ITA has reevaluated this decision, at least with regard to the People’s
Republic of China, arguably in response to pressure from Congress. In a
countervailing investigation on coated free sheet paper (CFS), the ITA reversed its
position with regard to China, and on October 18, 2007 made a final affirmative
determination of subsidies, finding that Chinese producers/exporters received net
countervailable subsidies ranging from 7.40 to 44.25 percent. The investigation
continues at the International Trade Commission, where a final injury determination
is expected in mid-January.
Legislation seeking to apply countervailing action to NME countries has been
introduced in the 110th Congress. This legislation includes S. 364 (Rockefeller);
H.R. 571 (Tancredo), H.R. 708 (English); H.R. 782 (Ryan/Hunter) H.R. 2942
(Ryan/Hunter) and related bill S. 796 (Bunning/Stabenow); H.R. 1229
(Davis/English) and related bills S. 974 (Collins/Bayh) and S. 1919 (Baucus,
introduced August 1, 2007). The Bush Administration has also taken some recent
steps to address the issue.

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Contents
Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Concerns About China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
China’s NME Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Countervailing Duty Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
CVD Investigations of Imports from Nonmarket Economy Countries
(1983-1984; 1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1983-1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Court Decisions Regarding Applicability of Countervailing to NME
Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
U.S. Court of International Trade (614 F. Supp. 548-557) . . . . . . . . . 10
U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (801 F. 2d 1308-1318) 11
Action in Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
109th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
110th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Application of CVD Laws to NME Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Revocation of NME Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Exchange Rate Manipulation Countervailable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Additional Tariff on NME Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Recent Executive Branch Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
CVD Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
ITA’s Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
China’s Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
U.S. - Initiated WTO Consultations on Subsidies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Additional CVD Petitions Accepted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Issues and Options for Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Appendix: Summary of Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
110th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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Trade Remedy Legislation: Applying
Countervailing Action to Nonmarket
Economy Countries
Recent Developments
Concerns in Congress regarding the mounting U.S. trade deficit with China,
combined with China’s alleged foreign exchange-rate manipulation (which some
regard as a subsidy) and other unfair trade practices have led to calls for making
countervailing duty (CVD) trade laws applicable to nonmarket economy (NME)
countries such as China.
Some in Congress have introduced bills that seek to direct administrative
agencies to apply CVD action to nonmarket economy countries. Legislation seeking
to apply countervailing action to NME countries has been introduced in the 110th
Congress. This legislation includes S. 364 (Rockefeller, introduced January 23,
2007); H.R. 571 (Tancredo, introduced January 18, 2007); H.R. 708 (English,
introduced January 29, 2007); H.R. 782 (Ryan/Hunter, introduced January 31, 2007),
H.R. 2942 (Ryan/Hunter, introduced June 28, 2007), and related bill S. 796
(Bunning/Stabenow, introduced March 7, 2007); H.R. 1229 (Davis/English,
introduced February 28, 2007) and related bill S. 974 (Collins/Bayh, introduced
March 22, 2007); and S. 1919 (Baucus, introduced August 1, 2007). The Bush
Administration has also taken some recent steps to address the issue.
On March 15, 2007, the House Ways and Means Trade Subcommittee held
hearings on H.R. 1229, the Nonmarket Economy Trade Remedy Act of 2007.
Committee staff indicate that work on H.R. 1229 and other related legislation will
continue, despite recent decisions by administration officials that it is possible to
proceed on countervailing action with regard to China.
The Bush Administration has initiated action against China on two fronts since
the end of 2006. First, on November 27, 2006, the International Trade
Administration (ITA) of the Department of Commerce (the administrative agency
tasked with determining whether or not subsidies exist and to what extent) formally
initiated a countervailing duty (CVD) case on coated free sheet paper against China.1
The agency, which has not initiated a countervailing case against a nonmarket
economy country since 1991, declined to make any determination at that time
regarding the applicability of CVD law to NME countries, but said that would
1 71 F.R. 68546.

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consider that issue during the course of the investigation.2 On October 18, 2007, the
International Trade Administration announced its final affirmative determination that
“countervailable subsidies are being provided to producers and exporters of coated
free sheet (CFS) paper from the People’s Republic of China,” and finding subsidy
rates ranging from 7.40 to 44.25 percent. 3
In the same investigation, on December 15, 2006, the International Trade
Commission (ITC) had preliminarily determined “that there was a reasonable
indication that a U.S. domestic industry is materially injured or threatened with
material injury” by reason of allegedly subsidized coated paper from China, which
thus refers the case back to the ITA for a determination on subsidies.4 A final ITC
injury determination is expected in mid-January 2008.
Second, the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) announced on February 2, 2007
that the United States had requested consultations with China at the World Trade
Organization (WTO) over China’s use of “what we contend are illegal subsidies.”
This is the first step in the WTO dispute settlement process. On March 20, 2007,
China accepted the requests of Mexico, Australia, and Japan to join the consultations.
On November 29, 2007, USTR Susan Schwab announced that China has agreed
to terminate twelve subsidies that the United States had identified as prohibited. In
the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) signed by the United States and China,
China agreed to end these export subsidies (mostly on steel, wood products, and
information technology) and import substitution subsidies (designed to encourage
Chinese companies to buy Chinese products over imports) by January 1, 2008.
Background
Countervailing duty (CVD) laws provide relief to domestic industries that have
been, or are threatened with, the adverse impact of imported goods sold in the U.S.
market that have been subsidized by a foreign government or public entity. The relief
provided is an additional import duty placed on the subsidized imports that is equal
to the estimated amount of subsidization.
In order for an industry to obtain relief, two things must be determined: (1) the
International Trade Commission must find that the domestic industry is materially
injured or threatened with material injury due to the imports, and (2) the International
Trade Administration (ITA) of the Department of Commerce must find that the
2 Department of Commerce, “Commerce Initiates Countervailing Duty Investigation on
Coated Free Sheet Paper from the People’s Republic of China,” Fact Sheet, November 21,
2006.
3 72 F.R. 60645, October 25, 2007.
4 U.S. International Trade Commission. “ITC Votes to Continue Cases on Coated Free Sheet
Paper from China, Indonesia, and Korea,” News Release 06-120, December 15, 2006. For
an overview of CVD procedures, see CRS Report RL32371, Trade Remedies: A Primer.

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targeted imports have been subsidized.5 Prior to the recent CVD investigation on
CFS paper, the ITA had determined not to apply CVD laws to nonmarket economy
countries, including China, because the agency believed that there is no adequate way
to measure market distortions caused by subsidies in an economy that is not based
on market principles. However, the ITA has recently determined that it may be
possible to identify subsidies in China because, even though it is still designated as
a nonmarket economy, many industries in the Chinese economy operate according
to market principles.6

For purposes of the trade remedy laws, the ITA is also the agency responsible
for designation of countries as nonmarket economies, defined by law as “any foreign
country that the administering authority [ITA] determines does not operate on market
principles of cost or pricing structures, so that sales of merchandise in such country
do not reflect the fair value of the merchandise.”7 NME designations are based on
the extent to which (1) the country’s currency is convertible; (2) its wage rates result
from free bargaining between labor and management; (3) joint ventures or other
foreign investment are permitted; (4) the government owns or controls the means of
production; and (5) the government controls the allocation of resources and price and
output decisions. The ITA may also consider other factors that it considers
appropriate.8
The ITA made the determination not to apply CVD action to NME countries in
1983-84 in connection with countervailing investigations of two cases of alleged
subsidization, one dealing with carbon steel wire rod imported from Czechoslovakia
and Poland, and the other with imports of potassium chloride (potash) from the
German Democratic Republic (East Germany) and the Soviet Union. All of them at
the time were treated as nonmarket economy countries.
Concerns About China
Total U.S.-China trade rose to $343 billion in 2006. China (an NME country)
is the United States’ second largest trading partner, the second largest source of U.S.
imports, and its fourth largest export market. The $232.6 billion (2006) U.S. trade
deficit with China and the adverse impact of Chinese imports on competing U.S.
5 19 U.S.C. 1671 et seq. See CRS Report RL32371, Trade Remedies: A Primer, Vivian C.
Jones.
6 International Trade Administration, “Countervailing Duty Investigation of Coated Free
Sheet Paper from the People’s Republic of China - Whether the Analytical Elements of the
Georgetown Steel Opinion are Applicable to China’s Present-Day Economy,”
Memorandum, March 29, 2007.
7 19 U.S.C. 1677(18)(A). The following are ITA-designated NME countries: Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Belarus, China, Georgia, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan,
and Vietnam.
8 19 U.S.C. 1677(18)(B).

