Order Code RL31654
The Endangered Species Act: A Primer
Updated August 2, 2007
M. Lynne Corn
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Eugene H. Buck
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Kristina Alexander
Legislative Attorney
American Law Division

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The Endangered Species Act: A Primer
Summary
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) protects species identified as endangered
or threatened with extinction and attempts to protect the habitat on which they
depend. It is administered primarily by the Fish and Wildlife Service and also by the
National Marine Fisheries Service for certain marine and anadromous species.
Dwindling species are listed as either endangered or threatened according to
assessments of the risk of their extinction. Once a species is listed, legal tools are
available to aid its recovery and to protect its habitat. The ESA can become the
visible focal point for underlying situations involving the allocation of scarce or
diminishing lands or resources, especially in instances where societal values may be
changing, such as for the forests of the Pacific Northwest, the waters in the Klamath
River Basin, or the polar environment. This report discusses the major provisions of
the ESA, both domestic and international, and also discusses some of the background
issues, such as extinction in general, and the effectiveness of the statute.
An amplified discussion is provided on four aspects of the ESA and its
implementation that have raised concerns and promoted debate — listing species,
designating critical habitat, consulting on projects, and exempting projects. This
report provides much of the context for understanding individual legislative
initiatives discussed in CRS Report RL33779, The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in
the 110th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices. This report will be
updated as circumstances warrant.

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Contents
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
What Is the ESA? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why Is the ESA Controversial? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Has ESA Been Effective? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Leading Causes of Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Is Extinction Normal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Major Provisions of Current Law: Domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Endangered and Threatened Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
“Take” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
FWS and NMFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Listings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Candidate Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Delisting and Downlisting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Critical Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Recovery Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Land Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Cooperation with States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Exemptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Permits for Non-Federal Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Other Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Prohibitions and Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Major Provisions of Current Law: International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Financial Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Scientific Authority/CITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Management Authority/CITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Imports/Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Particular Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Analysis of Domestic Law Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Bases for Listings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Pre-Listing Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Special Protection for Threatened Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Designation of Critical Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Post-Listing Activities: Consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Exemptions: A History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Endangered Species Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Eligible Applicants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Secretarial Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Committee Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Special Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Duration and Effect of Exemption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

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Appendix: Exemption Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Grayrocks Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Tellico Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Bureau of Land Management Timber Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Pittston Company Refinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Consolidated Grain and Barge Company Docking Area . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Suwanee River Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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The Endangered Species Act: A Primer
The Endangered Species Act (ESA)1 receives significant congressional
attention. The associated power and reach of its comprehensive protection for
species identified as endangered or threatened with extinction has ignited concern
that there be greater bounds on this power, and fanned the flames over assertions of
lax implementation of its power. The following discussion provides an overview and
background on the various features of the ESA that contribute to its stature and yet
spark an ongoing debate over its implementation.
Overview
What Is the ESA?
The ESA is a comprehensive attempt to protect identified species and to
consider habitat protection as an integral part of that effort. It is administered
primarily by the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS),2 but also by the National Marine
Fisheries Service (NMFS)3 for certain marine species. Under the ESA, species of
plants and animals (both vertebrate and invertebrate) are listed as either “endangered”
or “threatened” according to assessments of the risk of their extinction. Once a
species is listed, powerful legal tools are available to aid the recovery of the species
and to protect its habitat. As of June 28, 2007, a total of 1,882 species of animals and
plants had been listed as either endangered or threatened; 1,314 of these occur in the
United States and its territories and the remainder only in other countries.4 Of the
U.S. species, 1,078 are covered by recovery plans.5 The authorization for funding
under ESA expired on October 1, 1992, although Congress has appropriated funds
in each succeeding fiscal year.
Why Is the ESA Controversial?
While the ESA plays an important role in protecting species, it can also become
a surrogate in quarrels whose primary focus is the allocation of scarce or diminishing
lands or resources. Indeed, a stated purpose of the ESA is to “provide a means
1 Act of December 28, 1973, P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884. 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544.
2 For detailed information on the FWS program for endangered species, see the FWS
website at [http://www.fws.gov/endangered/].
3 NMFS also is sometimes referred to as NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) Fisheries.
4 For updated information, see [http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/Boxscore.do].
5 Ibid.

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whereby the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species
depend may be conserved.”6 There can be economic interests on the various sides
of some vanishing species issues. Because other laws often lack the strict substantive
provisions that Congress included in the ESA (see Major Provisions sections,
below), the ESA often becomes a surrogate battleground in such disputes. Like the
miners’ canaries signaling a scarce resource (safe air supply), declining species are
often symptoms of resource scarcities and altered ecosystems. Examples of such
resource controversies include the Tellico Dam (hydropower development and
construction jobs versus farmland protection and tribal graves, as well as the
endangered snail darter); Northwest timber harvest (protection of logging jobs and
communities versus commercial and sport fishing, recreation, and ecosystem
protection, as well as salmon and spotted owls); and oil development on the energy-
rich plain around the northern mountain states (coal bed methane development,
grazing rights, ground water protection, traditional ranching, and a proposal for sage
grouse listing in a complex and varying stew of interests).7 And the worldwide
debate over global warming has found its avatar in the polar bear.
In recent years, tensions over the ESA have increased as species have been
added to the protected list, and as the greater demands of a growing economy and
human population have affected species’ habitats. Both Congress and the Executive
Branch have sought to lessen these tensions by, among other things, tailoring
application of the ESA for particular circumstances. The ESA’s critics contend that
neither the ESA nor administrative efforts go far enough in accommodating needs
other than species conservation, while the ESA’s defenders counter that it merely
balances an inherent bias toward development in other governmental laws and
policies.
Debate, pro and con, on the ESA splits largely along demographic lines. While
most demographic groups support species conservation, that support is stronger
among urban and suburban populations and less so in rural areas, and is stronger
among those in the East and along the coasts and less so in central and mountain
states. Sport hunters and anglers seem divided on the issue. Native Americans, as
a group often dependent on natural resources (e.g. fish), are frequently involved in
ESA issues, most commonly siding with survival of listed species. Groups opposing
strong protections for listed species usually make claims that jobs will be lost if
conservation measures are stringent, but those seeking strong protections often claim
that jobs will be lost if they are not. It is also noteworthy that, while the debate often
centers on jobs and biology, people on both sides claim ethical support for their
positions, and some religious groups now participate in the debate. In addition, some
industries (e.g., logging and land development) generally see the ESA as a serious
problem, while others (e.g., some commercial fishing and many recreation interests)
see it as generally supporting their interests.
6 16 U.S.C. § 1531(b).
7 Ultimately, a petition to list this species was judged not to be warranted. The interests
mentioned here, and many others, had a variety of goals in supporting or opposing the listing
proposal. For details, see [http://www.r6.fws.gov/species/birds/sagegrouse/].

