Order Code RL32044
Immigration: Policy Considerations
Related to Guest Worker Programs
Updated June 27, 2007
Andorra Bruno
Specialist in Social Legislation
Domestic Social Policy Division

Immigration: Policy Considerations
Related to Guest Worker Programs
Summary
At present, the United States has two main programs for temporarily importing
low-skilled workers, sometimes referred to as guest workers. Agricultural guest
workers enter through the H-2A visa program, and other guest workers enter through
the H-2B visa program. Employers interested in importing workers under either
program must first apply to the U.S. Department of Labor for a certification that U.S.
workers capable of performing the work are not available and that the employment
of alien workers will not adversely affect the wages and working conditions of
similarly employed U.S. workers. Other requirements of the programs differ.
The 109th Congress revised the H-2B program in the FY2005 Emergency
Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 109-13). Among the changes, a temporary
provision was added to the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) to exempt certain
returning H-2B workers from the H-2B annual numerical cap. The FY2007
Department of Defense authorization P.L. 109-364) extended this exemption through
FY2007. Other bills before the 109th Congress proposed to make changes to the H-
2A program (S. 359/H.R. 884, H.R. 3857, S. 2087, Senate-passed S. 2611), the H-2B
program (S. 278, H.R. 1587, S. 1438, S. 1918), and the “H” visa category generally
(H.R. 3333), and to establish new temporary worker visas (S. 1033/H.R. 2330, S.
1438, S. 1918, H.R. 4065, Senate-passed S. 2611). Some of these bills also would
have established mechanisms for certain foreign workers to become U.S. legal
permanent residents (LPRs). None of these bills were enacted. President George W.
Bush proposed a new, expanded temporary worker program in January 2004 when
he announced his principles for immigration reform. In a May 2006 national address
on comprehensive immigration reform, he reiterated his support for a temporary
worker program.
Guest worker bills before the 110th Congress include proposals to reform the H-
2A program (S. 237/S. 340/H.R. 371, S. 1639, H.R. 1645) and the H-2B program (S.
1639), and to establish new temporary worker visas (S. 330, S. 1639, H.R. 1645).
Some of these bills also would establish mechanisms for certain foreign workers to
become LPRs.
The current discussion of guest worker programs takes place against a backdrop
of historically high levels of unauthorized migration to the United States. Supporters
of a large-scale temporary worker program argue that such a program would help
reduce unauthorized immigration by providing a legal alternative for prospective
foreign workers. Critics reject this reasoning and instead maintain that a new guest
worker program would likely exacerbate the problem of illegal migration.
The consideration of any proposed guest worker program raises various issues,
including how new program requirements would compare with those of the H-2A
and H-2B programs, how the eligible population would be defined, and whether the
program would include a mechanism for participants to obtain LPR status.
This report will be updated as legislative developments occur.

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Current Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
H-2A Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
H-2A Visas Issued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
H-2B Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
H-2B Visas Issued and the Statutory Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Unauthorized Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Unauthorized Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Legislation in the 105th-107th Congresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Legislation in the 108th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
S. 1645/H.R. 3142 and S. 2823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
H.R. 3604 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
S. 2185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
S. 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
S. 2381/H.R. 4262 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
H.R. 3534 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
S. 1387 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
S. 1461/H.R. 2899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
H.R. 3651 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Legislation in the 109th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
S. 352/H.R. 793 and Related H-2B Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
S. 2611 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
S. 359/H.R. 884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
H.R. 3857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
S. 2087 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
S. 278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
H.R. 1587 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
S. 1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
H.R. 3333 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
S. 1033/H.R. 2330 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
S. 1438 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
H.R. 4065 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Legislation in the 110th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
S. 237/S. 340/H.R. 371 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
H.R. 1645 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
S. 330 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
S. 1639 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Agricultural Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Y Nonimmigrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Z Nonimmigrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Bush Administration Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Policy Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Comparison of Program Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Eligible Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Legalization of Program Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Treatment of Family Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Labor Market Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Numerical Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Homeland Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
List of Figures
Figure 1. H-2A Visas Issued, FY1992-FY2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 2. H-2B Visas Issued, FY1992-FY2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
List of Tables
Table 1. Estimates of Unauthorized Employment in Selected Industries, 2005 . . 8

Immigration: Policy Considerations
Related to Guest Worker Programs
Introduction
In 2001, the United States and Mexico began Cabinet-level talks on migration.
Although the details of these discussions were not made public, two issues —
legalization and a temporary worker program — dominated media coverage. The
talks lost momentum after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, as the Bush
Administration focused its attention on security-related matters. A temporary worker
program (not limited to Mexico), however, remains of interest to some Members of
Congress and Administration officials. Various bills to reform existing programs for
foreign temporary workers and to create new temporary worker programs have been
introduced in recent Congresses. Among them, in the 110th Congress, is S. 1639,
which would provide for comprehensive immigration reform. In January 2004, the
Bush Administration outlined a proposal for a new temporary worker program. The
President reiterated his support for a temporary worker program in a May 2006
national address. The temporary worker programs under discussion presumably
would cover largely low-skilled workers.
Background
The term guest worker has typically been applied to foreign temporary low-
skilled laborers, often in agriculture or other seasonal employment. In the past, guest
worker programs have been established in the United States to address worker
shortages during times of war. During World War I, for example, tens of thousands
of Mexican workers performed mainly agricultural labor as part of a temporary
worker program. The Bracero program, which began during World War II and lasted
until 1964, brought several million Mexican agricultural workers into the United
States. At its peak in the late 1950s, the Bracero program employed more than
400,000 Mexican workers annually.1
The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) of 1952, as originally enacted,2
authorized a temporary foreign worker program known as the H-2 program. It
covered both agricultural and nonagricultural workers who were coming temporarily
1 For additional information on these historical programs, see U.S. Congress, Senate
Committee on the Judiciary, Temporary Worker Programs: Background and Issues,
committee print, 96th Cong., 2nd sess., February 1980.
2 Act of June 27, 1952, ch. 477, codified at 8 U.S.C.§1101 et seq. The INA is the basis of
current immigration law.