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industries and workers, among other things, has led some in Congress to support
more aggressive enforcement of U.S. trade remedy laws against Chinese products.9
One area of concern has been China’s alleged use of “illegal” subsidy programs
to bolster its industries and spur export growth. Many U.S. domestic producers have
complained for years that they are adversely impacted by China’s subsidizing its
industries, but the 1984 ruling meant that there was essentially no recourse to deal
with the issue. However, China is the chief target of U.S. antidumping action, with
62 AD duty orders outstanding and 12 AD investigations pending as of July 20,
2007. In addition, AD duty amounts tend to be higher for Chinese imports, due in
part to the methodology employed by the ITA when calculating AD duties for NME
countries.10
Another related concern involves charges by many U.S. policymakers, business
people, and labor representatives that China’s currency is significantly undervalued
vis-à-vis the U.S. dollar, which, they allege, makes Chinese exports much cheaper
than they would be if Chinese exchange rates were determined by market forces.11
In turn, they argue that the undervalued currency has contributed to the U.S. trade
deficit with China, and has hurt U.S. production and employment in several
manufacturing sectors (such as textiles and furniture) because U.S. companies must
compete with “artificially” lower cost goods from China.12 The issue of alleged
Chinese “currency manipulation” has led to renewed congressional interest in
applying countervailing action to imports from China, and in turn, to finding currency
manipulation countervailable.13
China’s NME Status
The applicability of NME classification with regard to China was determined
in an ITA Preliminary Determination of Sales at Less than Fair Value, Greige
Polyester Cotton Print Cloth from China (March 1983).14 On May 15, 2006, the ITA
reaffirmed this determination (and more comprehensively in an August 30, 2006
memorandum) in the context of an investigation on certain lined paper from China.15
9 See CRS Report RL33636, China-U.S. Trade Issues, by Wayne M. Morrison for a more
comprehensive treatment of these issues.
10 See Government Accountability Office. U.S. - China Trade: Eliminating Nonmarket
Economy Methodology Would Lower Antidumping Duties For Some Chinese Companies.
GAO Report No. GAO-06-231, January 2006. [http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06231.pdf].
11 See CRS Report RL32165, China's Currency: Economic Issues and Options for U.S.
Trade Policy, by Wayne M. Morrison and Marc Labonte for a discussion of this issue.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 48 F.R. 9897.
15 ITA. The People’s Republic of China (PRC) Status as a Non-Market Economy (NME).
Memorandum, May 15, 2006. The ITA conducted a more comprehensive analysis of the
issue in Antidumping Investigation of Certain Lined Paper Products from the People’s
(continued...)

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According to current U.S. law, any determination that a foreign country is a
nonmarket economy country remains in effect until specifically revoked by the ITA.16
Therefore, since the ITA further determined (in December 1983), that subsidies could
not be found in NME countries, countervailing action against China had not been
initiated since 1991 — until the ongoing case on coated free sheet paper was
presented.
In China’s case, however, the NME designation may only be used for a limited
time, because its World Trade Organization (WTO) accession package specified that
the “importing WTO member may use a methodology that is not based on a strict
comparison with domestic prices or costs in China” for both antidumping and
countervailing actions only for 15 years after the date of accession (or December 11,
2016). After that date, the United States and other World Trade Organization (WTO)
members may no longer use nonmarket economy or “surrogate country”
methodology when determining price comparability in CVD or AD investigations.17
Countervailing Duty Legislation
At the time the 1983-1984 investigations were initiated, the United States had
in force two countervailing duty laws. Both provided for the imposition, on imports
of already dutiable (but not duty-free) products that had been subsidized in their
country of origin, of a countervailing duty in the amount of such subsidization. Both
laws also required a determination of the existence and amount of subsidization to
be countervailed, but one of the laws also required a finding that the subsidized
imports have caused or threatened to cause injury to a U.S. domestic industry.
The earlier of the two laws (Section 303 of the Tariff Act of 1930, repealed) was
a minimally modified version of the countervailing law of general applicability,
initially enacted by the Tariff Act of 1897, and at the time of the two cases above
applied only to products of countries other than countries “under the Agreement,”
meaning (1) any country to which the GATT Subsidies and Countervailing Code
applied, or (2) had assumed Code-equivalent obligations with respect to the United
States, or (3) the President determined the existence of an agreement with the United
States containing certain relevant provisions specifically spelled out in the statute.
This statute — repealed effective January 1, 1995, by Section 261(a) of the Uruguay
Round Agreements Act (URAA) (P.L. 103-465) — provided for the levying of a
countervailing duty (CVD) equal to the net amount of public or private subsidization
(defined as “any bounty or grant, however the same be paid or bestowed”) without
any need for injury determination.
15 (...continued)
Republic of China (“China”). China’s Status as a Non-Market Economy (“NME”).
Memorandum, August 30, 2006.
16 19 U.S.C.1677(18)(C)(I).
17 World Trade Organization. Accession of the People’s Republic of China. WTO Document
WT/L/432, p. 9.

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Countervailing legislation with much broader country applicability (i.e., to
countries “under the Agreement”) consisted of comprehensive provisions (including
detailed procedural provisions) added by the Trade Agreements Act of 1979 (P.L. 96-
39) as Subtitle A of Title VII to the Tariff Act of 1930.18 That U.S. law implemented
the provisions of the international Subsidies and Countervailing Code agreed to in
multilateral trade negotiations under the auspices of the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in Geneva in April 1979. Under this legislation, most of
which is still in force in a somewhat amended language, the assessment of a
countervailing duty required — in addition to a determination that a “country under
the Agreement” or a private entity in such country was providing “directly or
indirectly, a subsidy with respect to the manufacture, production, or exportation” of
merchandise imported into the United States — a determination that such imports
have caused, or threatened with, injury to an industry in the United States, or that the
establishment of an industry in the United States is thereby materially retarded.
The URAA, in addition to repealing section 303 and omitting subsidies from a
private source as being countervailable, also amended the countervailing duty law of
the 1979 Act by incorporating into it provisions comparable to those of section 303,
which do not require injury determination in countervailing investigations of
subsidized imports from countries other than “Subsidies Agreement countries.” The
latter have been defined in the same way — with appropriate updating technical
changes — as the countries under the Agreement under the Trade Agreements Act
of 1979. This version is still in effect.19
CVD Investigations of Imports from Nonmarket Economy
Countries (1983-1984; 1991)
1983-1984. Parallel countervailing duty investigations of carbon steel wire rod
imports from Czechoslovakia and Poland20 were initiated on December 13, 1983,
pursuant to petitions filed with the International Trade Administration on November
23, 1983, by four U.S. steel manufacturers. The petitions alleged that manufacturers,
producers, or exporters of the product in question in either country received public
benefits within the meaning of the countervailing law. Specifically, the petitions for
countervailing action alleged that “bounties or grants” were provided in both
countries in the form of a multiple exchange rate system, and a partial hard-currency
retention program for exporting firms. In addition, Czechoslovakia allegedly had in
effect a system of industry-specific trade conversion coefficients for the official
exchange rate, and tax exemption for foreign trade earnings, while Poland provided
price equalization payments for losses incurred due to foreign sales below domestic
prices.
Both cases proceeded in parallel, and the determinations on issues they had in
common were identical except for a few minor, country-specific differences.
18 19 U.S.C. 1671-1671h.
19 19 U.S.C. 1671(b).
20 Carbon steel wire rod from Czechoslovakia (48 F.R. 56419) and Carbon steel wire rod
from Poland (48 F.R. 56419).