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CRS-3
Has ESA Been Effective?
The answer to this question depends very much on the choice of measurement.
A major goal of the ESA is the recovery of species to the point at which the
protection of the ESA is no longer necessary. If this is the standard, the ESA might
be considered a failure, since only 20 species have been delisted due to recovery, to
date.8 Nine species have become extinct since their listing, and 16 have been delisted
due to improved data or scientific understanding.9 In the former case, some of the
nine species now believed extinct were originally listed to protect any last remaining
few that might have been alive at the time of listing. It can be quite difficult to prove
whether extraordinarily rare species are simply that, or in fact are already extinct. For
example, a rare shorebird thought by many to be extinct was re-discovered in a
remote area of Canada a few years ago; it might just as easily have quietly gone
extinct without being rediscovered. Rare species are, by definition, hard to find.
Even so, since some scientific studies demonstrated that most species are listed
only once they are very depleted (e.g., median population of 407 animals for
endangered vertebrates according to one study), another measure of effectiveness
might be the number of species that have stabilized or increased their populations,
even if the species is not actually delisted. If this is the standard, the ESA could be
considered a success, since a large number (41% of listed species according to one
study) have improved or stabilized their population levels. Other species (e.g., red
wolves and California condors) might not exist at all without ESA protection, and
this too might be considered a measure of success, even though the species are still
rare.10 One could also ask what species might have become extinct if there were no
ESA. The authors are unaware of comprehensive studies regarding the likely status
of rare species were there no ESA, but for species such as spotted owls, salmon,
Florida panthers, and plants of very narrow ranges, it seems likely that their numbers
would be (at best) far fewer if ESA did not exist.
Leading Causes of Extinction
Until recent decades, the focus of the extinction debate was on losses due to
over-exploitation, generally through hunting, trapping, or fishing. The poster species
of the debate were passenger pigeons, tigers, wolves, and other well-known animals.
But during the 20th century, a shift of focus and probably of fact occurred. The vast
majority of species, including those for which direct taking was probably an early
factor in their decline, are generally also at risk due to habitat loss. Habitats reduced
now to a small fraction of their former extent include tall-grass prairie, fresh and salt
water wetlands, old growth forests of most types, free-flowing rivers, coral reefs,
undisturbed sandy beaches, and others.
8 See [http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/DelistingReport.do] to obtain updated information.
9 Ibid. The recovered species include the recently delisted bald eagle and the Yellowstone
area population of grizzly bears.
10 See CRS Report 98-32 ENR, Endangered Species Act List Revisions: A Summary of
Delisting and Downlisting, by Robert J. Noecker.

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CRS-4
Another high-ranking factor in the demise of many species is the introduction
of non-native species. The non-native (invasive) species can be disease vectors or
parasites (e.g., avian malaria in Hawaii, or Asian long-horned beetles in North
America), predators (brown tree snakes in Guam and Hawaii), or competitors (e.g.,
barred owls in the Pacific Northwest). The gradual homogenization of the world’s
flora and fauna has led to a demise of many species.11
Is Extinction Normal?
If extinction is normal, some argue that there is no need for the government to
intervene to halt this natural process. But is it normal? Geological evidence shows
that the vast majority of species that have ever lived on Earth are now extinct — an
observation uncontested by paleontologists. However, many scientists are concerned
that the current rate of extinction exceeds background extinction rates over time.12
But calculating current rates of extinction, much less making comparisons with the
geologic past, is extremely difficult. Current estimates of total species range from
3.5 million to 100 million, with 10-30 million being commonly accepted numbers.
If scientists are unsure of how many species exist, it is naturally difficult to estimate
how fast they are going extinct, and whether current extinction rates exceed
background extinction rates. Consequently, scientists use very conservative
assumptions to make these estimates. The resulting extinction rates (17,000 species
per year being a typical estimate) still seem astonishingly large, in part because the
public is generally unaware of the huge number of species in groups to which many
people pay little or no attention (e.g., beetles, marine invertebrates, fish), and the
large number of species estimated on Earth. How do these compare to background
rates?
Widely diverse methods all suggest that current rates of extinction exceed
background rates. Normal rates are thought to be from 1 to 10 species per every 10
million species per year. (That is, if there are 20 million species now, background
levels would be about 2 to 20 species extinctions per year.) Common estimates of
current extinction rates range from 100 to 10,000 times such background rates —
roughly comparable to the five great episodes of extinction in the geologic past.
Critics most frequently question these calculations by stressing uncertainties, rather
than citing specific factual errors. This criticism is not surprising, since each step in
these calculations contains uncertainties (e.g., estimating the number of existing
species). Most biologists counter by noting that similar numbers are generated in
studies of widely different groups by a variety of scientists using different methods.
Robust results (i.e., similar results from the testing of a hypothesis in a variety of
ways) are usually considered scientifically sound.
11 See CRS Report RL30123, Harmful Non-Native Species: Issues for Congress, by M.
Lynne Corn, Eugene H. Buck, Jean M. Rawson, Alejandro E. Segarra, and Eric A. Fischer.
12 Over the billions of years of life on Earth, extinction rates have varied, with five periods
of exceptionally high rates. The most famous periods are the mass extinctions at the end of
the Age of Dinosaurs (Cretaceous Period), about 65 million years ago, and the even more
massive die-offs at the end of the Permian Period, about 250 million years ago, when about
52% of the groups of marine species became extinct. Between each of these five events,
extinctions continued at more moderate, background levels.

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CRS-5
Once extinct, a species can never be revived. But, faced with high rates of
extinction, some might take comfort in a return to an equal number of species, even
if those species are different. Evolution continues, even in the face of high extinction
rates, so perhaps new species will evolve that are better adapted to new conditions.
If so, how long would such a “recovery” take? Examining the geologic record after
major extinction episodes, some scientists estimate that recovery to approximately
equal numbers of (different) species took up to 25 million years for the most severe
extinction events. Thus, if the current extinction rate and recovery rate are
comparable to past rates, the return to species numbers of the pre-historic era would
take several million years.
Major Provisions of Current Law: Domestic
The modern ESA was passed in 1973, but was preceded by simpler acts in 1966
and 1969. It has been amended on numerous occasions since then: 1976, 1977, 1978,
1979, 1980, 1982, and 1988. The following are brief summaries of the major
domestic provisions of the ESA in the order they appear in the U.S. Code. Several
major issues are discussed in more detail later in this report.
Endangered and Threatened Species
An endangered species is defined as “any species which is in danger of
extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range....” A threatened species
is defined as “any species which is likely to become an endangered species within the
foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range.” The ESA does
not rely on a numerical standard: such a standard would not reflect the wide variety
of many species’ biology. (For example, a population of 10,000 butterflies, all
confined to one mountaintop, would clearly be at greater risk than 10,000 butterflies
scattered over thousands of square miles.) The protection of the ESA extends to all
species and subspecies of animals (not just birds and mammals), although for
vertebrates, further protection can be given for distinct population segments within
a species, and not just the species as a whole. More limited protection is available
for plant species under the ESA.13 There is currently no protection afforded under
the ESA for organisms (e.g., Eubacteria, Archaea, viruses) considered neither animal
nor plant.
“Take”
The term “take” under the ESA means “to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot,
wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or to attempt to engage in any such conduct.”14
(Harassment and harm are further defined by regulation at 50 C.F.R. § 17.3.) Taking
is prohibited under 16 U.S.C. § 1538. There has been controversy over the extent to
which the prohibition on taking may include habitat modification. A 1995 Supreme
13 16 U.S.C. § 1532.
14 16 U.S.C. § 1532.