CRS-2
to the United States to perform temporary services (other than services of an
exceptional nature requiring distinguished merit and ability) or labor. Aliens who are
admitted to the United States for a temporary period of time and a specific purpose
are known as nonimmigrants. The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act
(IRCA)3 amended the INA to subdivide the H-2 program into the current H-2A and
H-2B programs and to detail the admissions process for H-2A workers. The H-2A
and H-2B visas are subcategories of the larger “H” nonimmigrant visa category for
temporary workers.4
Current Programs
The United States currently has two main programs for importing temporary
low-skilled workers. Agricultural workers enter through the H-2A program and other
temporary workers enter through the H-2B program.5 The programs take their names
from the sections of the INA that established them — Section 101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(a)
and Section 101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(b), respectively. Both programs are administered by
the Employment and Training Administration (ETA) of the U.S. Department of
Labor (DOL) and U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) of the U.S.
Department of Homeland Security (DHS).6
H-2A Program
The H-2A program allows for the temporary admission of foreign workers to
the United States to perform agricultural work of a seasonal or temporary nature,
provided that U.S. workers are not available. An approved H-2A visa petition is
generally valid for an initial period of up to one year. An alien’s total period of stay
as an H-2A worker may not exceed three consecutive years.
Employers who want to import H-2A workers must first apply to DOL for a
certification that (1) there are not sufficient U.S. workers who are qualified and
available to perform the work; and (2) the employment of foreign workers will not
adversely affect the wages and working conditions of U.S. workers who are similarly
employed. As part of this labor certification process, employers must attempt to
recruit U.S. workers and must cooperate with DOL-funded state employment service
agencies (also known as state workforce agencies) in local, intrastate, and interstate
3 P.L. 99-603, November 6, 1986.
4 For an overview of the INA’s nonimmigrant visa categories, see CRS Report RL31381,
U.S. Immigration Policy on Temporary Admissions, by Ruth Ellen Wasem, and Chad C.
Haddal.
5 While H-2B workers are, for the most part, low skilled, the H-2B program is not limited
to workers of a particular skill level and has been used to import a variety of workers,
including entertainers and athletes.
6 Prior to March 1, 2003, the H-2A and H-2B programs were administered by ETA and the
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) of the Department of Justice. The Homeland
Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296, November 25, 2002) abolished INS and transferred
most of its functions to DHS as of March 1.


CRS-3
recruitment efforts. Employers must pay their H-2A workers and similarly employed
U.S. workers the highest of the federal or applicable state minimum wage, the
prevailing wage rate,7 or the adverse effect wage rate (AEWR).8 They also must
provide workers with housing, transportation, and other benefits, including workers’
compensation insurance.9 No health insurance coverage is required.10
Both growers and labor advocates criticize the H-2A program in its current
form. Growers complain that the H-2A program is overly cumbersome and does not
meet their labor needs. Labor advocates argue that the program provides too few
protections for U.S. workers.
Figure 1. H-2A Visas Issued, FY1992-FY2006
Source: CRS Presentation of data from U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs.
7 The prevailing wage rate is the average wage paid to similarly employed workers in the
occupation in the area of intended employment. Additional information about prevailing
wages is available at [http://www.foreignlaborcert.doleta.gov/wages.cfm].
8 The AEWR is an hourly wage rate set by DOL for each state or region, based upon data
gathered by the Department of Agriculture in quarterly wage surveys. For 2006, the AEWR
ranges from $7.58 for Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi to $9.99 for Hawaii. See CRS
Report RL32861, Farm Labor: The Adverse Effect Wage Rate (AEWR), by William G.
Whittaker.
9 Required wages and benefits under the H-2A program are set forth in 20 C.F.R. §655.102.
10 H-2A workers, like nonimmigrants generally, are not eligible for federally funded public
assistance, with the exception of Medicaid emergency services. For further information on
alien eligibility for federal benefits, see CRS Report RL31114, Noncitizen Eligibility for
Major Federal Public Assistance Programs: Policies and Legislation
, by Ruth Ellen
Wasem (Hereafter cited as CRS Report RL31114); and CRS Report RL31630, Federal
Funding for Unauthorized Aliens’ Emergency Medical Expenses
, by Alison M. Siskin.

CRS-4
H-2A Visas Issued. The H-2A program, which is not subject to numerical
limits, has grown significantly since 1992. One way to measure the program’s
growth is to consider changes in the number of H-2A visas issued annually by the
Department of State (DOS).11 As illustrated in Figure 1, the number of H-2A visas
issued increased from 6,445 in FY1992 to 30,201 in FY2000. H-2A visa issuances
remained at about 30,000 annually until FY2006, when, according to preliminary
data, 37,149 H-2A visas were issued. The H-2A program, however, remains quite
small relative to total hired farm employment, which stood at about 1.1 million in
2005, according to the Department of Agriculture’s National Agricultural Statistics
Service.12
H-2B Program
The H-2B program provides for the temporary admission of foreign workers to
the United States to perform temporary non-agricultural work, if unemployed U.S.
workers cannot be found. Foreign medical graduates coming to perform medical
services are explicitly excluded from the program. An approved H-2B visa petition
is valid for an initial period of up to one year. An alien’s total period of stay as an
H-2B worker may not exceed three consecutive years.13
Like prospective H-2A employers, prospective H-2B employers must first apply
to DOL for a certification that U.S. workers capable of performing the work are not
available and that the employment of alien workers will not adversely affect the
wages and working conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers. H-2B employers
must pay their workers at least the prevailing wage rate. Unlike H-2A employers,
they are not subject to the AEWR and do not have to provide housing,
transportation,14 and other benefits required under the H-2A program.
In January 2005, USCIS proposed regulations to streamline the H-2B petitioning
process, which would significantly alter procedures.15 Among other changes, the
proposed rule would eliminate the requirement that prospective H-2B employers file
11 There is no precise measure available of the number of the aliens granted H-2A status in
any given year. While visa data provide an approximation, these data are subject to
limitations, among them that not all H-2A workers are necessarily issued visas and not all
aliens who are issued visas necessarily use them to enter the United States.
12 For additional discussion, see CRS Report RL30395, Farm Labor Shortages and
Immigration Policy
, by Linda Levine.
13 Included in this three-year period is any time an H-2B alien spent in the United States
under the “H” (temporary worker) or “L” (temporary intracompany transferee) visa
categories.
14 While not subject to the broader transportation requirements of the H-2A program, H-2B
employers are required by law to pay the reasonable costs of return transportation abroad
for an H-2B worker who is dismissed prior to the end of his or her authorized period of stay.
15 The proposed USCIS rule is available at [http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/
01jan20051800/edocket.access.gpo.gov/2005/05-1240.htm]. DOL has published a
companion proposal, which is available at [http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/
01jan20051800/edocket.access.gpo.gov/2005/05-1222.htm].


CRS-5
for a labor certification from DOL in most cases. Instead, employers seeking H-2B
workers in areas other than logging, the entertainment industry, and professional
athletics would include certain labor attestations as part of the H-2B petition they file
with USCIS. According to the proposed rule, this H-2B attestation process would
be similar to the process currently used for H-1B professional specialty workers.16
A key limitation of the H-2B visa concerns the requirement that the work be
temporary. Under the applicable immigration regulations, work is considered to be
temporary if the employer’s need for the duties to be performed by the worker is a
one-time occurrence, seasonal need, peakload need, or intermittent need.17
According to DOL data on H-2B labor certifications, top H-2B occupations in recent
years, in terms of the number of workers certified, included landscape laborer,
forestry worker, maid and housekeeping cleaner, and construction worker.
Figure 2. H-2B Visas Issued, FY1992-FY2006
Source: CRS Presentation of data from U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs.
H-2B Visas Issued and the Statutory Cap. Unlike the H-2A visa, the H-
2B visa is subject to a statutory numerical limit. Under the INA, the total number of
aliens who may be issued H-2B visas or otherwise provided H-2B status during a
fiscal year may not exceed 66,000.18 This cap does not apply to all H-2B petitions.
Petitions for current H-2B workers to extend their stay, change their terms of
16 For information on the H-1B nonimmigrant classification, see CRS Report RL30498,
Immigration: Legislative Issues on Nonimmigrant Professional Specialty (H-1B) Workers,
by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
17 For definitions of these types of need, see 8 C.F.R. §214.2(h)(6)(ii).
18 See INA §214(g)(1)(B).