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CRS-7
Therefore, page references to the Federal Register included in this report will be only
those dealing with the Czechoslovak case, unless an issue specific to one country is
discussed.
In its notices of initiation of investigation, the ITA found both countries to be
“countries not under the Agreement,” and conducted the countervailing procedure
according to provisions of Section 303, hence, without the need for determining
injury. In addition, the ITA considered both of them nonmarket economy (NME)
countries, but specifically pointed out that it had not yet resolved the question
“whether the countervailing duty law [either Section 303 or the countervailing duty
provision of Title VII] applies to nonmarket economy countries [as such].”
Although this issue had arisen almost a year earlier in connection with a CVD
investigation of textile imports from China,21 it was not resolved then because the
CVD petition was withdrawn by the petitioners, meaning that the investigation
terminated.22 The issue, however, was subsequently addressed in the preliminary
determinations in the two carbon steel wire rod cases.23 In both cases, the ITA found
that “nonmarket economy countries are not exempted per se from the countervailing
duty law,” since Section 303, by its statutory terms as well as based on its legislative
history, applied to “any country...”
Weighing its own tentative initial literal interpretation of the country
applicability of the provision and the arguments introduced earlier in the
consideration of the China textiles case — focusing on the difference in the effects
of government intervention in a market and nonmarket economy — the ITA,
however, was “dispose[d] to not exclude nonmarket ... economies from its
application without further review in each particular case.” The ITA, consequently,
had its “first opportunity to determine preliminarily whether practices by a
government of a so-called nonmarket economy country confer countervailable
benefits.”
Focusing on prices as the key elements of subsidization, the ITA, in the ensuing
detailed analysis of the situation in both countries, pointed out that
[i]n nonmarket economies, central planners typically set the prices without any
regard to their economic value. As such, these prices do not reflect scarcity or
abundance. For example, when a product is scarce in a market economy, its price
will increase. In a nonmarket economy, however, the price of a scarce good will
not go up unless the central planners mandate a new, higher price. Even if we can
identify an internally set price, that price does not have the same meaning as a
price in a market economy (49 F.R. 6770).
The ITA then analyzed in detail the alleged subsidization programs by
determining, first, whether they would confer a subsidy in a market economy, and
then whether the conclusion would be different for an NME country. The ITA
21 48 F.R. 46600.
22 48 F.R. 55492.
23 Czechoslovakia: 49 F.R. 6773; Poland: 49 F.R.6768.

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concluded preliminarily that multiple exchange rates, currency retention schemes,
trade conversion coefficients, and price equalization payments do not confer a bounty
or grant either in market or in nonmarket economies; that the Polish adjustment
coefficient program did not constitute a bounty or grant within the meaning of the
law; and that the agency had not received sufficient timely information on the
Czechoslovak tax exemption program to make a determination. On the basis of these
findings, the ITA preliminarily determined that, while Congress did not exempt NME
countries as such from the CVD law, the alleged Czechoslovak and Polish practices
were not providing bounties or grants within the meaning of the CVD law. As the
CVD law required, the ITA continued both investigations into their final phase.
In the final phase of these two investigations, the ITA focused on the unresolved
issue of the application of the CVD law to nonmarket economy countries. In its
detailed and comprehensive final determinations in the two carbon steel wire rod
cases,24 the ITA first concluded “that Congress never has confronted directly the
question of whether the countervailing duty law applies to NME countries.” It
pointed out that Congress did not even debate, much less legislate on this issue,
either in 1974 (when the concept of nonmarket economy countries was introduced
into trade legislation and remedies were provided specifically with respect to imports
from them, and Congress also amended the CVD law) or in 1979 (when the CVD law
was thoroughly restructured, and the application of unfair-pricing remedial legislation
was dealt with in detail, but only with respect to dumping by NME countries).
The ITA found it significant that, in the Trade Act of 1974, Congress enacted
remedial provisions dealing specifically with injurious imports from
“State-controlled-economy” or “Communist” countries — both terms functionally
equivalent to that of “nonmarket economy” countries used in another part of the same
Act — in the context of antidumping and “market disruption” (NME-specific
import-relief action) but not with respect to countervailing action. In this, pointed out
the ITA, citing the Senate report on the 1974 Act (S.Rept. 93-1298), Congress
recognized the need for special remedial legislation applicable to
State-controlled-economy countries because traditional fair- or unfair-trade remedies
were insufficient or have proven inappropriate or ineffective because in
“State-controlled-economy countries ... supply and demand forces do not operate to
produce prices” and “because of the difficulty of [the] application [of such remedies]
to products from State-controlled economies” (cited at 49 F.R. 19373).
Likewise, in the legislative history of the thorough restructuring of the CVD law
by the Trade Agreements Act of 1979, there was nothing regarding any aspect of the
application of the CVD law to NME countries, although the Subsidies and
Countervailing Code of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, implemented
for the United States by that act, in Article 15 “explicitly permits [GATT] signatories
to regulate unfairly priced imports from NME countries under either antidumping or
countervailing duty legislation” (49 F.R. 19373).
The ITA also consulted with other U.S. government and academic sources,
which, briefly, concluded that “it is ... only ‘remotely possible’ to identify and
24 Czechoslovakia: 49 F.R. 19370; Poland: 49 F.R. 19374.

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quantify subsidies in NMEs;” “most of the analysis used thus far for ... subsidies, is
entirely inapplicable.... Theoretically, any given sale may be subsidized or not, but
since there is no market reference point, it is idle to speak in such terms.” To one
author, the countervailing duty law appears to require identification and measurement
of a resource transfer from the state to the producer, but “this is simply not a
measurable event in the typical nonmarket economy;” and “The extent to which a
nonmarket system ... can be said to be subsidising will always be unclear” (all cited
at 49 F.R. 19374).
Claiming broad discretion in this matter earlier recognized by the judiciary the
ITA concluded that a “bounty or grant,” within the meaning of the countervailing
duty law, cannot be found in an NME.25 The ITA also determined that
Czechoslovakia and Poland were NMEs, since they operated “on principles of
nonmarket cost or pricing structures so that sales or offers for sale of merchandise ...
do not reflect the value of the merchandise.” Accordingly, the ITA determined that
manufacturers, producers, or exporters in Czechoslovakia and Poland did not receive
bounties or grants, and issued, effective May 7, 1984, final negative countervailing
duty determinations.26
Shortly before the completion of the countervailing duty investigations of
carbon steel wire rod, two U.S. chemical manufacturers filed (on March 30, 1984)
petitions alleging subsidization of potassium chloride (potash) imported from the
German Democratic Republic and the Soviet Union, whereupon the respective
investigations were initiated as of April 26, 1984.27 Because of the subsequent
determination in the carbon steel wire rod cases that bounties or grants within the
meaning of the countervailing duty law cannot be found in an NME (and both
countries were determined to be NMEs), the ITA on June 6, 1984, rescinded the two
potassium chloride (potash) investigations and dismissed the relevant petitions.28
1991. Since the conclusion of the wire rod and potash countervailing duty
cases (see next section) the ITA has not initiated any countervailing investigations
of allegedly subsidized imports from NME countries, with one specialized exception.
Based on a petition filed on October 1, 1991, the ITA, on November 13, 1991,
initiated a countervailing duty investigation of Ceiling and Oscillating Fans Imported
from China.29 The petitioner claimed that, while China was an NME country, “the
PRC fan sector operates substantially pursuant to market principles and that the CVD
law should apply.”
The petition was apparently based on the fact that ITA had, meanwhile,
procedurally introduced into antidumping investigations of imports from NME
countries the concept of market-oriented industry (MOI) as a means of determining
25 49 F.R. 19374.
26 49 F.R. 19374 and 19378.
27 Potassium chloride from the German Democratic Republic (49 F.R. 18000) and
Potassium chloride from the Soviet Union (49 F.R. 18002).
28 49 F.R. 23428.
29 56 F.R. 57616.