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Court decision15 held that the inclusion of significant habitat modification was a
reasonable interpretation of the term “harm” in the law.
FWS and NMFS
The Secretary of the Interior manages and administers most listed species
through FWS. Marine species, including some marine mammals, and anadromous
fish are the responsibility of the Secretary of Commerce, acting through NMFS. The
law assigns the major role to the Secretary of the Interior (all references to
“Secretary” below are to the Secretary of the Interior unless otherwise stated) and
provides in detail for the relationship of the two Secretaries and their respective
powers.16
Listings
Species may be listed on the initiative of the appropriate Secretary or by petition
from an individual, group, or state agency. The Secretary must decide whether to list
the species based only on the best available scientific and commercial information,
after an extensive series of procedural steps to ensure public participation and the
collection of relevant information. At this point, the Secretary may not consider the
economic effects that listing may have on the area where the species occurs. This is
the only place in the ESA where economic considerations are expressly forbidden;
such considerations may enter in a later stage.17 Economic factors cannot be taken
into account at this stage, because Congress directed that listing be fundamentally a
scientific question: is the continued existence of the species threatened or
endangered? Through the 1982 amendments particularly, Congress clearly intended
to separate this scientific question from subsequent decisions on appropriate
protection. This is evident upon comparing 16 U.S.C. § 1533(b) with § 1533(f) in
this regard.
Candidate Species
In the interval between a proposal and a listing decision, the Secretary must
monitor the status of these “candidate” species and, if any emergency poses a
significant risk to the well-being of the species, promptly list them.18 Some steps in
the normal listing process may be skipped for emergency listings. Federal agencies
must confer with the appropriate Secretary on actions likely to jeopardize the
15 Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon, 515 U.S. 687 (1995)
(“Sweet Home”). See CRS Report 95-778, Habitat Modification and the Endangered
Species Act: The Sweet Home Decision, by Pamela Baldwin.
16 16 U.S.C. § 1533.
17 See CRS Report RL30792, The Endangered Species Act: Consideration of Economic
Factors, by Pamela Baldwin, for an analysis of when the ESA does allow consideration of
such factors.
18 16 U.S.C. § 1533(b)(3)(C)(iii).

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continued existence of candidate species, but agencies need not limit commitments
of resources.19 As of the date of this report, there were 277 candidate species.20
Delisting and Downlisting
The processes for delisting or downlisting a species from the Lists of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants are the same as the processes for
listing.21 Delisting is removing a species from the lists. Downlisting is reclassifying
a species from endangered to threatened, and uplisting is the reverse. The Secretary
of the Interior may initiate a change in the status of listed species. Alternatively, after
receiving a substantive petition for any change in listing status, the Secretary is to
review the species’ status. The determination to delist, downlist, or uplist a species
must be made “solely on the basis of the best scientific and commercial data
available”22 and “without reference to possible economic or other impacts.”23 FWS
regulations also state that, at least once every five years, the Director review each
listed species to determine whether it should be removed from the list, changed from
endangered to threatened, or changed from threatened to endangered.24
Critical Habitat
When a species is listed, the Secretary must also designate critical habitat (either
where the species is found or, if it is not found there, where there are features
essential to its conservation).25 If the publication of this information is not “prudent”
because it would harm the species (e.g., by encouraging vandals or collectors), the
Secretary may choose not to designate critical habitat. The Secretary may also
postpone designation for as long as one year if the information is not determinable.
As of June 28, 2007, critical habitat had been designated for 489 listed species.26
Any area, whether or not federally owned, may be designated as critical habitat, but
private land is only affected by critical habitat designation if some federal action
(e.g., license, loan, permit) is also involved. Federal agencies must avoid
19 16 U.S.C. § 1536(a)(4). The limitation on commitments of resources originated in the
debate over Tellico dam. (See Appendix of this report.) As controversy over the dam raged
in Washington and in Tennessee, the Tennessee Valley Authority accelerated work on the
dam, leaving the project nearly complete before the Endangered Species Committee had
met. (See “Exemptions: A History,” below.)
20 For updated information, see [http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/SpeciesReport.do?listing
Type=C].
21 For more information on this topic, see CRS Report 98-32 ENR, Endangered Species List
Revisions: A Summary of Delisting and Downlisting, by Robert Noecker.
22 16 U.S.C. § 1533(b)(1)(A).
23 50 C.F.R. § 424.11(b).
24 50 C.F.R. § 424.21
25 16 U.S.C. §§ 1533(a)(3) and (b)(2).
26 See [http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/CriticalHabitat.do?listings=0&nmfs=1] for updated
information.

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“destruction or adverse modification” of critical habitat, either through their direct
action or activities that they approve or fund.27
P.L. 108-138 added a provision28 specifying that the Secretary shall not
designate critical habitat on lands controlled by the Defense Department, if those
lands are subject to an Integrated Natural Resource Management Plan (INRMP)
under the Sikes Act (16 U.S.C. § 670a). The provision was subject to the Secretary’s
determination, in writing, that the INRMP provided “a benefit” to the lands which
might otherwise have been designated as critical habitat.29 In addition, the Secretary
was directed to take national security into consideration in designating critical
habitat. These provisions were added in response to a perception that designated
critical habitat on some military lands interfered with military training and readiness
activities.
Recovery Plans
The appropriate Secretary must develop recovery plans for the conservation and
survival of listed species.30 Recovery plans to date tend to cover birds and mammals,
but a 1988 ESA amendment prohibits the Secretary from favoring particular
taxonomic groups. The ESA and its regulations provide little detail on the
requirements for recovery plans, nor are these plans binding on federal agencies or
others, and the essentially hortatory nature of these plans has been widely criticized.
As of June 28, 2007, recovery plans had been completed for 1,078 U.S. species.31
Land Acquisition
Land may be acquired to conserve (recover) endangered and threatened species,
and money from the Land and Water Conservation Fund may be appropriated for this
acquisition.32 In FY2005, a total of 1,655 acres were acquired by FWS for the
National Wildlife Refuge System under ESA authority.
Cooperation with States
The appropriate Secretary must cooperate with the states in conserving protected
species and must enter into cooperative agreements to assist states in their
27 16 U.S.C. § 1536(a)(2).
28 16 U.S.C. § 1533(a)(3)(B).
29 The military remains subject to ESA’s provisions other provisions, including consultation
and taking. For additional information on the military and ESA, see CRS Report RS22149,
Exemptions from Environmental Law for the Department of Defense: Background and
Issues for Congress by David M. Bearden.
30 16 U.S.C. § 1533(f).
31 See [http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/Boxscore.do] for updated information.
32 16 U.S.C. § 1534.

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endangered species programs, if the programs meet certain specified standards.33 If
there is a cooperative agreement, the states may receive federal funds to implement
the program, but the states must normally provide a minimum 25% matching amount.
The 1988 ESA amendments created a fund to provide for the state grants. While the
authorized size of the fund is determined according to a formula, money from the
fund still requires annual appropriation.34 For FY2007, $81.0 million was provided
to states and territories for cooperative activities, including land acquisition and
planning assistance.
Consultation
Federal agencies must ensure that their actions are “not likely to jeopardize the
continued existence” of any endangered or threatened species, nor to adversely
modify critical habitat.35 If federal actions or actions of non-federal parties that
require a federal approval, permit, or funding might affect a listed species, the federal
action agencies must complete a biological assessment.36 To be sure of the effects
of their actions, the action agency must consult with the appropriate Secretary. This
is referred to as a § 7 consultation. “Action” includes any activity authorized,
funded, or carried out by a federal agency, including permits and licenses. However,
a 2007 Supreme Court decision held that the consultation process is required only for
those federal actions that involve agency discretion.37 Where a federal action is
dictated by statute, such as where an agency must act if certain listed conditions are
met, a § 7 consultation is not required.
If the appropriate Secretary finds that an action would not jeopardize a species
or adversely modify critical habitat, the Secretary issues a Biological Opinion
(“BiOp”) to that effect, and the agency is provided with a written statement under 16
U.S.C. § 1536(b)(4), specifying the terms and conditions under which the federal
action may proceed in order to avoid jeopardy or adverse modification of critical
habitat. The Secretary must suggest any reasonable and prudent alternatives that
would be required to avoid harm to the species. The great majority of consultations
result in “no jeopardy” opinions, and nearly all of the rest find that the project has
reasonable and prudent alternatives which will permit it to go forward. Actions that
would result in jeopardy and have no reasonable and prudent alternatives are
exceptionally rare. If no reasonable and prudent alternatives to the proposed action
can be devised to avoid the jeopardy or adverse modification, the agency has three
choices: (1) choose not to proceed with the action; (2) proceed with the action at the
33 16 U.S.C. § 1535.
34 16 U.S.C. §1535(i).
35 16 U.S.C. §1535(a).
36 16 U.S.C. §1536(c).
37 National Association of Home Builders v. Defenders of Wildlife, 127 S.Ct. 2518 (2007).
(holding that no § 7 consultation was required to transfer permitting power to a state under
a portion of the Clean Water Act (CWA) because once the CWA statutory factors were met,
EPA had no choice but to execute the transfer). See CRS Report RS22618, The Supreme
Court Decides Five Environmental Cases in Its 2006-2007 Term by Robert Meltz.

