Order Code RS21048
Updated June 28, 2007
U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF):
Background and Issues for Congress
Andrew Feickert
Specialist in National Defense
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Summary
Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations
and the Administration has given U.S. SOF greater responsibility for planning and
conducting worldwide counterterrorism operations. Recent leadership changes, the
availability of SOF special mission unit (SMU) forces, and circumstances surrounding
a Marine Special Operations Command (MARSOC) incident in Afghanistan might be
issues for congressional consideration. This report will be updated as events warrant.
Background
Overview. Special Operations Forces (SOF) are small, elite military units with
special training and equipment that can infiltrate into hostile territory through land, sea,
or air to conduct a variety of operations, many of them classified. SOF personnel undergo
rigorous selection and lengthy, specialized training. The U.S. Special Operations
Command (USSOCOM) oversees the training, doctrine, and equipping of all U.S. SOF
units.
Command Structures. In 1986, Congress expressed concern for the status of
SOF within overall U.S. defense planning and passed measures (P.L. 99-661) to
strengthen its position. These actions included the establishment of USSOCOM as a new
unified command. USSOCOM is headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa,
FL. The Commander of USSOCOM is a four-star officer who may be from any service.
Commander, USSOCOM reports directly to the Secretary of Defense, although an
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict
(ASD/SOLIC) provides immediate civilian oversight over many USSOCOM activities.
Recent Leadership Changes. On April 4, 2007, the White House announced
that the President had nominated Michael G. Vickers to be the new ASD/SOLIC. Prior
to his nomination, Mr. Vickers had served as director for strategic studies at the Center
for Strategic and Budgetary Assessment in Washington, DC. Mr. Vickers also reportedly

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had previous service in U.S. Army Special Forces and in the CIA.1 On May 10, 2007,
the Secretary of Defense announced that Navy Vice Admiral (VADM) Eric T. Olson,
deputy commander USSOCOM, had been nominated for appointment to the grade of
Admiral (ADM) and selected to serve USSOCOM commander.2 If approved by the
Senate, ADM Olson, a Navy SEAL, will be the first naval officer to command
USSOCOM and will replace retiring Army General Bryan “Doug” Brown, who has
served as USSOCOM commander since September 2003.
Army Lieutenant General Stanley McCrystal, the commander of the Joint Special
Operations Command (JSOC) — a unit believed to be conducting classified
counterterrorism operations worldwide — will reportedly remain in Iraq for an additional
year at the request of Army General David Petraeus, commander of U.S. military forces
in Iraq.3 LTG McCrystal, who was supposed to relinquish command of JSOC as part of
normal assignment rotation, has been credited with heading up counterterror efforts in
Iraq that have resulted killing a number of Al Qaeda leaders and other key insurgents.
Army Special Operations Forces.4 U.S. Army SOF (ARSOF) include
approximately 30,000 soldiers from the Active Army, National Guard, and Army Reserve
who are organized into Special Forces, Ranger, and special operations aviation units,
along with civil affairs units, psychological operations units, and special operations
support units. ARSOF Headquarters and other resources, such as the John F. Kennedy
Special Warfare Center and School, are located at Fort Bragg, NC. Five active Special
Forces (SF) Groups (Airborne) are stationed at Fort Bragg and at Fort Lewis, WA, Fort
Campbell, KY, and Fort Carson, CO. Special Forces soldiers — also known as the Green
Berets — are trained in various skills, including foreign languages, that allow teams to
operate independently throughout the world. Two Army National Guard SF groups are
headquartered in Utah and Alabama. An elite airborne light infantry unit specializing in
direct action operations5, the 75th Ranger Regiment, is headquartered at Fort Benning, GA
and consists of three battalions. Army special operations aviation units, including the
160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) at Fort Campbell, KY, feature
pilots trained to fly the most sophisticated Army rotary-wing aircraft in the harshest
environments, day or night, and in adverse weather.
1 Elaine M. Grossman, “Bush’s Special Ops Pick Sees Post-Surge Strategy Coming Soon to Iraq,”
InsideDefense.com, June 14, 2007.
2 U.S. Department of Defense News Release No. 562-07, May 10, 2007.
3 Rowan Scarborough, “Joint Special Operations Commander to Stay in Iraq,” Washington
Examiner, June 4, 2007.
4 Information in this section was taken from General Bryan Brown, “U.S. Army Special
Operations: Focusing on People — Humans are More Important than Hardware,” Army, October
2001, pp. 157-162.
5 Direct action operations are short-duration strikes and other small-scale offensive actions
conducted as a special operation in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive environments and
which employ specialized military capabilities to seize, destroy, capture, exploit, recover, or
damage designated targets. Direct action differs from conventional offensive actions in the level
of physical and political risk, operational techniques, and the degree of discriminate and precise
use of force to achieve specific objectives.