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CRS-10
whether an industry in an NME country is sufficiently market-oriented (i.e., free from
state control) to enable the ITA to use the economic data provided by the industry
itself (rather than those of a surrogate market-economy country) in determining fair
market value of the imported product subject to the investigation.
The petitioners in the Chinese fan CVD case claimed that the Chinese fan
industry was an MOI with dependable self-provided data (including those relating to
subsidization) and, hence, could objectively be subjected to a countervailing
investigation. In its preliminary investigation,30 the ITA concluded that the prices of
several inputs are not market-determined and, hence, the industry cannot be
considered an MOI, but believed that the information used as the basis for the
determination should be verified and did not rescind the investigation. In its final,
more comprehensive phase of the investigation, the ITA concluded that “the prices
of several significant inputs are not market-determined” and therefore “the PC fans
industry is not an MOI.” ... “As a result ... the CVD law cannot be applied to the PRC
fan industry” and the ITA issued final negative determination in the case.31
Court Decisions Regarding Applicability of Countervailing to
NME Countries32
U.S. Court of International Trade (614 F. Supp. 548-557). Following
the ITA’s negative determinations in the carbon steel wire rod cases and the dismissal
of the potassium chloride cases, the petitioners challenged those actions in the U.S.
Court of International Trade (CIT). The court consolidated both suits and, on July
30, 1985, held that “countervailing duty law covers countries with nonmarket
economies in light of fact that governmental subsidies that are target of law may be
found in nonmarket economies as well as in market economies” (p. 548). The CIT.
reversed the carbon steel wire rod cases and remanded them to the ITA for
determinations consistent with the court’s opinion, and set aside the rescissions of the
potash cases and ordered that their investigations be resumed (p. 557).
The CIT, in its detailed opinion, addressed each of the four grounds on which
the ITA had based its determination of nonapplicability of countervailing procedure
to NME countries: (1) the view that a subsidy cannot be conferred in a nonmarket
economy “because a subsidy, by definition, means an act which distorts the operation
of a [free] market” (both italics in the original); (2) congressional “silence” on the
issue and the apparent preference for other trade remedial procedures; (3) consensus
of academic opinion as to nonapplicability of CVD law to NME countries; and (4)
30 57 F.R. 10011.
31 57 F.R. 24018.
32 This report presents the relevant courts’ views in a highly summarized form, and strives
not to omit any of their salient points. However, it is also far from being a legal analysis of
such views. If the detail or a legal analysis of the judicial opinions is required, their actual
texts, identified in this report by page references to, respectively, 614 Federal Supplement,
or 801 Federal Reporter 2d, should be consulted. Requests for legal analysis should be
addressed to the American Law Division of the Congressional Research Service.

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the ITA’s asserted broad discretion to determine the existence or nonexistence of
subsidies.
The CIT held that the ITA had made a basic error in interpreting and
administering the CVD law by concluding that, in its opinion, subsidies cannot be
found in nonmarket economies. The court emphasized that, absent clear legislative
intent to the contrary, the plain language of the CVD law must ordinarily be regarded
as conclusive (p. 551). Hence, it applies to any country and, therefore, does not allow
for any per se exemptions of any political entity, a fact that the ITA itself appears to
have recognized in its determinations.
The ITA, in the court’s view, “institute[d], by administrative fiat, a major
exemption for countries with nonmarket economies” by redefining the term
“subsidy” as “a distortion of the operation [solely] of a market economy,” thereby
attempting to amend the CVD law (p. 552). Although the ITA had recognized that
the CVD law did not allow for per se exemptions (see p. 3), it claimed that countries
with nonmarket economies (i.e., political entities of a certain type) were exempt
because of their NME status, illogically contradicting the meaning of the CVD
statute. The difficulties of the CVD law, said the CIT, are not those of its meaning,
but rather problems of measurement, which are precisely within the expertise of the
agency.” The ITA “has the authority and ability to detect patterns of regularity and
investigate beneficial deviations from those patterns — and it must do so regardless
of the form of the economy” (p. 554).
As to the ITA’s argument that Congress’ “silence” on the applicability of the
CVD law to NME countries and its apparent preference for other remedial measures
— among them antidumping law, which does contain specific provisions dealing
with NME countries — the CIT pointed out that those measures have been
established for remedying specific trade problems other than subsidization.
Moreover, said the court. Article 15 of the GATT Subsidies and Countervailing
Code, implemented for the United States by the Trade Agreements Act of 1979,
“clearly gives a country the choice of using subsidy law or antidumping law for
imports from a country with a state-controlled economy” (p. 556).
The court summarily dismissed the ITA’s recourse to the views of “economic
academia” “that the government of a country with a nonmarket economy cannot
show what amounts to favoritism towards the manufacture, production, or export of
particular merchandise. The idea violates common sense and conflicts with a rational
construction of the law” (p. 554-555).
ITA’s alleged assertion of its “broad discretion to determine the existence or
nonexistence of subsidies” (p. 550) was not specifically addressed by the court; it
was, however, implicitly challenged in the lengthy critique of administrative actions
that, in the court’s view, were contrary to law and, in effect, were attempts “to
amend the countervailing law ... by administrative fiat” (p. 552).
U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (801 F. 2d 1308-1318).
The U.S. government appealed the CIT decision to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the
Federal Circuit, which — focusing on the potash cases — reviewed in detail the
legislative history and development of relevant trade remedy laws and concluded that

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CRS-12
the CVD statute under which these investigations were conducted (Section 303 of the
Tariff Act of 1930) had remained “substantially unchanged from the first general
countervailing duty statute the Congress enacted [in 1897] ....”
Since Congress had not “defined the terms ‘bounty’ and ‘grant’ as used in
section 303,” the appellate court concluded it could not “answer the question whether
that section applies to nonmarket economies by reference to the language of the
statute” nor could it, on the other hand, answer it by concluding that, on the basis of
the statutory language, “Congress has not attempted to exclude nonmarket economies
from what the court believed to be the sweeping reach of the section.” Since “at the
time of the original enactment there were no nonmarket economies; Congress ... had
no occasion to address the issue ...” Hence, it remained for the court to “determine,
as best [it could], whether when Congress enacted the countervailing duty law in
1897 it would have applied the statute to nonmarket economies, if they then had
existed” (p. 1314).
Based on the relevant aspects of the potash case, the appellate court concluded
that the economic incentives and benefits provided by the Soviet Union and East
Germany to their exports of potash to the United States did not constitute bounties
or grants under the applicable CVD law (p. 1314). The court also said it followed a
precedent which “recognized that the agency administering the countervailing duty
law [i.e., the ITA] has broad discretion in determining the existence of a ‘bounty’ or
‘grant’ under that law” and, further, that it could not “say that the Administration’s
conclusion that the benefits the Soviet Union and the German Democratic Republic
provided for the exports of potash to the United States were not bounties or grants
under section 303 was unreasonable, not in accordance with the law or an abuse of
discretion” (p. 1318).
In conclusion, the Court of Appeals on September 18, 1986, vacated the CIT
order insofar as it reversed the ITA’s final CVD determinations in the two wire rod
cases, and remanded them to the CIT with instructions to dismiss the complaint for
lack of jurisdictions (because the complaint was not timely filed). It also reversed the
CIT order insofar as it set aside the ITA’s final actions in the potash cases (p. 1318).
Action in Congress
The decision of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit in the wire rod
and potash cases triggered immediate reaction in Congress. H.R. 3 of the 100th
Congress (Trade and International Economic Policy Reform Act of 1987; introduced
on January 6, 1987), as passed by the House, provided for the application of the
countervailing duty law to nonmarket economy countries to the extent that a subsidy
can reasonably be identified and measured by the administering authority (the ITA,
see section 157). The proposed statute also contained detailed procedural provisions,
including a requirement of injury determination by the U.S. International Trade
Commission, whenever international obligations of the United States required it
(H.Rept. 100-40, Part 1, p. 389). A comparable provision, however, was not included
in the Senate version, and the House-passed language was dropped in conference
(H.Rept. 100-576, p. 628; April 20, 1988).