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CRS-10
risk of penalties; or (3) apply for a formal exemption for the action.38 Pending
completion of the consultation process, agencies may not make irretrievable
commitments of resources that would foreclose any of these alternatives.
Exemptions
A federal agency, an applicant or permittee, or the governor of a state in which
the action in question would occur may apply for an exemption that allows the action
to go forward without penalties. Exemptions are only available for actions (e.g.,
water withdrawals), not for species (e.g., Delta smelt). A high-level Endangered
Species Committee of six specified federal officials and a representative of each
affected state (commonly called the “God Squad”) decides whether to allow the
action to proceed despite future harm to a species; at least five votes are required to
pass an exemption. The law includes extensive rules and deadlines to be followed
in applying for such an exemption and some stringent rules for the Committee in
deciding whether to grant an exemption. The Committee must grant an exemption
if the Secretary of Defense determines that an exemption is necessary for national
security.39 In addition, and under specified circumstances, the President may
determine whether to exempt a project for the repair or replacement of facilities in
declared disaster areas. A separate discussion of the complex exemption process and
its history is provided in the Appendix.40
Permits for Non-Federal Actions
For actions that might take a listed species, but without any federal nexus such
as a loan or permit, the Secretary may issue permits to allow “incidental take” of
species for otherwise lawful actions.41 The applicant for an incidental take permit
must submit a habitat conservation plan (HCP) that shows the likely impact, the steps
to minimize and mitigate the impact, the funding for the mitigation, the alternatives
that were considered and rejected, and any other measures that the Secretary may
require. Secretary Babbitt greatly expanded use of this section during the Clinton
Administration, and an agency handbook provides for streamlined procedures for
activities with minimal impacts.42
Other Provisions
Other provisions specify certain exemptions for raptors; regulate subsistence
activities by Alaskan Natives; prohibit interstate transport and sale of listed species
38 16 U.S.C. §1536(a).
39 16 U.S.C. § 1536(e)-(p).
40 See also CRS Report 90-242 ENR, Endangered Species Act: The Listing and Exemption
Processes. A copy of this archived report can be obtained, on request, from M. Lynne Corn.
41 An incidental take occurs when listed species are harassed, harmed, pursued, hunted, shot,
wounded, killed, trapped, captured, or collected incidently during activities done
deliberately but for a lawful purpose other than the objective of taking these listed species.
42 16 U.S.C. § 1539.

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CRS-11
and parts; control trade in parts or products of an endangered species that were
owned before the law went into effect; and specify rules for establishing experimental
populations. (Provisions of the ESA referring to international activities are discussed
below.)
Prohibitions and Penalties
The ESA prohibits certain actions, specifies criminal and civil penalties, and
provides for citizens’ suits to enforce certain aspects of the ESA.43 The citizen suit
provisions have been a driving force in the ESA’s history, and often have been used
to force reluctant agencies to provide for species conservation that might otherwise
have been neglected.
Major Provisions of Current Law: International
The ESA implements the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)44 and the Convention on Nature Protection
and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (the Western Hemisphere
Convention)45 for the United States. CITES parallels the ESA by dividing its listed
species into groups according to the estimated risk of extinction, but uses three major
categories,46 rather than two. In contrast to the ESA, CITES focuses exclusively on
trade, and does not consider or attempt to control habitat loss. The following are the
major international provisions of the ESA.
Financial Assistance
The Secretary may use foreign currencies (available under 7 U.S.C. § 1691, the
Food for Peace program) to provide financial assistance to other countries for
conserving endangered species. (As a practical matter, little money is currently
available under this provision.) The ESA also authorizes appropriations for this
purpose.47
43 16 U.S.C. §§ 1538 and 1540.
44 TIAS 8249, as signed by the United States, March 3, 1979. See CRS Report RL32751,
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES): Background and Issues, by Pervaze A. Sheikh and M. Lynne Corn.
45 50 Stat. 1354; TS 981, as signed by the United States, October 12, 1940.
46 CITES arranges protected species in 3 Appendices. Appendix I includes species
threatened with extinction, and for which trade is permitted only in exceptional
circumstances. Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but
for which trade must be controlled to avoid exploitation incompatible with their survival.
Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked
other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade.
47 16 U.S.C. §§ 1537 and 1542.

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Scientific Authority/CITES
The ESA designates the Interior Secretary as the Endangered Species Scientific
Authority (ESSA) under CITES. As the ESSA, the Secretary must determine that the
United States’ international trade of living or dead organisms, or their products, will
not harm the species in question. The Secretary has authority to enforce these
determinations. The Secretary is required to base export determinations upon “the
best available biological information,” although population estimates are not
required. Certain other responsibilities are also spelled out in CITES.48
Management Authority/CITES
The Interior Secretary is also named as the Management Authority for the
United States under CITES. The Management Authority must assure that specimens
are exported legally, that imported specimens left the country of origin legally, and
that live specimens are shipped under suitable conditions. Certain other
responsibilities are also spelled out in CITES.49
Violations
The ESA makes violations of CITES violations of U.S. law if committed within
the jurisdiction of the United States.50
Imports/Exports
The ESA requires importers and exporters of controlled products to use certain
ports and provides for exemptions for scientific purposes and for programs intended
to assist the recovery of listed species.51 There are also certain exemptions for Alaska
Natives and for products owned before December 28, 1973, including scrimshaw
(carved ivory).52
Particular Species
The 1988 ESA amendments (P.L. 100-478, Title II; 16 U.S.C. §§ 4201 et seq.)
created a major program for the conservation of African elephants. In 1994,
48 16 U.S.C. §§ 1537-1538.
49 16 U.S.C. § 1537.
50 16 U.S.C. § 1538.
51 Subject to extra fees, importers or exporters may apply to use ports other than the 18
specifically designated by the Secretary (16 U.S.C. § 1537(f)). These extra fees may be
considerable since qualified FWS agents must be sent to oversee the shipment. Designated
ports are Anchorage, Atlanta, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Honolulu, Houston, Los
Angeles, Louisville (KY), Memphis, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Newark, Portland
(OR), San Francisco, Seattle. There have been pressures over the years to open other ports,
but budget constraints have generally limited such changes.
52 16 U.S.C. §§ 1538-1539.