CRS-6
employment, or change or add employers do not count towards the cap. As shown
in Figure 2, the number of H-2B visas issued by DOS dipped from 12,552 in
FY1992 to 9,691 in FY1993 and then began to increase steadily.19
In FY2003, DOS issued 78,955 H-2B visas, and in FY2004, it issued 76,169 H-
2B visas. While for various reasons not all visas issued during a fiscal year
necessarily count against that year’s cap or, in some cases, any year’s cap, USCIS
acknowledged that the H-2B cap was exceeded in FY2003. With respect to the
FY2004 cap, USCIS announced on March 10, 2004, that it had received a sufficient
number of H-2B petitions to meet that cap. On January 4, 2005, it announced that
it had received a sufficient number of H-2B petitions to meet the FY2005 cap.
Following the enactment of new H-2B provisions as part of the FY2005
Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Defense, the Global War on Terror,
and Tsunami Relief (P.L. 109-13),20 USCIS announced that on May 25, 2005, it
would start accepting additional petitions for H-2B workers for FY2005.21 Under
P.L. 109-13, for FY2005 and FY2006, returning H-2B workers counted against the
annual 66,000 cap during any one of the three prior fiscal years were not to be
counted again. USCIS determined that approximately 35,000 previously approved
H-2B workers for FY2005 qualified as returning workers who, under P.L. 109-13,
were exempt from that year’s cap, opening up 35,000 slots for other H-2B workers.
Employers were able to file FY2005 petitions for new H-2B workers to fill those
slots, as well as for cap-exempt returning H-2B workers. According to preliminary
data, 89,135 H-2B visas were issued in FY2005 and 122,541 H-2B visas were issued
in FY2006. According to DOS, 50,854 of the FY2006 H-2B visas were issued to
cap-exempt returning H-2B workers. The John Warner National Defense
Authorization Act for FY2007 (P.L. 109-364) extends through FY2007 the provision
exempting returning H-2B workers from the H-2B annual cap.
Unauthorized Immigration
The current discussion of guest worker programs has been prompted, in part, by
the continued high levels of illegal, or unauthorized, immigration to the United States
and related deaths along the U.S.-Mexican border. Analyses by the Pew Hispanic
Center based on data from the Current Population Survey (CPS) and other sources
estimate that the unauthorized resident alien population totaled 10.3 million in March
2004, 11.1 million in March 2005, and 11.5 to 12 million in March 2006, and that
since 2000, this population has grown at an average annual rate of more than 500,000
19 There is no precise measure available of the number of the aliens granted H-2B status in
any given year. While visa data provide an approximation, these data are subject to
limitations, among them that not all H-2A workers are necessarily issued visas and not all
aliens who are issued visas necessarily use them to enter the United States.
20 See discussion below of S. 352/H.R. 793 in the 109th Congress.
21 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services,
“USCIS to Accept Additional H-2B Filings for FY2005 and FY2006,” public notice, May
23, 2005.

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per year.22 DHS’s estimates of the unauthorized alien population and its growth are
somewhat lower. Based on data from the 2004 American Community Survey and
other sources, DHS estimates that there were 10.5 million unauthorized aliens
residing in the United States in January 2005 and that the unauthorized resident
population grew at an average annual rate of 408,000 during the 2000-2004 period.23
Mexico remains the largest source country for unauthorized immigration.
According to the Pew Hispanic Center, the unauthorized Mexican population in the
United States stood at about 6.2 million in 2005, comprising 56% of the total
unauthorized population. DHS estimates that there were nearly 6 million
unauthorized Mexicans residing in the United States in 2005, comprising 57% of the
total unauthorized population. With respect to migrant deaths, data from the United
States Border Patrol indicate that more than 300 migrants died at the U.S.-Mexican
border each year from FY2000 through FY2004 and that there were 472 migrant
deaths at the border in FY2005.24
Unauthorized Workers
Unauthorized workers are a subpopulation of the total unauthorized alien
population. According to the March 2006 report by the Pew Hispanic Center, there
were an estimated 7.2 million unauthorized workers in the U.S. civilian labor force
in March 2005.25 These workers represented about 4.9% of the labor force. In some
occupations and industries, however, their share of the labor force was considerably
higher. The report states:
Unauthorized workers are employed in a variety of occupations throughout
the labor force, although the distribution of the unauthorized workforce across
occupations differs from that of native-born workers.
Unauthorized workers are notably underrepresented in white-collar
occupations.... On the other hand, unauthorized migrants are much more likely
22 Jeffrey S. Passel, Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented
Population
, Pew Hispanic Center, March 21, 2005; Jeffrey S. Passel, Size and
Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the U.S.; Estimates Based on
the March 2005 Current Population Survey
, Pew Hispanic Center, March 7, 2006 (hereafter
cited as Passel, Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the
U.S.
, March 7, 2006). These reports are available at
[http://pewhispanic.org/topics/index.php?TopicID=16].
23 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, Estimates of the
Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2005
, by
Michael Hoefer, Nancy Rytina, and Christopher Campbell, August 2006.
24 For further information on migrant deaths, see CRS Report RL32562, Border Security:
The Role of the U.S. Border Patrol
, by Blas Nuñez-Neto.
25 Passel, Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the U.S.,
March 7, 2006, at [http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=61].

CRS-8
to be in major occupation groups that require little education or do not have
licensing requirements.26
Unauthorized aliens are also overrepresented in certain industries relative to
their share of the overall labor force. Table 1 presents data from the Pew Hispanic
Center report on industries with high concentrations of unauthorized workers.
Unauthorized aliens accounted for between 10% and 21% of workers in the
industries shown.
Table 1. Estimates of Unauthorized Employment in
Selected Industries, 2005
Unauthorized Workers
Industry Group
(in Industry)
Private Households
21%
Food Manufacturing
14%
Agriculture
13%
Furniture Manufacturing
13%
Construction
12%
Textile, Apparel, and Leather Manufacturing
12%
Food Services
12%
Administrative and Support Services
11%
Accommodation
10%
Source: Jeffrey S. Passel, Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant
Population in the U.S.
, Pew Hispanic Center, March 7, 2006.
Supporters of a large-scale guest worker program contend that such a program
would help reduce unauthorized immigration by providing a legal alternative for
prospective foreign workers. Critics reject this reasoning and instead maintain that
a guest worker program would likely exacerbate the problem of illegal immigration;
they argue, for example, that many guest workers would fail to leave the country at
the end of their authorized period of stay.
Legislation in the 105th-107th Congresses
Major guest worker legislation introduced in the 105th, 106th, and 107th
Congresses was limited to the H-2A program. No major nonagricultural guest
26 Ibid., pp. 10-11.