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As H.R. 3 was being considered, companion bills S. 770 and H.R. 1687 were
introduced on March 18 and 24, 1987, respectively, to apply CVD provisions to
imports from a state-controlled economy country, but were not further considered.
The application of CVD law to NME countries was addressed again in the 103rd
and 104th Congresses. In the 103rd Congress, Section 105 of S. 90 (Trade
Enforcement Act of 1993, introduced on January 21, 1993) expanded the definition
of “countervailable subsidy” in the Tariff Act of 1930, as amended by the Uruguay
Round Agreements Act (P.L. 103-465), by applying it to NME countries and
prescribing the determination of its amount by using a surrogate market-economy
country method (as used in antidumping investigations). An identical provision was
included in the 104th Congress as Section 103 in S. 1148 (Economic Revitalization
Act), introduced on August 10, 1995. Both bills died in committee.
In the 106th through 108th Congresses, identical bills (H.R. 3198 in the 106th
Congress; H.R. 784 in the 107th Congress; and H.R. 3716 in the 108th Congress) were
introduced, applying the CVD duty law to NME countries and applicable to
investigations of subsidies provided on or after the date of the enactment of the
respective act. Virtually identical bills, but applicable to CVD investigations pursuant
to petitions filed on or after the date of the enactment of the respective act, were
introduced in the 108th Congress (H.R. 3716 and S. 2212). All of these bills died in
committee.
109th Congress
Two free-standing bills with identical operative provisions were introduced in
the 109th Congress on March 10, 2005: S. 593 (Collins, Stopping the Overseas
Subsidies Act of 2005) and H.R. 1216 (English), providing for application of CV
duties to subsidized imports from NME countries, based on all petitions filed on or
after the date of the enactment of the legislation.
In order to assure the consideration of S. 593 in the Senate, Senator Evan Bayh,
one of its original sponsors, on April 12, 2005, placed a hold on the confirmation of
then-Representative Rob Portman as the U.S. Trade Representative until Senate
leadership would allow a vote on S. 593; on April 27, 2005, Senator Bayh proposed
amendment S.Amdt. 568, identical with S. 593, to H.R. 3, but on April 28, 2005,
withdrew the amendment and released the hold.
Provisions requiring application of CV action to imports from NME countries
were subsequently included as Section 3 in broader trade-remedial legislation (United
States Trade Rights Enforcement Act), introduced on July 14, 2005 (H.R. 3283,
English) and July 19, 2005 (S. 1421, Collins). In addition to amending Title VII of
the Tariff Act of 1930 by subjecting NME countries to CV action, the legislation
sought to provide operational definitions of countervailable subsidy with respect to
China. The bill also would have prohibited double-counting of countervailable
subsidies in any antidumping order on the same product imported from the same
country. These provisions would have applied to a CVD petition filed on or after 30
days after the enactment date of the act, while the AD double-counting provision
would have applied to any subsequently made AD preliminary, final, or
administrative-review determination.

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After failing to pass in the House on July 26, 2005 under suspension of the rules
(240-186), H.R. 3283 was considered the following day under the provisions of
H.Res. 387 (an original closed rule, reported on July 26, 2005, in H.Rept. 109-187
and agreed to 228-200 on July 27, 2005) and passed on July 27, 2005 (255-168). The
measure was received in the Senate on July 28, 2005, and referred to the Committee
on Finance.
In somewhat simpler language, H.R. 3306 (Fair Trade with China Act of 2005),
focused its findings exclusively on problems in trade with China, but in Section 3
subjected all (including China) NME countries to countervailing action, effective
with respect to CVD petitions filed on or after the enactment date of the bill. The
provision also specified that the application of CV action to nonmarket economy
countries would have in no way affected the NME status of a country under
antidumping provisions of the Tariff Act of l930 (several of which deal specifically
with AD action against NME countries).
Triggered by alleged foreign exchange-rate manipulation by China, Section 3
of H.R. 1498 (Chinese Currency Act of 2005, introduced April 6, 2005, and referred
to House committees on Ways and Means, and Armed Services) sought to define any
such manipulation as a countervailable subsidy.
110th Congress
Several bills seeking to apply countervailing duty law to NME countries have
been introduced in the 110th Congress to date: S. 364 (Rockefeller, introduced
January 23, 2007); H.R. 571 (Tancredo, introduced January 18, 2007); H.R. 708
(English, introduced January 29, 2007); H.R. 782 (Ryan/Hunter, introduced January
31, 2007), H.R. 2942 (Ryan/Hunter, introduced June 28, 2007), and related bill S.
796 (Bunning/Stabenow, introduced March 7, 2007); H.R. 1229 (Davis/English,
introduced February 28, 2007) and related bill S. 974 (Collins/Bayh, introduced
March 22, 2007); and S. 1919 (Baucus, introduced August 1, 2007).
Application of CVD Laws to NME Countries. Eight of the bills (S. 364,
H.R. 708, H.R. 782/S. 796, H.R. 2942, and H.R. 1229/S. 974, and S. 1919) seek to
direct administrative authorities to apply CVD laws to NME countries. H.R. 571
(Tancredo) seeks to apply an additional across-the-board tariff on imports from NME
countries.
H.R. 1229, S. 974 (sec. 2(a)), and S. 1919 (sec. 401(a)) seek to expand the
description of countervailable subsidy to specifically include nonmarket economy
countries. H.R. 1229 and S. 974 also would provide a China-specific alternative
methodology for determining the amount of subsidy if special difficulties are found
(sec. 2(b)). Whether or not China is designated as a nonmarket economy country,
administrative authorities would be directed to use “methodologies that take into
account the possibility that terms and conditions prevailing in China may not be
applicable as appropriate benchmarks.” In these situations, authorities would be
directed to adjust the terms and conditions prevailing in China before using those
prevailing outside of China. However, if authorities have determined that China is
an NME country, they would be directed to “presume” that special difficulties do
exist, that it is not practicable to consider and adjust for Chinese terms and