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Congress enacted a separate program for rhinoceros and tigers (P.L. 103-391; 16
U.S.C. §§ 5301 et seq.). In 1997, a program for Asian elephants was established
(P.L. 105-96; 16 U.S.C. §§ 4261 et seq.). In 2000, a program for great apes was
added (P.L. 106-411; 16 U.S.C. §§ 6301 et seq.). In 2004, a program for marine
turtles was added (P.L. 108-266; 16 U.S.C. §§ 6601 et seq.). While none of these
programs is formally part of the ESA authorization per se, they provide funds for
species which are protected under the ESA.
Analysis of Domestic Law Provisions
Because the listing of species, the designation of critical habitat, and the
consultation and exemption processes are such important and controversial aspects
of the ESA, each of these components is discussed in greater detail in this portion of
the report.
Listing
Bases for Listings. As discussed above, the listing of a species under the
ESA results in greater protection for the species, limitations on activities that might
affect that species, and penalties for “taking” individuals of a listed species.
A species may be designated as either endangered or threatened, depending on
the severity of its decline and threats to its continued survival. Under § 3 of the ESA,
an endangered species is a species that is “in danger of extinction throughout all or
a significant portion of its range.” A threatened species is defined as a species “likely
to become endangered within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant
portion of its range.” Because the ESA defines species as a species, a subspecies, or,
— for vertebrates only — a “distinct population segment,”53 there is some flexibility
as to how to provide different levels of protection to less than a whole species.
In the last several years, the Department of the Interior (DOI) has interpreted the
definition of endangered species to find that only a species that is in danger of
extinction throughout all of its range is truly endangered. Under this interpretation,
a species that was at risk of extinction in a significant portion of its range would not
be considered endangered. Just about every court that considered the issue found
DOI’s interpretation violated the ESA, including one federal court of appeals.54 And
in 2007, DOI changed its interpretation.55 Under the new interpretation issued by the
53 16 U.S.C. § 1532(16).
54 See, e.g., Defenders of Wildlife v. Norton, 258 F.3d 1136 (9th Cir. 2001); Nat’l Wildlife
Fed. v. Norton, 386 F. Supp. 2d 553 (D. Vt. 2005); Defenders of Wildlife v. Norton, 354 F.
Supp. 2d 1156 (D. Or. 2005); Defenders of Wildlife v. Norton 239 F. Supp. 2d 9 (D.D.C.
2002). The only two exceptions have been Ctr. for Biological Diversity v. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, No. 05-CV-00305-RPM (D. Colo. March 7, 2007); Ctr. for Biological
Diversity v. Norton, 411 F. Supp. 2d 1271 (D.N.M. 2005).
55 Memorandum from the Solicitor, DOI, to the Director, Fish and Wildlife Service, “The
(continued...)

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CRS-14
Solicitor of DOI, FWS must also consider whether a species is at risk of extinction
throughout a significant portion of its range, allowing the agency discretion to define
significant.56 The interpretation also states that the range of a species is the area in
which a species currently exists, not the historical range where the species once
existed.
The determination of whether a species should be listed as endangered or
threatened must be based on several scientific factors related to a species and threats
to its continuance. The ESA expressly states that listing determinations are to be
made “solely on the basis of the best scientific and commercial data available.”57 The
word “solely” was added in the 1982 amendments to the ESA58 to clarify that the
determination of endangered or threatened status was intended to be made without
reference to its potential economic impacts. Observers have compared the decision
of whether to list a species to diagnosing whether a patient has cancer: the diagnosis
should be a strictly scientific decision, but other factors can be considered later in
deciding how to treat the cancer. In discussing the addition of the word “solely,” a
committee report stated:
... The principal purpose of the amendments to Section 4 is to ensure that
decisions pertaining to the listing and delisting of species are based solely upon
biological criteria and to prevent non-biological considerations from affecting
such decisions. To accomplish this and other purposes, Section 4(a) is amended
in several instances.
Section 4(b) of the Act is amended in several instances by Section 1(a)(2) of
H.R. 6133. First, the legislation requires that the Secretary base his
determinations regarding the listing or delisting of species “solely” on the basis
of the best scientific and commercial data available to him. The addition of the
word “solely” is intended to remove from the process of the listing or delisting
of species any factor not related to the biological status of the species. The
55 (...continued)
Meaning of ‘In Danger of Extinction Throughout All or a Significant Portion of its Range’”
(March 16, 2007).
56 Ibid. at 3.
57 16 U.S.C. § 1533(a)(1) states that the Secretary by regulation shall “determine whether
any species is an endangered species or a threatened species because of any of the following
factors:
“(A) the present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat
or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational
purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms;
or (E) other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence.”
16 U.S.C. § 1533(b)(1)(A) states: “The Secretary shall make determinations required
by subsection (a)(1) of this section solely on the basis of the best scientific and commercial
data available to him after conducting a review of the status of the species and after taking
into account those efforts, if any, being made by any State or foreign nation, or any political
subdivision of a State or foreign nation, to protect such species, whether by predator control,
protection of habitat and food supply, or other conservation practices, within any area under
its jurisdiction, or on the high seas.”
58 P.L. 97-304, 96 Stat. 1411.

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Committee strongly believes that economic considerations have no relevance to
determinations regarding the status of species and intends that the economic
analysis requirements of Executive Order 12291, and such statutes as the
Regulatory Flexibility Act and the Paperwork Reduction Act not apply. The
committee notes, and specifically rejects, the characterization of this language
by the Department of the Interior as maintaining the status quo and continuing
to allow the Secretary to apply Executive Order 12291 and other statutes in
evaluating alternatives to listing. The only alternatives involved in the listing of
species are whether the species should be listed as endangered or threatened or
not listed at all. Applying economic criteria to the analysis of these alternatives
and to any phase of the species listing process is applying economics to the
determinations made under Section 4 of the Act and is specifically rejected by
the inclusion of the word “solely” in this legislation.
Section 4(b) of the Act, as amended, provides that listings shall be based solely
on the basis of the best “scientific and commercial data” available. The
Committee did not change this information standard because of its interpretation
of the word “commercial” to allow the use of trade data. Retention of the word
“commercial” is not intended, in any way, to authorize the use of economic
considerations in the process of listing a species.59
The conference report confirms that it was the intent of both chambers that
economic factors not play a role in the designation and listing of species for
protection:
Section 2 of the Conference substitute amends section 4 of the Act in several
ways. The principal purpose of these amendments is to ensure that decisions in
every phase of the process pertaining to the listing or delisting of species are
based solely upon biological criteria and to prevent non-biological considerations
from affecting such decisions.60
The Committee of Conference (hereinafter the Committee) adopted the House
language which requires the Secretary to base determinations regarding the
listing or delisting of species “solely” on the basis of the best scientific and
commercial date available to him. As noted in the House Report, economic
considerations have no relevance to determinations regarding the status of
species and the economic analysis requirements of Executive Order 12291, and
such statutes as the Regulatory Flexibility Act and the Paperwork Reduction Act,
will not apply to any phase of the listing process. The standards in the Act
relating to the designation of critical habitat remain unchanged. The requirement
that the Secretary consider for listing those species that states or foreign nations
have designated or identified as in need of protection also remains unchanged.
The Committee adopted, with modifications, the Senate amendments which
combined and rewrote section 4(b) and (f) of the Act to streamline the listing
process by reducing the time periods for rulemaking, consolidating public
59 H.Rept. 97-567, at 19-20.
60 H.Rept. 97-835, 19.