CRS-9
worker bills were offered.27 In the 105th Congress, for example, a Senate-approved
amendment to S. 2260, an FY1999 Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State
appropriations bill, would have replaced the existing labor certification process with
a new set of procedures for importing H-2A workers. It would have established a
system of agricultural worker registries containing the names of eligible U.S.
agricultural workers. Employers interested in importing H-2A workers would first
have applied to DOL for the referral of U.S. workers through a registry search. If a
sufficient number of workers were not found, the employer would have been allowed
to import H-2A workers to cover the shortfall. The Senate measure also would have
changed wage and other requirements. The provision was not enacted.
Provisions to establish a system of worker registries and to change existing H-
2A-related requirements were likewise included in two H-2A reform proposals
introduced in the 106th Congress (S. 1814/H.R. 405628 and H.R. 4548). In addition,
S. 1814/H.R. 4056 would have established a two-stage legalization program, under
which farm workers satisfying specified work requirements could have obtained
temporary resident status and then legal permanent resident (LPR) status. Although
formal congressional consideration was limited to a Senate Immigration
Subcommittee hearing, S. 1814/H.R. 4056 became the basis of a bipartisan
compromise on foreign agricultural workers. That agreement, however, fell apart at
the end of the 106th Congress. H.R. 4548, the other reform bill before the 106th
Congress, differed from S. 1814/H.R. 4056 in that it sought to establish a pilot H-2C
alien agricultural worker program to supplement, rather than replace, the H-2A
program. H.R. 4548 also did not include a legalization program. H.R. 4548 was
reported by the House Judiciary Committee in October 2000, but saw no further
action.
Like S. 1814/H.R. 4056 in the 106th Congress, key bills before the 107th
Congress coupled significant H-2A reform with legalization. S. 1161 and S.
1313/H.R. 2736 would have streamlined the process of importing H-2A workers,
particularly for jobs covered by collective bargaining agreements. With respect to
legalization, both proposals would have allowed foreign agricultural workers who
met specified work requirements to adjust to LPR status through a two-stage process
like that in S. 1814/H.R. 4056. The requirements for adjustment of status in S.
1313/H.R. 2736 differed from those in S. 1161, with the latter being more stringent.
Among the other major differences between the proposals, S. 1161 would have eased
existing wage requirements, while S. 1313/H.R. 2736 would have mandated a study
of the wage issue. No action beyond committee referral occurred on either proposal.
27 During the 107th Congress, former Senator Phil Gramm released a preliminary proposal
for a new U.S.-Mexico guest worker program that would have covered both agricultural and
nonagricultural workers, but he did not introduce legislation.
28 Although S. 1814 and H.R. 4056 are not identical, they are treated as companion bills for
the purposes of this discussion because they are highly similar.

CRS-10
Legislation in the 108th Congress
Bills to reform the H-2A program, the H-2B program, and the “H” visa category
generally, as well as bills to establish new guest worker programs, were introduced
in the 108th Congress. Some of these bills would have enabled certain workers to
obtain LPR status. No action beyond committee referral occurred on any of the bills.
Congressional committees held related hearings during the 108th Congress. The
House Agriculture Committee held a hearing on the potential impact of recent guest
worker proposals on the agricultural sector, and the House Judiciary Committee’s
Subcommittee on Immigration, Border Security, and Claims held a hearing on the
impact of guest workers on U.S. workers. In the Senate, the Judiciary Committee’s
Subcommittee on Immigration, Border Security, and Citizenship held hearings on
evaluating a guest worker proposal and on border security under a guest worker
program.
S. 1645/H.R. 3142 and S. 2823
The Agricultural Job Opportunity, Benefits, and Security Act of 2003 (AgJOBS
Act; S. 1645/H.R. 3142) would have overhauled the H-2A agricultural worker
program. It was introduced, respectively, by Senator Craig for himself and a
bipartisan group of cosponsors and by Representative Cannon for himself and
Representative Berman. Like the major H-2A reform bills before the 107th Congress,
S. 1645/H.R. 3142 would have streamlined the process of importing H-2A workers,
particularly for jobs covered by collective bargaining agreements. Under S.
1645/H.R. 3142, prospective H-2A employers would have had to file applications
with DOL containing certain assurances. In the case of a job covered by a collective
bargaining agreement, the employer would have had to assure, among other things,
that there was an applicable union contract and that the bargaining representatives of
the employer’s employees had been notified of the filing of the application for H-2A
workers. An employer interested in filling a job not covered by a collective
bargaining agreement would have been subject to a longer list of required assurances.
Among these, the employer would have had to assure that he or she would take
specified steps to recruit U.S. workers and would provide workers with required
benefits, wages, and working conditions. Both groups of employers would have had
to assure that the job was temporary or seasonal and that the employer would offer
the job to any equally qualified, available U.S. worker who applied. Unless an
employer’s application was incomplete or obviously inaccurate, DOL would have
certified within seven days of the filing date that the employer had filed the required
application.
S. 1645/H.R. 3142 further proposed to make changes to the H-2A program’s
requirements regarding minimum benefits, wages, and working conditions. Among
these proposed changes, the adverse effect wage rate (discussed above) would have
remained at the January 2003 level for three years after the date of enactment, and
employers would have been permitted to provide housing allowances, in lieu of
housing, to their workers if the governor of the relevant state certified that adequate
housing was available.

CRS-11
Under S. 1645/H.R. 3142, an H-2A worker’s initial period of employment could
not have exceeded 10 months. The worker’s stay could have been extended in
increments of up to 10 months each, but the worker’s total continuous period of stay,
including any extensions, could not have exceeded three years.
In addition to these H-2A reform provisions, S. 1645/H.R. 3142 would have
established a two-stage legalization program for agricultural workers. To obtain
temporary resident status, the alien worker would have had to establish that he or she
performed at least 575 hours, or 100 work days, of agricultural employment in the
United States during 12 consecutive months in the 18-month period ending on
August 31, 2003, and meet other requirements. To be eligible to adjust to LPR
status, the alien would have had to perform at least 2,060 hours, or 360 work days,
of agricultural work in the United States between September 1, 2003, and August 31,
2009, and meet other requirements. Existing numerical limits under the INA would
not have applied to adjustments of status under the bill.29
On September 21, 2004, Senator Craig introduced a modified version of S. 1645
for himself and Senator Kennedy. The revised bill, S. 2823, was very similar to S.
1645, but there were substantive differences in the two bills’ legalization provisions.
Among these differences, S. 2823 contained a new provision stating that aliens
acquiring temporary resident status under the bill would not be eligible for certain
federal public benefits until five years after they obtained permanent resident status.30
H.R. 3604
Like S. 1645/H.R. 3142, the Temporary Agricultural Labor Reform Act of 2003
(H.R. 3604) proposed to overhaul the H-2A agricultural worker program. It was
introduced by Representative Goodlatte for himself and more than 30 co-sponsors.
H.R. 3604 would have streamlined the process of importing H-2A workers.
Prospective H-2A employers would have had to file applications with DOL
containing certain assurances, including that the job was temporary or seasonal; the
employer would provide workers with required benefits, wages, and working
conditions; the employer had made positive efforts to recruit U.S. workers; and the
employer would offer the job to any equally qualified, available U.S. worker who
applied. Unless an employer’s application was incomplete or obviously inaccurate,
DOL would have certified within seven days of the filing date that the employer had
filed the required application.
H.R. 3604 would have made changes to current H-2A requirements regarding
minimum benefits, wages, and working conditions. Under H.R. 3604, H-2A
employers would have had to pay workers the higher of the prevailing wage rate or
the applicable state minimum wage; they would not have been subject to the adverse
effect wage rate (discussed above). With respect to housing, employers could have
29 For a discussion of the U.S. system of permanent admissions, including numerical limits,
see CRS Report RL32235, U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions, by Ruth
Ellen Wasem. (Hereafter cited as CRS Report RL32235.)
30 For information on noncitizen eligibility for federal public benefits, see CRS Report
RL31114.