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CRS-15
conditions, and that “terms and conditions prevailing outside of China” (e.g.,
surrogate market economy country or world market data) should be used to calculate
the amount of subsidy.
H.R. 708 (sec. 110(a)) would amend the CVD statute by providing methodology
that would apply to all countries, regardless of market economy status. Authorities
would be directed on the basis of a “reasonable indication that a financial
contribution” has distorted input prices of the subject merchandise, or if price data
are unavailable, to “measure adequacy of remuneration” by referring to input prices
for similar goods or services from outside the country subject to investigation or
review. Where possible, the data should be adjusted to reflect prevailing market
conditions in the country. This surrogate data methodology would also apply to
prices within political subdivisions, or other dependent territories of countries.
S. 364 (sec. 301) would also apply CVD for all countries, regardless of market
economy status. If there is a reasonable indication that government intervention has
distorted prices or other economic indicators, or if prices or other economic
indicators are not available, the administering authority would be directed to measure
the benefit conferred using price and economic data from a surrogate country or other
political subdivision, if applicable.
When measuring the amount of subsidy in nonmarket economy countries, H.R.
782, H.R. 2942, and S. 796 (sec. 102(b)) would direct the administering authority to
use methodologies that take into account the possibility that “prevailing terms and
conditions” are not available, or are inappropriate benchmarks. In such cases, unless
it can be demonstrated that these conditions can be adjusted to serve as appropriate
benchmarks, the administering authority should use terms and conditions prevailing
outside the NME country. These bills would also direct the administering authority
to use “facts otherwise available” and draw “adverse inferences” if a party is in
possession of information necessary to identify the amount of subsidy does not
provide it for the record in a timely manner.33
Revocation of NME Status. H.R. 708 (sec. 118), S. 364 (sec. 206), and H.R.
1229 (sec. 3) in similar (but not identical) language, seek to amend current law so
that a country’s NME status is revoked by (1) a determination by the administering
authority and (2) a joint resolution of Congress. In each proposal, the President is
33 The terms in quotes allude to specific methodology provided in U.S. trade remedy laws.
When sufficient data are available from the respondent in an AD or CVD investigation, the
ITA generally uses these data to calculate AD or CVD duties — in which case, the duties
assessed are generally the most favorable to the respondent. If these data are not available,
the ITA may use “facts available” (including data gathered from the petitioner or other
external sources) which may result in less favorable (higher)duty margins than if the
respondent’s data were used. An “adverse inference” may be drawn if the ITA finds that
the respondent is obstructing or not cooperating with an investigation. In these cases, the
ITA may use the least advantageous figures among the facts available when calculating the
duty amounts, which generally results in much higher AD or CVD duties. (See Department
of Commerce. Import Administration Antidumping Manual, Chapter 6 — “Fair Value
Comparisons,” p. 11, [http://ia.ita.doc.gov/admanual/admanual_ch06.pdf].)

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directed to notify the committees of jurisdiction if the administering authority has
made such a determination, after which the joint resolution would be introduced. The
bills also specify procedures and time limits for debate in both houses. S. 364 (sec.
206(d)) and H.R. 708 (sec. 112(d)) also propose specific legislative language for the
joint resolution.
Exchange Rate Manipulation Countervailable. S. 364 (sec. 302) and
H.R. 782, H.R. 2942, and S. 796 (sec. 103(b)) would provide for the treatment of
foreign exchange-rate manipulation (“misalignment”) as a countervailable subsidy
and seek to amend current law to include specific definitions and factors for
administering authorities to consider when determining its existence.
Additional Tariff on NME Imports. H.R. 571 (Tancredo, introduced January
18, 2007) seeks to apply an additional across-the-board tariff on imports from NME
countries and proposes to direct the additional duty revenue to designated Social
Security Trust Funds.
Recent Executive Branch Actions
In response to the concerns of domestic manufacturers of import-competing
products and some in Congress, the Bush Administration has taken two steps in
dealing with China’s trade practices since late 2006— first, by carrying out a CVD
investigation on a product from China, second, by initiating talks in the WTO on
China’s subsidy regime, and third, by accepting several other CVD petitions against
products from China.
CVD Investigation
On November 27, 2006, the ITA announced that it had initiated a CVD
investigation (on coated free-sheet (CFS) paper) against China. In the first phase of
the investigation, the International Trade Commission (ITC) preliminarily determined
on December 15, 2006, “that there was a reasonable indication that a U.S. domestic
industry is materially injured or threatened with material injury” by reason of
allegedly subsidized coated paper from China — thus referring the case back to the
ITA for a preliminary determination on subsidization. If the ITC had made a
negative determination, the investigation (including any ITA determination of the
applicability of CV action to NME countries within the context of the investigation)
would have terminated at that point.
On March 30, 2007, the ITA also announced an affirmative preliminary
determination of subsidy in the CVD investigation. Preliminary estimates of net
countervailable subsidy rates were set, ranging from 10.9 to 20.35 percent.34
The next phase of the CVD investigation continued at the ITA. In mid-
October, the ITA made its final determination that “countervailable subsidies are
34 72 F.R. 17484.

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CRS-17
being provided to producers and exporters of coated free sheet (CFS) paper from the
People’s Republic of China.”35 Final subsidy amounts ranged from 7.40 to 44.25
percent.

Following this final determination, the investigation is continuing at the ITC for
a final injury determination, expected in mid-January 2008. If the ITC issues a final
affirmative determination, a countervailing duty order will be issued and cash
deposits of estimated duties for entries of the targeted merchandise will be required.
If the ITC determines in the negative, the investigation will be terminated and all
estimated duties deposited or bonds posted as a result of the action will be refunded
or canceled.36
ITA’s Analysis. In the course of its preliminary investigation on CFS paper,
the ITA concluded that “while China has enacted significant and sustained economic
reforms, the PRC government has preserved a significant role for the state in the
economy.”37 Even though the ITA stood by its previous decision reaffirming
China’s status as an NME country, the agency also found that China’s present-day
economy is “significantly different” from the “Soviet-style economies” at issue in the
Georgetown Steel case where
(p)rices are set by central planners. ‘Losses’ suffered by production and foreign
trade enterprises are routinely covered by government transfers. Investment
decisions are controlled by the state. Money and credit are allocated by the
central planners. The wage bill is set by the government. Access to foreign
currency is restricted. Private ownership is limited to consumer goods.38
In contrast, the ITA determined in its March 29, 2007 analysis that market
forces actually determine the prices of more than 90% of products in China, that
wages seem to be negotiated, as opposed to government-set, foreign currency is more
accessible, and private ownership rights are acknowledged by the Chinese
government.39 At the same time, “the current PRC government has instead opted to
shrink the role of the state in some areas while preserving it in others, but never
ceding fundamental control over the economy to market forces completely.”40
Therefore, the ITA concluded, even though China remains an NME country, the
current state of China’s economy permits the agency to determine whether the
35 72 F.R. 60645.
36 72 F.R. 60647.
37 Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration. “Countervailing Duty
Investigation of Coated Free Sheet Paper from the People’s Republic of China — Whether
the Analytical Elements of the Georgetown Steel Opinion are Applicable to China’s Present-
Day Economy.” Memorandum, March 29, 2007. (Hereinafter ITA March 29, 2007
Memorandum).
38 Carbon Steel Wire Rod form Poland; Final Negative Countervailing Duty Determination,
49 F.R. 19375.
39 ITA March 29, 2007 Memorandum, pp. 5-9.
40 ITA March 29, 2007 Memorandum, p. 9.