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meeting and hearing requirements and establishing virtually identical procedures
for the listing and delisting of species and for the designation of critical habitat.61
In summary, the ESA makes clear that whether a species is endangered or
threatened is a scientific question in which economic factors must not play a part.
Once this determination is made, economics then may be considered in analyzing and
taking other actions such as designating critical habitat or developing recovery plans.
Nothing in the ESA prevents choosing conservation methods that will lower costs to
society, industry, or landowners, as long as the chosen methods still achieve
conservation goals.
Pre-Listing Activities. The question may arise as to what the responsibilities
of the federal government are toward a species that is proposed for listing but has not
yet been listed. This question could be important because there may be a significant
time between the proposal for listing and the actual listing, during which time a
federal agency could be faced with decisions on contracts and management actions
of various types. Under current law, an agency must “confer” with the appropriate
Secretary on any agency action that is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
any species proposed to be listed or to destroy or adversely modify critical habitat
proposed to be designated for such species.62 The implementing regulations state that
the conference is designed to assist the federal agency and an applicant in identifying
and resolving potential conflicts at an early stage in the planning process.63
The conference process that applies to species proposed for listing is distinct
from the consultation process that applies to listed species. The conference is
intended to be less formal, and to permit FWS or NMFS to advise an agency on ways
to minimize or avoid adverse effects. A federal agency has to follow more formal
procedures and provide more complete documentation once a species is listed. The
agency may choose to follow the more complete and formal process even at the
proposed listing stage to avoid duplication of effort later.64
The ESA states that the conference stage does not require a limitation on the
irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resources by agency action which would
foreclose reasonable and prudent alternative measures.65 Once a species is listed, an
agency will have definite responsibilities, and an agency might consider it prudent
at the proposed listing stage both to avoid harm to a precarious species and to avoid
possible liability for compensation arising from agency actions creating private rights
which later cannot be exercised. An agency might, for example, choose to avoid
holding timber sales in an area containing a proposed species. The relevant Secretary
must monitor candidate species and prevent a significant risk to the well being of any
such species.
61 Ibid., at 20.
62 16 U.S.C. § 1536(a)(4).
63 50 C.F.R. § 402.10.
64 Ibid.
65 16 U.S.C. § 1536(a)(4).

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Special Protection for Threatened Species. Under § 4(d) of the ESA,
the Secretary may promulgate special regulations to address the conservation of
species listed as threatened. Protections and recovery measures for a particular
threatened species can be carefully tailored to particular situations, as was done, for
example, with respect to the threatened northern spotted owl. A federal regulation
also clarifies that a threatened species for which a special rule has not been
promulgated enjoys the same protections as endangered species.66
Designation of Critical Habitat
Critical habitat designation has been controversial, given FWS’s stated position
(see below), the importance that the environmental community attaches to critical
habitat (especially in some specific cases), and the distress its designation causes
among many landowners.
Concurrently with determining a species to be endangered or threatened, the
Secretary “to the maximum extent prudent and determinable”67 is to designate the
critical habitat of the species. The reference to the designation of critical habitat
being “prudent” reflects the need to consider whether designating habitat would harm
the species, for example, by identifying areas that could be damaged by specimen
collecting. If the facts relevant to the designation of critical habitat are not yet
“determinable,” the Secretary may postpone habitat designation for an additional
year. Eventually, habitat is to be designated to the maximum extent it is prudent to
do so.68
If the Secretary designates critical habitat, the Secretary must do so
on the basis of the best scientific data available and after taking into
consideration the economic impact, and any other relevant impact, of specifying
any particular area as critical habitat. The Secretary may exclude any area from
critical habitat if he determines that the benefits of such exclusion outweigh the
benefits of specifying such area as part of the critical habitat, unless he
determines, based on the best scientific and commercial data available, that the
failure to designate such area as critical habitat will result in the extinction of the
species concerned.69
Therefore, although economic factors are not to be considered in the listing of
a species as endangered or threatened, economic factors must be considered in the
designation of critical habitat, and some habitat areas may be excluded from
designation based on such concerns, unless the failure to designate habitat would
result in the extinction of the species.
66 50 C.F.R. § 17.31.
67 16 U.S.C. § 1533(a)(3).
68 16 U.S.C. § 1533(b)(6)(C).
69 16 U.S.C. § 1533(b)(2).

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Although avoiding adverse modification of critical habitat is an express
obligation only for federal agencies and actions, it is frequently misunderstood by the
public as the major restriction on a private landowner’s authority to manage land.
The bulk of any restrictions on use of private land come primarily from the ESA’s
prohibition on taking of listed species. Only occasionally — when some federal
nexus is present — are they due to any additional strictures resulting from designated
critical habitat.70
Both the Clinton and George W. Bush Administrations have supported
restrictions on their own ability to designate critical habitat under the ESA (e.g.,
proposed restrictions under the appropriations process).71 In an announcement on
October 22, 1999, FWS placed designation of critical habitat at the lowest priority
in its listing budget, and stated that it could not comply with all of the demands of the
ESA under current budget constraints. Conservation groups saw a contradiction
between that claim, and the agency’s repeated failure to request increased funds for
listing, together with requests that Congress place a special cap on funding for
designation of critical habitat.72
FWS has designated critical habitat for 489 of the 1,314 listed domestic species.
The agency has been sued frequently for its failure to designate critical habitat and
consistently loses such suits. In the agency’s view, critical habitat offers little
protection for a species beyond that already available under the listing process, and
thus the expense of designation, combined with its perception of a small margin of
additional conservation benefit, make critical habitat requirements a poor use of
scarce budgetary resources, especially if the public views critical habitat as the major
regulatory impact of the ESA, rather than as a supplement to the ESA’s prohibition
on “taking” a listed species.73
According to FWS, critical habitat designation shows its greatest conservation
benefit when it includes areas not currently occupied by the species; these areas may
be important as connecting corridors between populations or as areas in which new
populations may be re-introduced. FWS proposed to “develop policy or guidance
and/or revise regulations, if necessary, to clarify the role of habitat in endangered
70 See CRS Report RS20263, The Role of Designation of Critical Habitat under the
Endangered Species Act, by Pamela Baldwin.
71 For the current status on appropriations restrictions, see CRS Report RL33779, The
Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 110th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult
Choices, by Eugene H. Buck, M. Lynne Corn, Pervaze A. Sheikh, Robert Meltz, and
Kristina Alexander.
72 See, for example, Robert Wiygul and Heather Weiner, “Critical Habitat Destruction,”
Environmental Forum, vol. 16, no. 6 (May/June 1999): 12-21.
73 On May 27, 1999, FWS Director Jamie Clark testified: “... under Section 7, Federal
agencies already consult with the Service on activities affecting listed species. In essence,
these two processes [agency protection of listed species and of designated critical habitat]
often are identical, making critical habitat designation a redundant expenditure of
conservation resources.” Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, S. Hrg. 106-
437 on S. 1100.