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Some of the most frequently deployed SOF assets are civil affairs (CA) units, which
provide experts in every area of civil government to help administer civilian affairs in
operational theaters. The recently activated 95th Civil Affairs Brigade (Airborne) is the
only active CA unit, and plans call for the brigade to expand from one to four battalions
by 2009.6 All other CA units reside in the Reserves and are affiliated with conventional
Army units. Psychological operations units disseminate information to large foreign
audiences through mass media. The active duty 4th Psychological Operations (PSYOPS)
Group (Airborne) is stationed at Fort Bragg, and two Army Reserve PSYOPS groups
work with conventional Army units.
Air Force Special Operations Forces.7 The Air Force Special Operations
Command (AFSOC) includes about 13,000 active and reserve personnel. AFSOC is
headquartered at Hurlburt Field, FL, along with the 720th Special Tactics Group, the 18th
Flight Test Squadron, and the U.S. Air Force Special Operations School. The 16th Special
Operations Wing (SOW), is expected to relocate from Hurlburt Field to Cannon Air Force
Base (AFB), NM by October 2007.8 AFSOC plans to activate the 1st SOW at Hurlburt
Field using elements of the 16th SOW.9 The 352nd Special Operations Group is at RAF
Mildenhall, England, and the 353rd Special Operations Group, is at Kadena Air Base,
Japan. Reserve AFSOC components include the 193rd Special Operations Wing, Air
National Guard, stationed at Harrisburg, PA, the 280th Combat Communications
Squadron, Air National Guard, stationed at Dothan, AL, and the 919th Special Operations
Wing, Air Force Reserve, stationed at Duke Field, FL. AFSOC’s three active-duty flying
units are composed of more than 100 fixed and rotary-wing aircraft.
AFSOC Operational Requirements.10 AFSOC commander Air Force LTG
Michael Wooley, noting that AFSOC plans to grow from 13,000 to 15,000 personnel by
the end of FY2013, cites the need for both new and additional aircraft as well as time to
train with existing and future aircraft as areas of major concern. Although AFSOC has
stood up the 3rd Special Operations Squadron, consisting of six Predator unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs), USSOCOM leadership suggests that they could use “dozens more.”
AFSOC is presently preparing to stand up its first CV-22 tilt rotor squadron, which is
expected to be combat ready sometime in 2009. USSOCOM plans to replace its entire
fleet of HH-53 Pave Low helicopters over the next two years with CV-22s, but not on a
one-for-one basis as USSOCOM presently plans to procure only 50 CV-22s by 2017. In
6 Kevin Maurer, “Newly Formed 95th Civil Affairs Brigade Activates,” Fayetteville Times,
August 18, 2006.
7 For additional information on Air Force SOF units, see Robert Wall, “Conflict Could Test
Special Ops Improvements,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, October 1, 2001, p. 30.
8 Michael Sirak, “Air Force Assigns Special Operations Wing to Cannon Air Force Base,”
Defense Daily, June 22, 2006.
9 Ibid.
10 Information in this section is taken from Je DiMascio, “Olson: SOCOM Could Use Dozens of
Additional UAVs,” Defense Daily, April 25, 2007; Ann Roosevelt, “U.S.SOCOM Commander
Details Aviation Needs,” Defense Daily, May 17, 2007; Michael Sirak, “Wooley: Training
Proficiency, Need for New Aircraft AFSOC’s Biggest Concerns,” Defense Daily, May 11, 2007;
and David A. Fulghum, “USAF Special Ops Growing in Personnel and Equipment,” Aerospace
Daily & Defense Report, May 14, 2007.