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Chinese government has bestowed a benefit on Chinese producer, and whether any
such benefit is specific.41
China’s Reaction. On January 9, 2007, the government of China filed suit
in the Court of International Trade in an effort to prevent the ITA from continuing
with the CVD investigation, alleging that the decision by the Court of Appeals for the
Federal Circuit held “unequivocally” that the applicable statute did not allow
application of the CVD law to NME countries. On March 29, 2007, the Court ruled
that it did not have jurisdiction to hear the case because no final determination had
been made. Although the Court did not rule on whether the ITA has the legal
authority to apply CVD law to NMEs, it did state that “it is not clear that Commerce
is prohibited from applying countervailing duty law to NMEs.”42
On September 14, 2007, China requested WTO dispute settlement consultations
with the United States on its preliminary antidumping and countervailing duty
determinations on CFS paper. The U.S. Trade Representative announced the move
and requested comments from the public on October 10, 2007.43
U.S. - Initiated WTO Consultations on Subsidies
On February 2, 2007, the USTR announced that the United States had requested
WTO dispute settlement consultations with China over its use of “what we contend
are illegal subsidies.”44 This is the first step in the WTO dispute settlement process.45
On March 9, 2007, USTR Susan Schwab announced that China had agreed to
terminate one of the nine challenged subsidy programs — a regulation implemented
by China’s central bank that allowed large exporters to take advantage of discounted
loans not available to other companies.46
In its formal request for consultations, the United States pointed to several tax
laws (including nine specifically cited laws) and other measures that appear to be
used by the Chinese government in order to provide tax refunds or exemptions to
Chinese businesses if they purchase domestically produced goods instead of foreign
products, provided they meet certain export performance criteria.47 The USTR stated
41 ITA March 29, 2007 Memorandum, p. 10.
42 U.S. Court of International Trade, Government of the People’s Republic of China v.
United States, Slip Opinion 07-50, March 29, 2007.
43 72 F.R. 57607.
44 U.S. Trade Representative. Remarks by USTR Susan C. Schwab Regarding U.S. Request
for WTO Consultations on China’s Prohibited Subsidies. February 2, 2007.
45 See CRS Report RS20088, Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organization: An
Overview, by Jeanne J. Grimmett.
46 USTR. “Schwab Laud’s China’s Move to Halt Subsidized Loans Challenged by the
United States in WTO Case.” Press Release, March 9, 2007.
47 Specifically, the United States alleges that China is in violation of Article 3 of the
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM Agreement), Article III.4 of
(continued...)

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that these subsidies “can distort trade conditions for U.S. manufacturers, small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and their workers in multiple industries. They are
available across manufacturing sectors, so they can inhibit U.S. exports of a huge
range of products to China, and provide an unfair advantage to China’s exports in the
United States and around the world.”48
On February 28, 2007, Mexico also requested talks with China on the same list
of subsidies.49 On March 20, 2007, China accepted the requests of Australia, Japan,
and the United States to join in consultations with Mexico on the subsidies issue, as
well as the request of Australia, Japan, and Mexico to join with the United States in
consultations.50 If the issues are not resolved through consultations, the United States
may request a dispute settlement panel after the consultations period ends in early
April. Article 9 of the WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding provides that when
more than one WTO Member requests a panel related to the same matter, a single
panel may be established to examine the complaints. It is unclear as of this writing,
however, what course of action the United States and other complainants may take.
On November 29, 2007, USTR Schwab announced that China had agreed to
terminate all subsidies that the United States alleged were illegal under WTO rules
by January 1, 2008. China signed separate Memoranda of Understanding (MOU)
with the United States and Mexico promising to permanently eliminate the WTO-
prohibited subsidies. The United States reserved the right to re-initiate the dispute
if China does not meet its MOU commitments.51
Additional CVD Petitions Accepted
U.S. producers of at least five other products have petitioned for relief from
Chinese imports under the CVD laws. In each instance, the ITA (and ITC) have
initiated investigations. These products (and current status) include:
47 (...continued)
the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994, and Article 2 of the Agreement on Trade
Related Investment Measures (TRIMS Agreement). According to the United States, these
measures also appear to be in violation of China’s obligations under its WTO accession
protocol. WTO. China — Certain Measures Granting Refunds, Reductions or Exemptions
from Taxes and Other Payments. Request for Consultations by the United States. Request
for Consultations, February 2, 2007. WT/DS358/1.
48 U.S. Trade Representative. WTO Case Challenging Chinese Subsidies. Fact Sheet,
February 2, 2007.
49 WTO. China — Certain Measures Granting Refunds, Reductions or Exemptions from
Taxes and Other Payments, Request for Consultations by Mexico, February 28, 2007.
WT/DS359/1.
50 WTO. China — Certain Measures Granting Refunds, Reductions or Exemptions from
Taxes and Other Payments. Acceptance by China of the Requests to Join Consultations.
March 8, 2007 (WT/DS/358/6); March 20, 2007 (WT/DS/359/6).
51 U.S. Trade Representative. China to End Subsidies Challenged by the United States in
WTO Dispute, Press Release, November 29, 2007.

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! Sodium Nitrite: ITA initiated November 29, 2007.
! Circular Welded Carbon Quality Steel Pipe: ITC initiated June 7,
2007 (72 F.R. 328622); ITA initiated July 5, 2007 (72 F.R. 36668);
ITC affirmative preliminary determination, August 3, 2007 (72 F.R.
43295); ITA postponement of preliminary determination, November
6, 2007 (72 F.R. 62626) - ITA preliminary determination expected
January 3, 2008.
! Light-Walled Rectangular Pipe and Tube: ITC initiated June 28,
2007 (72 F.R. 36479); ITA initiated July 24, 2007 (72 F.R. 40281);
ITC affirmative preliminary determination, August 22, 2007 (72
F.R. 49310); ITA postponement of preliminary determination,
August 20, 2007 (72 F.R. 48618) - ITA preliminary affirmative
determination, November 27, 2007 (72 F.R. 67703).
! Laminated Woven Sacks: ITC initiated June 29 2007 (72 F.R.
36720); ITA initiated July 25, 2007 (72 F.R. 40839); ITC affirmative
preliminary determination, August 14, 2007 (72 F.R. 46246); ITA
postponement of preliminary determination, September 10, 2007 (72
F.R. 51615) - ITA preliminary determination November 27, 2007
(72 F.R. 67893).
! Certain New Pneumatic Off-the-Road Tires: ITC initiated June 19,
2007 (72 F.R. 34478); ITA initiated August 7, 2007 (72 F.R. 44122);
ITC affirmative preliminary determination, August 27, 2007 (72
F.R. 50699); ITA postponement of preliminary determination
September 19, 2007 (72 F.R. 52859) - ITA preliminary
determination expected December 7, 2007.
! Raw Flexible Magnets: ITC initiated September 28, 2007 (72 F.R.
55248); ITA initiated October 18, 2007 (72 F.R. 59076); ITC
affirmative preliminary determination, November 2, 2007 (ITC
News Release 07-110).
Since the CFS paper investigation signaled that the ITA is now willing to initiate
— as well as make affirmative determinations of countervailable subsidies — on
products from China, it is likely that U.S. domestic manufacturers of many other
products will seek this “new” avenue of relief.
Issues and Options for Congress
Despite the ITA’s affirmative determination that it is able to identify the
existence of subsidies in China, House Ways and Means Committee Chairman
Rangel and Trade Subcommittee Chairman Levin are among those who have
indicated that they intend to move forward with legislation to “ensure we are
combating all unfair trade — whether it is dumping or subsidies — that puts