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species conservation.”74 The notice reflected the agency’s longstanding disaffection
for this provision of the law and its view that its conservation benefit is low
compared to its cost. However, while workshops were held on the topic, ultimately,
no action was taken on the proposal.
These agency assertions and conclusions rest on an agency regulation in 2000
that fails to consider the role of critical habitat in the recovery of species, rather than
its mere survival.75 In 2001, a federal court of appeals rejected that regulatory
interpretation.76 In 2004, a second federal court of appeals found the regulation
contradicted the statute.77 If the agency interpretation is changed to more closely
reflect the statute, the role of critical habitat arguably would be more meaningful in
practice.
Post-Listing Activities: Consultation
Under § 7 of the ESA,78 federal agencies are required to consult with the
Secretary about proposed actions that might affect a listed species; to use their
authorities in furtherance of the ESA; and to insure that any action authorized,
funded, or carried out by the agency is not likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of any endangered or threatened species, or to destroy or adversely modify
critical habitat unless the agency has been granted an exemption under the ESA.79
Consultation is usually begun at the request of the action agency, but may be initiated
at the request of an FWS Regional Director or NMFS’s Assistant Administrator for
Fisheries.80
Science plays an important role in the consultation process because the
Secretary is to use the “best scientific and commercial data available” to ascertain if
a listed species might be present in the area of a proposed agency action.81 If so, the
action agency is to prepare a “biological assessment” to explore whether a proposed
action might jeopardize a listed species or its critical habitat. This assessment also
is to be based on “the best scientific and commercial data available.”82 Consultation
must also be initiated in connection with private lands if an applicant for (or recipient
74 64 Federal Register 31871-31874 (June 14, 1999).
75 50 C.F.R. § 402.02.
76 Sierra Club v. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 245 F.3d 434 (5th Cir. 2001).
77 Gifford Pinchot Task Force v. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 378 F.3d 1059 (9th Cir.
2004).
78 16 U.S.C. § 1536.
79 Regulations on consultation are found at 50 C.F.R. Part 402.
80 50 C.F.R. § 402.14; and see the definition of Director in § 402.02.
81 16 U.S.C. § 1536(c). For additional information on the use of science in the ESA process,
see CRS Report RS21500, The Endangered Species Act, “Sound Science,” and the Courts,
by Pamela Baldwin; and CRS Report RL32992, The Endangered Species Act and “Sound
Science,” by Eugene H. Buck, M. Lynne Corn, and Pamela Baldwin.
82 16 U.S.C. § 1536(a)(2).

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of) federal funding, permit, or license has reason to believe that a listed species may
be present in the area affected by a project and implementation of the action will
likely affect a listed species.83
The relevant Secretary generally is to complete consultation within 90 days for
a wholly federal action, unless the Secretary and the federal agency mutually agree
to a longer period (up to 150 days) and reasons are given for the delay.84 A
consultation involving a non-federal party is to be completed within the time agreed
to by the Secretary, the federal agency involved, and the applicant concerned.85
Thereafter, FWS or NMFS will prepare a written statement, known as the
biological opinion, analyzing whether the proposed agency action is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of a listed species or destroy or adversely modify
critical habitat. The ESA does not expressly state that the biological opinion is to be
based on the “best scientific and commercial data available,” but this arguably is
implied, and is expressly required under the implementing regulations, which require
that the consulting agency provide “the best scientific and commercial data available
or which can be obtained during the consultation.”86 Such information is to be the
basis of the biological opinion,87 and the biological opinion is to include a summary
of the information on which the opinion is based.88
The biological opinion may conclude that the agency action is not likely to
jeopardize the species, or that it can be modified to avoid jeopardy. If so, FWS or
NMFS may issue a permit that excuses the taking of listed species incidental to the
otherwise lawful activities that are to take place. If the biological opinion concludes
that the proposed action is likely to jeopardize, FWS or NMFS must suggest
reasonable and prudent alternatives to avoid jeopardy and mitigate the impacts of the
action. If this is not possible, then the agency proposing the action must forego the
action, risk incurring penalties under the ESA, or obtain a formal exemption from the
penalties of the ESA as set out below.
Exemptions: A History
The Endangered Species Committee. If the jeopardy that is expected to
result from a proposed agency action cannot be avoided and the agency proposing the
action nonetheless wishes to go ahead with the action, the agency (or the affected
governor(s) or license applicant(s)) may apply for an exemption to allow the action
to go forward. The exemption process is an important way in which economic
factors may be taken into account under the ESA. Because the exemption process
involves convening a cabinet-level committee, there have only been six instances to
83 16 U.S.C. § 1536(a)(3).
84 16 U.S.C. § 1536(b)(1).
85 16 U.S.C. § 1536(b)(2).
86 50 C.F.R. § 402.14(d).
87 50 C.F.R. § 402.14(g)(8).
88 50 C.F.R. § 402.14(h).

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date in which the exemption process was initiated. Of these six, one was granted,
one was partially granted, one was denied, and three were dropped (see Appendix).
As originally enacted, the ESA contained an absolute prohibition against
activities detrimental to listed species. When the prospective impoundment of water
behind the nearly completed Tellico dam threatened to eradicate the only known
population of the snail darter (a fish related to perch), the Supreme Court concluded
that the then-current “plain language” of the ESA mandated that the gates of the dam
not be closed:
Concededly, this view of the Act will produce results requiring the sacrifice of
the anticipated benefits of the project and of many millions of dollars in public
funds. But examination of the language, history, and structure of the legislation
under review here indicates beyond doubt that Congress intended endangered
species to be afforded the highest of priorities.89
After this Supreme Court decision, the ESA was amended by P.L. 95-632 to
include a process by which economic impacts could be reviewed and projects
exempted from the restrictions that otherwise would apply. As originally enacted,
the exemption process involved recommendations by the Secretary of the Interior,
processing by a review board, and then an application to the Endangered Species
Committee (ESC). In 1982, P.L. 97-304 changed this process to eliminate the review
board. Currently, the reviewing Committee is composed of the Secretary of
Agriculture, the Secretary of the Army, the Chair of the Council of Economic
Advisors, the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, the Secretary
of the Interior (who chairs the ESC), the Administrator of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, and one individual from each affected state.90 By
regulation, Committee members from affected states collectively have one vote.91
Eligible Applicants. A federal agency, the governor of a state in which an
agency action will occur, or a permit or license applicant may apply to the Secretary
for an exemption for an agency action.92 How an agency action is structured —
whether, for example, it is a separate action or a region-wide program — could be
relevant to the various findings required under the exemption procedures. The term
“permit or license applicant” is defined in the ESA as a person whose application to
a federal agency for a permit or license has been denied primarily because of ESA
prohibitions applicable to the agency action.93 The regulations do not elaborate on
who is included within this term.94
An exemption application from a federal agency must describe the consultation
process carried out between the head of the federal agency and the Secretary, and
89 Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill, 437 U.S. 153, 174 (1978).
90 16 U.S.C. § 1536(e).
91 50 C.F.R. § 453.05(d).
92 16 U.S.C. § 1536(g).
93 16 U.S.C. § 1532(12).
94 50 C.F.R. § 450.01.

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include a statement explaining why the action cannot be altered or modified to
conform with the requirements of the statute. All applications must be submitted to
the Secretary not later than 90 days after completion of the consultation process, or
within 90 days of final agency action if the application involves a federal permit or
license. An application must set out the reasons the applicant considers an
exemption warranted. The Secretary then publishes a notice of receipt of the
application in the Federal Register and notifies the governor of each affected state
(as determined by the Secretary) so that state members can be appointed to the ESC.
The Secretary (acting alone) may deny the application, if the preliminary steps have
not been completed.
To be eligible for an exemption, the federal agency concerned and the
exemption applicant must have carried out the consultation processes required under
§ 7 of the ESA in good faith. The agency also must have made a reasonable and
responsible effort to develop and fairly consider modifications or reasonable and
prudent alternatives to the proposed action that would not jeopardize the continued
existence of any endangered or threatened species or destroy or adversely modify
critical habitat of a species. In addition, the agency must have conducted required
biological assessments; and, to the extent determinable within the time provided,
refrained from making any irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resources that
would foreclose the formulation or implementation of reasonable and prudent
alternatives that would avoid jeopardizing the species and/or adversely modifying its
habitat.95 These qualifying requirements were put in place to insure that the
exemption process is meaningful and that consideration of the issues would not be
preempted by actions already taken. Additional requirements for an application are
contained in the relevant regulations.96
It is important to note that the exemption process begins only after a species is
listed, consultation has occurred, a finding has been made that the agency action is
likely to jeopardize a species, and it is determined that there are no reasonable and
prudent alternatives to the agency action.
Secretarial Review. The Secretary is to determine whether an application is
qualified within 20 days or a time mutually agreeable to the applicant and the
Secretary. Within 140 days of the time the Secretary determines that the applicant
is qualified, the Secretary, in consultation with the other members of the ESC, must
hold a formal hearing on the application and prepare a report. The purpose of the
formal hearing is to collect evidence both favoring and opposing the exemption.97
The Secretary’s report reviews whether the applicant has made any irreversible or
irretrievable commitment of resources; discusses the availability of reasonable and
prudent alternatives and the benefits of each; provides a summary of the evidence
concerning whether the action is in the public interest and is nationally or regionally
95 16 U.S.C. § 1536(g).
96 50 C.F.R. § 450 et seq.
97 H.Rept. 97-835, at 28.