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addition, USSOCOM would like to increase the size of its MC-130 fleet to 61 aircraft to
accommodate the growth of Army and Marine Corps special operations forces. AFSOC
has also indicated that it would like to replace its eight AC-130H and 13 AC-130U
gunships by 2020 with a new gunship. AFSOC leadership has also voiced concern that
because special operations aircraft are being used so heavily that they are not as available
for training as they should be, thereby adversely impacting on aircrew training.
Naval Special Operations Forces.11 The Naval Special Warfare Command
(NSWC) is located in Coronado, CA. NWSC is organized around eight SEAL Teams
and two SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) Teams. Two of these eight SEAL Teams are
deployed at any given time, with each SEAL Team consisting of six SEAL platoons each,
consisting of two officers and 16 enlisted personnel. The major operational components
of NSWC include Naval Special Warfare Groups One and Three stationed in San
Diego, CA, and Naval Special Warfare Groups Two and Four in Norfolk, VA. These
components deploy SEAL Teams, SEAL Delivery Vehicle Teams, and Special Boat
Teams worldwide to meet the training, exercise, contingency and wartime requirements
of theater commanders. NSWC has approximately 5,400 total active-duty personnel —
including 2,450 SEALs and 600 Special Warfare Combatant-Craft Crewmen (SWCC) —
as well as a 1,200-person reserve component of approximately 325 SEALs, 125 SWCC
and 775 support personnel. SEALs are considered the best-trained combat swimmers in
the world, and can be deployed covertly from submarines or from sea-based aircraft.
Marine Special Operations Command (MARSOC).12 On November 1, 2005,
DOD announced the creation of the Marine Special Operations Command (MARSOC)
as a component of USSOCOM. MARSOC consists of three subordinate units — the
Marine Special Operations Regiment, the Foreign Military Training Unit, and the Special
Operations Support Group — totaling approximately 2,600 Marines. MARSOC
Headquarters, the Foreign Military Training Unit, and the Special Operations Support
Group are stationed at Camp Lejeune, NC. The Marine Special Operations Regiment has
its headquarters at Camp Lejeune and has an element stationed at Camp Pendleton, CA.
MARSOC has reportedly deployed Foreign Military Training Teams to Africa and South
America and two Marine Special Operations Battalions have been activated — one on
each coast.13
Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC). According to DOD, the JSOC
is “a joint headquarters designed to study special operations requirements and techniques;
ensure interoperability and equipment standardization; plan and conduct joint special
11 Information in this section is from the U.S. Naval Special Warfare Command’s Official
website, [https://www.navsoc.navy.mil/], accessed on March 6, 2007.
12 Information in this section is taken from DOD Press Release No. 1127-05, dated November 1,
2005, Subject: Secretary of Defense Approves Marine Special Operations Command; Donna
Miles, “Marine Corps to Join U.S. Special Operations Command,” American Forces Press
Service, November 1, 2005; and Christian Lowe, “U.S. Marine Corps to Create Special
Operations Unit,” Defense News, November 1, 2005.
13 Statement by General Bryan D. Brown, Commander, U.S. Special Operations Command,
before the House Subcommittee on Terrorism, Unconventional Threats and Capabilities, “Current
Manning, Equipping, and Readiness Challenges Facing Special Operations Forces,” January 31,
2007, p. 4.

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operations exercises and training; and develop joint special operations tactics.”14 While
not official acknowledged by DOD or USSOCOM, JSOC, which is headquartered at
Pope Air Force Base, NC, is widely believed to command and control what are described
as the military’s three special missions units — the Army’s Delta Force, the Navy’s SEAL
Team Six, a joint unit allegedly designed to conduct clandestine operations, as well as
the 75th Ranger Regiment, the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment and the Air
Force’s 24th Special Tactics Squadron.15 JSOC’s primary mission is believed to be
identifying and destroying terrorists and terror cells worldwide.
USOCOM Budget
FY2008 Budget Request. USSOCOM requested $3.28 billion for Operations &
Maintenance (O&M); $374 million for Research, Development, Test & Evaluation
(RDT&E); $1.83 billion for Procurement; and $652 million for Military Construction
(MILCON) for FY2008.16 USSOCOM also reportedly had $391 million in “unfunded
requirements for FY2008, including such items as body armor, laser range finders,
advanced night vision devices, and weapons.17
Recent Congressional Action.18 The House Armed Services Committee
(HASC) recommended fully funding USSOCOM’s $6.2 billion budget request and
recommended that USSOCOM “place a greater emphasis on unconventional techniques
and irregular warfare.” Toward this end, the HASC has recommended a number of
initiatives to “empower USSOCOM and improve its ability to face current security
challenges.” The HASC plans to update PL 99-661 to reflect USSOCOM’s planning,
synchronizing, and executing roles as a supported combatant command in the war on
terror. The HASC also wants to update and expand the Special Operations Activity list
in law, elevating unconventional warfare as USSOCOM's primary activity and de-
emphasizing direct actions activities. The HASC also hopes to improve USSOCOM’s
acquisition authorities and its funding authority to facilitate cooperation between foreign
special forces and U.S. SOF. The Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) also
recommended fully funding USSOCOM's budget request and added an additional $124
million to meet unfunded requirements for Mine-Resistant, Ambush-Proof (MRAP)
vehicles. The SASC also directed the DOD Comptroller General to review the
reorganization of the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy as it pertains
to the ASD/SOLIC office. The SASC also added more than $25 million to meet critical
language and cultural awareness training requirements and for a variety of science and
technology programs.
14 USSOCOM website [http://www.socom.mil/components/components.htm], accessed April 4,
2006.
15 Sean D. Naylor, “JSOC to Become Three-Star Command,” Army Times, February 13, 2006.
16 USSOCOM FY2008/FY2009 Budget Estimates, February 2007.
17 Jason Sherman, “SOCOM Requires Additional $391 Million in FY-08 for Body Armor,
Weapons,” InsideDefense.com, February 19, 2007.
18 Information in this section is taken from House Armed Services Committee Press Release,
“House Armed Services Committee Approves Fiscal Year 2008 Defense Authorization Bill,”
May 9, 2007 and Senate Armed Services Committee Press Release, “Senate Statement on the FY-
08 Defense Authorization Bill,” May 25, 2007.