CRS-12
provided housing allowances, in lieu of housing, to their workers if the governor of
the relevant state certified that adequate housing was available.
Under H.R. 3604, an H-2A worker’s initial period of employment could not
have exceeded 10 months. The worker’s stay could have been extended in
increments of up to 10 months each, but the worker’s total continuous period of stay,
including any extensions, could not have exceeded two years. H.R. 3604 would not
have established a mechanism for agricultural workers to obtain LPR status.
S. 2185
Another H-2A reform bill, introduced by Senator Chambliss, was the Temporary
Agricultural Work Reform Act of 2004 (S. 2185). It was similar, but not identical,
to H.R. 3604. S. 2185 would have streamlined the process of importing H-2A
workers. Prospective H-2A employers would have had to file applications with DOL
containing certain assurances, including that the job was temporary or seasonal; the
employer would provide workers with required benefits, wages, and working
conditions; the employer had attempted to recruit U.S. workers using the state
workforce agency; and the employer would offer the job to any equally qualified,
available U.S. worker who applied. Unless an employer’s application was
incomplete or obviously inaccurate, DOL would have certified within 15 days of the
filing date that the employer had filed the required application.
S. 2185 proposed to change current H-2A requirements concerning minimum
benefits, wages, and working conditions. Under S. 2185, H-2A employers would
have had to pay workers the higher of the prevailing wage rate or the applicable state
minimum wage. In lieu of offering housing, they could have provided housing
allowances if the governor of the relevant state certified that adequate housing was
available.
S. 2185 did not contain provisions regarding the period of admission, extension
of stay, or maximum period of stay of H-2A workers. It also would not have
established a mechanism for agricultural workers to obtain LPR status.
S. 2010
The Immigration Reform Act of 2004: Strengthening America’s National
Security, Economy, and Families (S. 2010), introduced by Senator Hagel for himself
and Senator Daschle, would have reformed the H-2B nonimmigrant visa. The bill
would have eliminated the current restriction that H-2B workers can perform only
temporary service or labor, and instead would have required that they perform “short-
term service or labor, lasting not more than 9 months.” S. 2010 also proposed a new
H-2C visa for temporary workers coming to perform “labor or services, other than
those occupation classifications” covered under the H-2A, H-2B, or specified high-
skilled visa categories, if qualified U.S. workers could not be found.
Both the H-2B and H-2C categories would have been numerically limited. In
each of the five fiscal years following issuance of final implementing regulations, the
H-2B program would have been capped at 100,000. The cap would have then

CRS-13
reverted back to the current 66,000 level. The H-2C program would have been
capped at 250,000 in each of the five fiscal years following issuance of final
implementing regulations. After these five years, the H-2C program would have
terminated.
S. 2010 would have subjected both the H-2B and H-2C programs to a broad set
of requirements covering recruitment, application procedures, and worker
protections, among other issues. Prior to filing an application with DOL for H-2B
or H-2C workers, prospective employers would have had to take specified steps to
recruit U.S. workers, including posting the job on DOL’s online “America’s Job
Bank” and with local job banks, and would have had to offer the job to any qualified,
available U.S. worker who applied. In the application to DOL, the employer would
have had to attest to various items, including that he or she was offering wages to H-
2B or H-2C workers that were the greater of the prevailing wage rate or the actual
wage paid by the employer to other similarly employed and qualified workers, and
that he or she would abide by all applicable laws and regulations relating to the rights
of workers to organize. DOL would have reviewed the application and required
documentation for completeness and accuracy, and issued a determination not later
than 21 days after the filing date.
The initial period of admission for an H-2B worker could not have exceeded
nine months in a one-year period. An H-2B worker’s total period of admission could
not have exceeded 36 months in a four-year period. The initial period of admission
for an H-2C worker could not have exceeded two years and could have been
extended for an additional period of up to two years. An H-2C worker’s total period
of admission could not have exceeded four years.
S. 2010 would have enabled H-2B and H-2C nonimmigrants to obtain LPR
status. Employment-based immigrant visas would have been made available to these
nonimmigrants without regard to existing numerical limits under the INA. An
employment-based petition could have been filed by an employer or any collective
bargaining agent of the alien, or after the alien had been employed in H-2B or H-2C
status for at least three years, by the alien. In addition, S. 2010 would have
established a legalization program for certain unauthorized aliens in the United
States.
S. 2381/H.R. 4262
The Safe, Orderly, Legal Visas and Enforcement Act of 2004 (S. 2381/H.R.
4262) was introduced, respectively, by Senator Kennedy for himself and Senators
Feingold and Clinton and by Representative Gutierrez for himself and a group of
cosponsors. Known as the “S.O.L.V.E. Act,” the measure would have reformed the
H-2B nonimmigrant visa. It would have eliminated the current restriction that H-2B
workers can perform only temporary service or labor, and instead would have
required that they perform “short-term service or labor, lasting not more than 9
months.” S. 2381/H.R. 4262 also proposed a new H-ID visa for temporary workers
coming to perform “labor or services, other than those occupation classifications”
covered under the H-2A or specified high-skilled visa categories, if qualified U.S.
workers could not be found.