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significant, and, if so, states why; and outlines appropriate and reasonable mitigation
and enhancement measures which should be considered by the ESC.98
Committee Determination. Within 30 days after receiving the report of the
Secretary, the ESC is to grant or deny an exemption. The ESC shall grant an
exemption for the project or activity if, based on the evidence, the ESC determines
that
(i) there are no reasonable and prudent alternatives to the agency action;
(ii) the benefits of such action clearly outweigh the benefits of alternative courses
of action consistent with conserving the species or its critical habitat, and such
action is in the public interest;
(iii) the action is of regional or national significance; and
(iv) neither the federal agency concerned nor the exemption applicant made any
irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resources prohibited by subsection
(d) of this section [commitments as described above that jeopardize species or
critical habitat].99
Mitigation. If the ESC grants an exemption, it also must establish reasonable
mitigation and enhancement measures that are “necessary and appropriate to
minimize the adverse effects” of an approved action on the species or critical
habitat.100 The exemption applicant (whether federal agency, governor, or permit or
license applicant) is responsible for carrying out and paying for mitigation.101
The costs of mitigation and enhancement measures specified in an approved
exemption must be included in the overall costs of continuing the proposed action,
and the applicant must report annually to the Council on Environmental Quality on
compliance with mitigation and enhancement measures.102
Special Circumstances. The ESA specifies certain particular instances
when special provisions will apply.
1. Review by the Secretary of State. The ESC cannot grant an exemption
for an agency action if the Secretary of State, after a hearing and a review of the
proposed agency action, certifies in writing that carrying out the action for which an
exemption was sought would violate a treaty or other international obligation of the
United States.103 This provision could enter in if a particular species listed under the
ESA were also protected under treaties, such as the Migratory Bird Treaties to which
the United States is a party. The Secretary of State is to make this determination
within 60 days “of any application made under this section,” a time limit which may
be unrealistic given the longer length of time the Secretary of the Interior has to
98 16 U.S.C. § 1536(g)(5).
99 16 U.S.C. § 1536(h)(1)(A).
100 16 U.S.C. § 1536(h)(1)(B).
101 16 U.S.C. § 1536(l)(1).
102 16 U.S.C. § 1536(l)(2).
103 16 U.S.C. § 1536(i).

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prepare the report that will fully describe the agency action to be reviewed by the
Secretary of State.
2. National Security. The Committee is required to grant an exemption if
the Secretary of Defense finds that an exemption is necessary for reasons of national
security.104 We know of no instance on the public record in which this provision has
been used.
3. Domestic Disasters. The President may grant exemptions in certain
cases involving facilities in declared disaster areas. This provision appears to be
written in contemplation of domestic disasters, such as hurricanes.105 The ESA does
not have a general provision that allows the granting of an exemption in other
emergency conditions.106
Duration and Effect of Exemption. An exemption is permanent unless the
Secretary finds that the exemption would result in the extinction of a species that was
not the subject of consultation or was not identified in a biological assessment and
the ESC determines that the exemption should not be permanent.107
The ESA expressly states that the penalties that normally apply to the taking of
an endangered or threatened species do not apply to takings resulting from actions
that are exempted.108
104 16 U.S.C. § 1536(j).
105 16 U.S.C. § 1536(p).
106 50 C.F.R. § 13.4 states that in emergency conditions, the FWS Director “may approve
variations from the requirements of this part [the general permit procedures] when he finds
that any emergency exists and that the proposed variations will not hinder effective
administration of [the subchapter on permits], and will not be unlawful.” It is not clear the
extent to which this regulation may provide relief for an agency action that otherwise would
likely need an exemption.
107 16 U.S.C. § 1536(h).
108 16 U.S.C. § 1536(o).

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Appendix: Exemption Applications
In three instances, an Endangered Species Committee (ESC) reached a decision
on an application for an exemption:
Grayrocks Dam. The Platte River is a major stopover site on the migration
path of whooping cranes, listed under the ESA as an endangered species. FWS
determined that the construction of the Grayrocks Dam and Reservoir in
Wyoming, along with existing projects in the Platte River Basin, would
jeopardize the downstream habitat of whooping cranes. The ESC voted (7-0)
to grant an exemption for Grayrocks Dam and Reservoir on January 23, 1979,
conditioned on specified mitigation measures that included maintenance and
enhancement of critical whooping crane habitat on the Platte River, as well as
a permanent, irrevocable trust fund to pay for these activities. A previous
enactment by Congress would have exempted the project, if the ESC had not
reached a decision within a certain time.109
Tellico Dam. The Tellico Dam on the Little Tennessee River was to serve
multiple purposes. It was vigorously opposed by several sectors, including local
landowners and Indian tribes. After the snail darter (a fish) was listed as
endangered, litigation was filed to stop the construction of the dam, resulting in
the landmark Supreme Court case TVA v. Hill. The decision clarified the broad
reach of the ESA, and its relationship to the question of ratification of public
works projects through appropriations measures. The decision was quickly
followed by congressional passage of P.L. 95-632, which provided for an ESC
process. The measure also gave an automatic exemption to the dam if the ESC
did not reach a decision within a specified time. Directed to take economic
implications into account, the ESC denied an exemption for Tellico (on a 7-0
vote), but Congress enacted an exemption in P.L. 96-69, and the dam was
completed. Subsequently, additional snail darters were found in a few other
locations, and the snail darter was reclassified as threatened.
Bureau of Land Management Timber Sales. The Bureau of Land
Management, an agency in DOI, sought an exemption for 44 Oregon timber
sales in the habitat of the threatened northern spotted owl. In 1992, the ESC
voted (5-2) to grant an exemption for 13 of the sales. Controversy over the sales
and the processes within the Department continued, and the 13 timber sales
were subsequently withdrawn in the Clinton Administration.
In three other instances, there were applications for exemptions, but no ESC
decisions:
Pittston Company Refinery. The Pittston Company applied for an
exemption to build a refinery in Eastport, Maine. Following jeopardy opinions
based on probable effects on threatened bald eagles and endangered right and
109 P.L. 95-632.

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humpback whales, the company applied for an exemption, but further action on
this application appears to have been discontinued in 1982.
Consolidated Grain and Barge Company Docking Area. This
company sought to build a docking area for barges at Mound City, Illinois, on
the Ohio River, an area that was habitat for an endangered mussel. Following
a jeopardy opinion, and a denial of permits by the Army Corps of Engineers, the
company applied for an exemption, but withdrew the application in 1986.
Suwanee River Authority. The consulting engineer of the Suwanee River
Authority applied for an exemption for a project to dredge Alligator Pass in
Suwanee Sound, Florida, part of the habitat for the endangered manatee. The
project had been denied a permit by the Army Corps of Engineers. The
engineer apparently lacked the authority to apply on behalf of the Authority,
which in 1986 refused to ratify his actions and withdrew the application.
Although the engineer attempted to continue the application, the withdrawal
was effective.

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