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Issues for Congress
Availability of JSOC Assets.19 Not unlike conventional Army and Marine
forces, JSOC special mission units, are reportedly being stressed by the high operational
tempo in Iraq and Afghanistan. In total, JSOC is believed to consist of 1,000 “operators”
and support and intelligence personnel. JSOC forces thought to be operating in Iraq
include about 120 Delta soldiers and an equal number of SEALs, augmented by about 800
Army Rangers. These forces reportedly conduct anywhere from six to a dozen raids every
day throughout Iraq against Al Qaeda and insurgent targets. While JSOC operations in
Iraq have been considered by some as highly effective, the focus on Iraq has supposedly
resulted in a significantly reduced JSOC presence in Afghanistan. JSOC reportedly had
once maintained a “robust” presence of 100 “operators” and a large contingent of Rangers
in Afghanistan, but demands in Iraq have decreased this force to about 30 SEALs and 100
Rangers. While some might consider this an inequitable distribution of JSOC forces,
circumstances in Afghanistan where many Al Qaeda targets operate in and out of Pakistan
likely result in fewer actionable opportunities for JSOC forces in Afghanistan than Iraq.
Some are nonetheless concerned that there are not enough uncommitted JSOC forces to
address other potential threats outside of Iraq and Afghanistan.
Investigation of MARSOC Forces Ordered to Leave Afghanistan.20 On
March 4, 2007, a MARSOC platoon in six High Mobility Multi Wheeled Vehicles
(HMMWVs) patrolling in Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan responded to a suicide
bombing by firing on Afghans, resulting in more than 40 Afghans killed or wounded.
Believing the actions by the MARSOC platoon to be excessive, the U.S. commander in
Afghanistan ordered the entire MARSOC company to leave Afghanistan and subsequently
initiated an investigation into the incident. The results of the investigation, in addition
to establishing accountability, might also cover organizational, leadership, and training
deficiencies that might have contributed to the Marine’s actions on that day. Another issue
that might be examined is if the MARSOC company was deployed to Afghanistan earlier
than it should have been, owing to the recent creation of MARSOC. It is conceivable that
in an effort to relieve stress on special operations forces as well to demonstrate the
effectiveness of newly-created MARSOC units, that this unit was deployed into a
situation that it may not have had the experience, cultural awareness, or maturity to
handle. One potential result of this action might be that MARSOC units might not be
permitted back into Afghanistan by the Afghan government for the foreseeable future.


19 Information in this section is taken from Rowan Scarborough, “United States Terrorist Hunters
Stretched Thin,” Washington Examiner, May 27, 2007 and Thom Shanker, “Special Operations:
High Profile, But in Shadow,” New York Times, May 29, 2007.
20 Information in this section is taken from “U.S. Pulls Marines Out of Afghanistan,” New York
Times, March 23, 2007; Carlotta Gall, “Marine’s Actions in Afghanistan Called Excessive,” New
York Times, April 15, 2007; and Ann Scott Tyson and Josh White, “ Marines Killed Civilians,
U.S. Says,” Washington Post, April 15, 2007.

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