CRS-14
Both the H-2B and H-1D categories would have been numerically limited. The
H-2B program would have been capped at 100,000 annually, an increase from the
current annual limit of 66,000. The H-1D program would have been capped at
250,000 annually.
S. 2381/H.R. 4262 would have subjected both the H-2B and H-1D programs to
a broad set of requirements covering recruitment, application procedures, and worker
protections, among other issues. Prior to filing an application with DOL for H-2B
or H-1D workers, prospective employers would have had to take specified steps to
recruit U.S. workers, including posting the job on DOL’s America’s Job Bank and
with local job banks, and would have had to offer the job to any qualified, available
U.S. worker who applied. In the application to DOL, the employer would have had
to attest to various items. Among these were that the employer was offering to H-2B
or H-1D workers the prevailing wage, to be determined as specified in the bill. The
employer also would have had to abide by all applicable laws and regulations relating
to the rights of workers to organize. DOL would have reviewed the application and
required documentation for completeness and accuracy, and issued a determination
not later than 10 working days after the filing date.
The initial period of admission for an H-2B worker could not have exceeded
nine months in a one-year period. An H-2B worker’s total period of admission could
not have exceeded 40 months in the aggregate. The initial period of admission for
an H-1D worker could not have exceeded two years and could have been extended
for two additional periods of up to two years each. An H-1D worker’s total period
of admission could not have exceeded six years.
S. 2381/H.R. 4262 would have enabled H-2B and H-1D nonimmigrants to
obtain LPR status. Employment-based immigrant visas would have been made
available to these nonimmigrants without numerical limitation. An employment-
based petition could have been filed by an employer, or after the alien had been
employed in H-2B or H-1D status for at least two years, by the alien. In addition, S.
2381/H.R. 4262 would have established a legalization program for certain
unauthorized aliens in the United States.
H.R. 3534
The Border Enforcement and Revolving Employment to Assist Laborers Act of
2003 (H.R. 3534), introduced by Representative Tancredo for himself and several
cosponsors, proposed to amend the INA’s “H” visa category generally. It would have
eliminated the current subcategories, including the H-2A and H-2B visas, and
replaced them with a single category covering aliens coming temporarily to the
United States to perform skilled or unskilled work if qualified U.S. workers were not
available.
An employer interested in importing “H” workers would have filed an
application with DOL. Prior to doing so, the employer would have been required to
post a job announcement on an Internet-based job bank that the bill would have
directed DOL to create. Among other requirements of the program, the employer
would have had to offer wages at least equal to the prevailing wage rate and would
have had to provide “H” workers with health insurance.

CRS-15
H nonmimmigrants could only have been admitted from abroad. They would
have applied to be added to a database of workers and would have had to remain in
their home countries until an approved employer wanted to hire them. Their period
of authorized admission could not have exceeded 365 days in a two-year period.
After the two-year period, H nonimmigrant visas could have been renewed. H
nonimmigrants would not have been permitted to change or adjust to any other
nonimmigrant or immigrant status.
Under H.R. 3534, however, the proposed guest worker program would not have
been implemented until the Secretary of Homeland Security, in consultation with the
Attorney General and the Secretary of State, had made certain certifications to
Congress. The Secretary of Homeland Security would have had to certify, among
other items, that all noncitizens legally in the United States and all aliens authorized
to enter the country had been issued biometric, machine-readable travel or entry
documents, and that the number of aliens who overstayed nonimmigrant visas, but
were not removed from the United States, was less than 5,000.
S. 1387
The Border Security and Immigration Reform Act of 2003 (S. 1387), introduced
by Senator Cornyn, would have authorized new temporary worker programs under
the INA for seasonal and nonseasonal workers. S. 1387 would have established a
new “W” nonimmigrant visa category for these workers, which would not have been
subject to numerical limits. The W-1 visa would have covered seasonal workers, and
the W-2 visa would have covered nonseasonal workers. Under the proposal, the
Secretary of Homeland Security and the Secretary of State would have jointly
established and administered guest worker programs with foreign countries that
entered into agreements with the United States. The bill would have directed the
Secretary of Homeland Security, in cooperation with the Secretary of State and the
participating foreign governments, to establish a database to monitor guest workers’
entry into and exit from the United States and to track employer compliance.
In order to import workers through the new programs, employers would have
had to file an application with DOL. As part of the application, the employer would
have had to request an attestation from DOL that there were not sufficient U.S.
workers who were qualified and available to perform the work, and that the hiring of
alien workers would not adversely affect the wages and working conditions of
similarly employed U.S. workers. The employer also would have needed to provide
various assurances in the application, including that the employer would offer the job
to any equally qualified, available U.S. worker who applied; would advertise the job
opening in a local publication; and would pay workers at least the higher of the
federal or applicable state minimum wage. Unless an employer’s application was
incomplete or obviously inaccurate, DOL would have certified within 14 days of the
filing date that the application had been filed. Beginning 12 months after enactment,
employers would have been subject to increased penalties for knowingly employing
unauthorized aliens.
The authorized period of stay for a W-1 seasonal worker could not have
exceeded 270 days per year. Such a worker could have reapplied for admission to
the United States each year. The initial authorized period of stay for a W-2

CRS-16
nonseasonal worker could not have exceeded one year, but could have been extended
in increments of up to one year each; a W-2 worker’s total period of stay could not
have exceeded three consecutive years. Unauthorized workers in the United States
would have had 12 months from enactment to apply for the program.
Among the other provisions, the bill would have created investment accounts
for the guest workers, into which the Social Security taxes paid by them and by their
employers on their behalf would have been deposited. The investment accounts
would have been the sole property of the guest workers. In most cases, however,
distributions of account funds could have been made only after the workers had
permanently left the guest worker program and returned to their home countries.
Under S. 1387, guest workers could have applied for U.S. legal permanent
residency only after they had returned to their home countries. Their applications
would have been evaluated based on a point system to be established by the Secretary
of Homeland Security. The bill did not propose a legalization mechanism for guest
workers outside of existing channels, and according to Senator Cornyn’s office, guest
workers would have had to meet all the relevant requirements under current law.31
S. 1461/H.R. 2899
The Border Security and Immigration Improvement Act (S. 1461/H.R. 2899),
introduced, respectively, by Senator McCain and by Representative Kolbe for himself
and Representative Flake, would have established two new temporary worker visas
under the INA — the H-4A and H-4B visas. S. 1461/H.R. 2899 would have placed
no numerical limit on the H-4A or H-4B visas.
The H-4A visa would have covered aliens coming to the United States to
perform temporary full-time employment. An employer interested in importing H-
4A workers would have had to file a petition with DHS. DHS could only have
approved the petition once it determined that the employer had satisfied recruitment
requirements, including advertising the job opportunity to U.S. workers on an
electronic job registry established by DOL and offering the job to any equally
qualified U.S. worker who applied through the registry. The employer also would
have had to attest in the petition that he or she: would use the employment eligibility
confirmation system established by the bill to verify the alien workers’ identity and
employment authorization; would provide the alien workers with the same benefits,
wages, and working conditions as other similarly employed workers; and did not and
would not displace U.S. workers during a specified 180-day period. Aliens granted
H-4A status would have been issued machine-readable, tamper-resistant visas and
other documents containing biometric identifiers.
An H-4A worker’s initial authorized period of stay would have been three years,
and could have been extended for an additional three years. S. 1461/H.R. 2899 also
would have enabled H-4A nonimmigrants to adjust to LPR status. Petitions for
31 This description of S. 1387 is based on both the bill text and clarifications provided by
Sen. Cornyn’s office by telephone on July 22, 2003. Some clarifying language may need
to be added to the bill.