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American workers, farmers and businesses at a disadvantage.”52 Congress may want
to consider some of the following issues as it continues to address application of
trade remedies to China.
First, the ITA’s decision that it can identify subsidies in China has no effect on
China’s standing as a nonmarket economy country, or on the NME designations of
other countries. It also does not affect ITA’s ruling that it is unable to find subsidies
in NME countries other than China. Therefore, Congress may want to consider
language (i.e., that in H.R. 782, H.R. 1229, and S. 796) to ensure that the CVD laws
and actions specifically apply to other NME countries as well as China. Vietnam,
another U.S. trading partner of increasing significance, is also an NME country.
There are two antidumping orders against products from Vietnam as of this writing
— on frozen fish filets and frozen or canned warmwater shrimp.53
On the other hand, the amount of trade with the other remaining NME countries
(Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) is not particularly significant at present, and to date,
there are no outstanding AD orders or other significant trade disputes with these
countries.
Second, there are currently no specific factors to consider or methodologies
provided for administrative authorities to use when identifying subsidies in
nonmarket economies. In contrast, the antidumping statute does provide such
methodology for determining normal value in NME countries — including the
authority to calculate expenses using inputs and factors of production in a market
economy country “considered appropriate to the administering authority.”54
Therefore, Congress may consider such methodologies as in H.R. 782, S. 364, and
S. 796 to apply to all NME countries, as well as China, possibly including guidelines
similar to those in the antidumping statute.
It is important to note that making CVD procedures available to U.S. industries
is not without its trade-offs. AD duties tend to be higher than CV duties in general,
and AD duties on imports from nonmarket economy countries tend to be even higher,
in part due to the use of the third-country data methodology to calculate the amount
of dumping.55 If China retained its NME status and subsidies were found on targeted
merchandise for which AD duties were already in place, some of the companion AD
duties might have to be revised downward in order to avoid “double counting” (or
the possible inclusion of export subsidy amounts in certain AD duty calculations).
In a June 2005 report, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) stated that this
52 House. Committee on Ways and Means. “Rangel and Levin Respond to Commerce
Subsidy Investigation,” press release, March 30, 2007.
53 Vietnam’s total trade with the United States amounted to about $9.6 billion in 2006, with
total U.S. exports of $1 billion and imports of $8.6 billion.
54 19 U.S.C. § 1677b(c).
55 Government Accountability Office. U.S. - China Trade: Eliminating Nonmarket Economy
Methodology Would Lower Antidumping Duties For Some Chinese Companies, January
2006, GAO-06-231.

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consideration “introduces a level of uncertainty about the magnitude of the total level
of protection that would be applied to Chinese products,” and “may result in
combined rates that are lower than might be expected.”56
Therefore, a determination by ITA that it can target subsidies in China, or
legislation amending the statute, could result in the unintended consequence of an
overall reduction in the amount of protection provided.57 However, since the two
remedies address substantially different forms of price manipulation, it is also
possible that some U.S. industries that had previously not been able to obtain relief
through the AD statute may be able to do so through CVD procedures.
56 U.S. Government Accountability Office. U.S. China Trade: Commerce Faces Practical
and Legal Challenges in Applying Countervailing Duties, June 2005, GAO-05-474.
57 Ibid.

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Appendix: Summary of Legislation
110th Congress
S. 364 (Rockefeller, introduced January 23, 2007)
Strengthening America’s Trade Laws Act. With respect to nonmarket economies,
the bill seeks (sec. 206) to amend current law to provide nonmarket economy status
will remain in effect until (1) the administering authority (currently the ITA)
determines to revoke the NME status, and (2) Congress passes a joint resolution
(with specific language and time limits for debate) to that effect. The bill would
direct the President to (1) notify the House Ways and Means and Senate Finance
committees of such a determination within 10 days of its publication in the Federal
Register, and (2) transmit to Congress a request that a joint resolution should be
introduced. The bill (sec. 301) also seeks to expand the applicability of
countervailing duties to NME countries and directs the administering authority to use
surrogate country (or political subdivision, as applicable) pricing and data if that
information is distorted or otherwise unavailable. In addition, section 302 seeks to
provide for the treatment of exchange-rate manipulation as a countervailable subsidy.
Referred to Committee on Finance.
H.R. 571 (Tancredo, introduced January 18, 2007)
Seeks to require that additional tariffs (5 percent ad valorem during the one-year
period after enactment of the bill and 1 percent additional duty each year thereafter)
be imposed on products of any nonmarket economy until the President certifies to
Congress that the country is a market economy country. The definition of nonmarket
economy country would apply to (1) countries specifically designated (Albania,
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Cambodia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Moldova,
China, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam); (2) Cuba and
North Korea; (3) any other country that the President determines is a nonmarket
economy country as defined in section 771 of the Tariff Act of 1930 (19 U.S.C.
1677). The bill further seeks to place the additional tariff revenues in designated
Social Security Trust Funds. Referred to Committee on Ways and Means.
H.R. 708 (English, introduced January 29, 2007)
Trade Law Reform Act of 2007. With respect to NME countries, section 112
seeks to amend current law to provide that a country’s nonmarket economy status
must be revoked only by a joint resolution of Congress approving a determination by
the administering authority (currently the ITA). Directs the President to notify the
House Ways and Means and Senate Finance committees of such a determination
within 10 days of its publication in the Federal Register. The bill provides specific
language for the resolution and time limits and conditions for debate. Section 113
seeks to require the application of countervailing procedures to imports from
nonmarket economy countries. Referred to Committee on Ways and Means and
Committee on Rules.
H.R. 782 (Ryan/Hunter, introduced January 21, 2007), S. 796
(Bunning/Stabenow, introduced March 7, 2007), H.R. 2942 (Ryan/Hunter)
H.R. 782/S. 796: Fair Currency Act of 2007; H.R. 2492: Currency Reform for
Fair Trade, 2007. With respect to nonmarket economy countries, Section 102 seeks

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to apply CVD action to NME countries. When measuring the amount of subsidy in
NME countries, these bills seek to direct the administering authority to use
methodologies that take into account the possibility that “prevailing terms and
conditions” are no t available, or are inappropriate benchmarks. In such cases, unless
it can be demonstrated that these conditions can be adjusted to serve as appropriate
benchmarks, the administering authority, terms and conditions prevailing outside the
NME should be used. Also directs the administering authority to use facts otherwise
available, and draw adverse inferences if a party is in possession of information
necessary to identify the amount of subsidy does not provide it for the record in a
timely manner. Seeks to provide for the treatment of exchange-rate “misalignment”
as a countervailable subsidy.
H.R. 1229 (Davis/English, introduced February 28, 2007), S. 974 (Collins,
introduced March 22, 2007), related, but not identical, bills)
H.R. 1229: Nonmarket Economy Trade Remedy Act of 2007; S. 974: Stopping
Overseas Subsidies Act. These bills seek to amend the general rule governing
imposition of countervailing duties to specifically apply to nonmarket economy as
well as market economy countries. The bills provide a China-specific methodology
for determining the amount of subsidy if special difficulties are found. Whether or
not China is designated as a nonmarket economy country, administrative authorities
are directed to use “methodologies that take into account the possibility that terms
and conditions prevailing in China may not be applicable as appropriate
benchmarks.” In these situations, authorities are directed to adjust the terms and
conditions prevailing in China before using those prevailing outside of China.
However, if authorities have determined that China is an NME country, they are
directed to “presume” that special difficulties do exist, that it is not practicable to
consider and adjust for Chinese terms and conditions, and that “terms and conditions
prevailing outside of China” (e.g., using surrogate market economy country or world
market data) should be used to calculate the amount of subsidy. Also would amend
current law to provide that a country’s NME status may be revoked only if a joint
resolution of Congress approves a determination by the administering authority.
Directs the President to notify the relevant committees of such a determination within
10 days of its publication in the Federal Register. The bills provide specific language
for the resolution and time limits and conditions for debate. They seek to requires
an annual report by the International Trade Commission on China’s use of
government intervention to promote investment, employment, and exports. House
Ways and Means Trade Subcommittee hearings held on H.R. 1229, March 15, 2007.
S. 1919 (Baucus, introduced August 1, 2007) With respect to nonmarket
economy countries, this bill seeks to amend the Tariff Act of 1930 to specifically
apply countervailing duty provisions to nonmarket economy countries. The bill also
seeks to clarify the determination of material injury (applicable in both antidumping
and countervailing duty investigations) to ensure that the ITC’s injury determination
is made (1) “whether other imports are likely to replace the subject merchandise,” or
(2) “regardless of the effect of a potential order on the domestic industry.”

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