CRS-17
employment-based immigrant visas could have been filed by an H-4A worker’s
employer, or by the H-4A worker, if he or she had maintained H-4A status for at least
three years. Employment-based immigrant visas would have been made available to
H-4A workers adjusting status without numerical limitation.
The H-4B visa established by the bill would have covered aliens unlawfully
present and employed in the United States since before August 1, 2003. An H-4B
alien’s authorized period of stay would have been three years. The alien could have
applied to change to H-4A status or another nonimmigrant or immigrant category, but
such a change of status could not have taken place until the end of the three years.
H-4B employers would have been required to use the employment eligibility
confirmation system mentioned above and to comply with specified requirements
applicable to H-4A employers, including providing benefits, wages, and working
conditions to H-4B workers equal to those provided to other similarly employed
workers.
H.R. 3651
The Alien Accountability Act (H.R. 3651), introduced by Representative Issa,
would have authorized a new “W” nonimmigrant visa category under the INA for
unauthorized aliens. The category would have covered aliens unlawfully present in
the United States on December 8, 2003, as well as aliens residing in foreign
contiguous territory who had been habitually unlawfully present in the United States
during the six-month period ending on December 8, 2003. In order to be eligible for
W status, the alien would first have had to register with DHS. Employment would not
have been a strict requirement for W status, but the alien would have had to
demonstrate an adequate means of financial support. The new category would have
sunset six years after the first alien was granted W status.
The initial period of authorized admission of a W nonimmigrant would have
been one year and could have been renewed up to five times in one-year increments.
H.R. 3651 would not have established a special mechanism for W nonimmigrants to
adjust to LPR status. It, however, would not have precluded them from doing so if
they satisfied the applicable requirements under current law.
Legislation in the 109th Congress
As in the 108th Congress, bills were introduced in the 109th Congress to reform
the H-2A and H-2B programs, to reform the “H” visa category, and to establish new
temporary worker visas. An amendment based on one of the H-2B bills (S. 352/H.R.
793) was enacted as part of the FY2005 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations
Act for Defense, the Global War on Terror, and Tsunami Relief (P.L. 109-13).
Subsequently, the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for FY2007
(P.L. 109-364) extended one of the temporary H-2B provisions in P.L. 109-13.
As discussed below, the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 (S.
2611), as passed by the Senate, would have reformed the H-2A program and
established a new guest worker program for nonagricultural workers. During

CRS-18
consideration of the Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration
Control Act of 2005 (H.R. 4437) by the House Judiciary Committee and on the
House floor, efforts were made to add guest worker programs and language
expressing support for a guest worker program, but they were unsuccessful. H.R.
4437, as passed by the House, did not contain any guest worker provisions.
The 109th Congress also held a number of hearings on immigration issues
relevant to a guest worker program. The House Judiciary Committee’s
Subcommittee on Immigration, Border Security, and Claims held hearings on
employment eligibility verification and work site enforcement. The Senate Judiciary
Committee’s Subcommittee on Immigration, Border Security, and Citizenship held
hearings on immigration reform issues, including the establishment of a new guest
worker program. The full Senate Judiciary Committee held hearings on
comprehensive immigration reform, at which two major reform proposals (S.
1033/H.R. 2330 and S. 1438) were discussed.
S. 352/H.R. 793 and Related H-2B Legislation
The Save Our Small and Seasonal Businesses Act (S. 352/H.R. 793),32
introduced respectively by Senator Mikulski and Representative Gilchrest for
themselves and bipartisan groups of cosponsors, proposed to revise the H-2B
program. During Senate consideration of the FY2005 Emergency Supplemental
Appropriations bill (H.R. 1268) in April 2005, Senator Mikulski offered a floor
amendment based on S. 352/H.R. 793. On April 19, 2005, the Senate adopted the
Mikulski Amendment, as modified, by a vote of 94 to 6, and the amendment was
included in the enacted measure (P.L. 109-13) as Division B, Title IV.
The H-2B title of P.L. 109-13 caps at 33,000 the number of H-2B slots available
during the first six months of a fiscal year. It also requires DHS to submit specified
information to Congress on the H-2B program on a regular basis, imposes a new
fraud-prevention and detection fee on H-2B employers, and authorizes DHS to
impose additional penalties on H-2B employers in certain circumstances. In addition,
the H-2B title of P.L. 109-13 contains a temporary provision, initially scheduled to
expire at the end of FY2006, that keeps aliens who have been counted toward the H-
2B cap in any of the past three years from being counted again. The John Warner
National Defense Authorization Act for FY2007 (P.L. 109-364; §1074) extends this
returning H-2B worker exemption through FY2007. Thus, aliens who have been
counted toward the H-2B cap in FY2004, FY2005, or FY2006 are not to be counted
toward the FY2007 cap.
S. 2611
In March 2006, the Senate Judiciary Committee considered an immigration
measure by Chairman Specter, known as the Chairman’s mark. Among its many
provisions, this measure, as amended and approved by the Committee, proposed to
32 Although S. 352 and H.R. 793 are not identical, they are treated as companion bills here
because they are nearly identical and none of their differences are substantive. The full
short title of S. 352 is Save Our Small and Seasonal Businesses of 2005.

CRS-19
reform the H-2A program and establish a new guest worker program for
nonagricultural workers. The Committee-approved measure evolved into the
Comprehensive Immigration Act of 2006 (S. 2611), which the Senate passed, as
amended, on May 25, 2006 on a vote of 62 to 36.
Title VI, Subtitle B of S. 2611 contained provisions on agricultural workers.
These provisions were similar to those in the Agricultural Job Opportunities,
Benefits, and Security Act of 2005 (AgJOBS Act; S. 359/H.R. 884), discussed below.
Like S. 359/H.R. 884, Title VI, Subtitle B of S. 2611 would have streamlined the
process of importing H-2A workers, particularly for jobs covered by collective
bargaining agreements. Prospective H-2A employers would have had to file
applications with DOL containing certain assurances. In the case of a job covered
by a collective bargaining agreement, the employer would have had to assure, among
other things, that there was an applicable union contract and that the bargaining
representatives of the employer’s employees had been notified of the filing of the
application for H-2A workers. An employer interested in filling a job not covered
by a collective bargaining agreement would have been subject to a longer list of
required assurances. Among these, the employer would have had to assure that he
or she would take specified steps to recruit U.S. workers and would provide workers
with required benefits, wages, and working conditions. Both groups of employers
would have had to assure that the job was temporary or seasonal and that the
employer would offer the job to any equally qualified, available U.S. worker who
applied. Unless an employer’s application was incomplete or obviously inaccurate,
DOL would have certified within seven days of the filing date that the employer had
filed the required application.
Title VI, Subtitle B of S. 2611 would have made changes to the H-2A program’s
requirements regarding minimum benefits, wages, and working conditions. Among
these proposed changes, the adverse effect wage rate (discussed above) would have
remained at the January 2003 level for three years after the date of enactment, and
employers would have been permitted to provide housing allowances, in lieu of
housing, to their workers if the governor of the relevant state certified that adequate
housing was available. An H-2A worker’s initial period of employment could not
have exceeded 10 months. The worker’s stay could have been extended in
increments of up to 10 months each, but the worker’s total continuous period of stay,
including any extensions, could not have exceeded three years.
Title VI, Subtitle B of S. 2611 also proposed a legalization program for
agricultural workers. This program followed the basic design of the legalization
program in S. 359/H.R. 884, but included different work and other requirements and
used different terminology. Under the program in S. 2611, the Secretary of DHS
would have conferred “blue card status” (akin to S. 359/H.R. 884’s temporary
resident status)33 on an alien worker who had performed at least 863 hours, or 150
work days, of agricultural employment in the United States during the 24-month
period ending on December 31, 2005, and met other requirements. No more than 1.5
million blue cards could have been issued during the five-year period beginning on
33 The blue card status proposed under this bill is different than the blue card status proposed
in S. 2087 (discussed below).

CRS-20
the date of enactment. To be eligible to adjust to LPR status, the alien in blue card
status would have had to, among other requirements, perform either at least 575
hours of U.S. agricultural work per year for the five years after enactment, or at least
863 hours of U.S. agricultural work per year for three of the five years after
enactment. Existing numerical limits under the INA would not have applied to
adjustments of status under the bill.34

Title IV, Subtitle A of S. 2611 proposed to establish a new H-2C nonagricultural
guest worker visa, which, as amended on the Senate floor, would have been capped
at 200,000 annually. The H-2C visa would have covered aliens coming temporarily
to the United States to perform temporary labor or services other than the labor or
services covered under the H-2A visa or other specified visa categories. A
prospective H-2C employer would have had to file a petition with DHS. In the
petition the employer would have had to attest to various items, including that the
employer was offering wages to H-2C workers that were the greater of the prevailing
wage rate for the occupational classification in the area of employment or the actual
wage paid by the employer to other similarly employed and qualified workers; and
that there were not sufficient qualified and available U.S. workers to perform the
work. Prior to filing the petition, the prospective employer also would have been
required to make efforts to recruit U.S. workers in accordance with DOL regulations.
To be eligible for H-2C status, the alien would have needed to have evidence of
employment and meet other requirements.
An H-2C worker’s initial authorized period of stay would have been three years,
and could have been extended for an additional three years. H-2C aliens could not
have changed to another nonimmigrant visa category. As in S. 1438 (discussed
below), an H-2C alien who failed to depart the United States when required to do so
would have been ineligible for any immigration relief or benefit, except for specified
forms of humanitarian relief. At the same time, H-2C nonimmigrants in the United
States could have applied to adjust to LPR status. Petitions for employment-based
immigrant visas could have been filed by an H-2C worker’s employer or, if the H-2C
worker had maintained H-2C status for a total of four years, by the worker.
S. 359/H.R. 884
The Agricultural Job Opportunities, Benefits, and Security Act of 2005
(AgJOBS Act; S. 359/H.R. 884) proposed to overhaul the H-2A agricultural worker
program. The bills were introduced, respectively, by Senator Craig and
Representative Cannon for themselves and bipartisan groups of cosponsors. S.
359/H.R. 884 was very similar to the AgJOBs bills before the 108th Congress (S.
1645/H.R. 3142, S. 2823). Like these bills, S. 359/H.R. 884 would have streamlined
the process of importing H-2A workers, particularly for jobs covered by collective
bargaining agreements. Prospective H-2A employers would have had to file
applications with DOL containing certain assurances. In the case of a job covered
by a collective bargaining agreement, the employer would have had to assure, among
other things, that there was an applicable union contract and that the bargaining
representatives of the employer’s employees had been notified of the filing of the
34 For information on numerical limits, see CRS Report RL32235.

CRS-21
application for H-2A workers. An employer interested in filling a job not covered
by a collective bargaining agreement would have been subject to a longer list of
required assurances. Among these, the employer would have had to assure that he
or she would take specified steps to recruit U.S. workers and would provide workers
with required benefits, wages, and working conditions. Both groups of employers
would have had to assure that the job was temporary or seasonal and that the
employer would offer the job to any equally qualified, available U.S. worker who
applied. Unless an employer’s application was incomplete or obviously inaccurate,
DOL would have certified within seven days of the filing date that the employer had
filed the required application.
S. 359/H.R. 884 would have made changes to the H-2A program’s requirements
regarding minimum benefits, wages, and working conditions. Among these proposed
changes, the adverse effect wage rate (discussed above) would have remained at the
January 2003 level for three years after the date of enactment, and employers would
have been permitted to provide housing allowances, in lieu of housing, to their
workers if the governor of the relevant state certified that adequate housing was
available.
Under S. 359/H.R. 884, an H-2A worker would have been admitted for an initial
period of employment not to exceed 10 months. The worker’s stay could have been
extended in increments of up to 10 months each, but the worker’s total continuous
period of stay, including any extensions, could not have exceeded three years.35
In addition to these H-2A reform provisions, S. 359/H.R. 884 would have
established a two-stage legalization program for agricultural workers. To obtain
temporary resident status, the alien worker would have had to establish that he or she
had performed at least 575 hours, or 100 work days, of agricultural employment in
the United States during 12 consecutive months in the 18-month period ending on
December 31, 2004, and meet other requirements. To be eligible to adjust to LPR
status, the alien would have had to perform at least 2,060 hours, or 360 work days,
of agricultural work in the United States during the six years following the date of
enactment, and meet other requirements. Existing numerical limits under the INA
would not have applied to adjustments of status under the bills.36
H.R. 3857
The Temporary Agricultural Labor Reform Act of 2005 (H.R. 3857), an H-2A
reform bill introduced by Representative Goodlatte on behalf of himself and a group
of cosponsors, was a revision of a bill of the same name that he had introduced in the
108th Congress. H.R. 3857 would have streamlined the process of importing H-2A
workers. Prospective H-2A employers would have had to file petitions with DHS
containing certain attestations; they would not have filed applications with DOL as
they currently do. Employers would have had to attest that the job was temporary or
seasonal; that they would provide workers with required benefits, wages, and
35 Separate provisions in S. 359/H.R. 884 would have established a two-stage legalization
program for agricultural workers.
36 For information on numerical limits, see CRS Report RL32235.

CRS-22
working conditions; that they had made efforts to recruit U.S. workers; and that they
would offer the job to any equally qualified, available U.S. worker who applied.
Unless an employer’s application was incomplete or obviously inaccurate, DHS
would have adjudicated the petition within seven days of the filing date.
H.R. 3857 would have changed current H-2A requirements regarding minimum
benefits, wages, and working conditions. Under the bill, H-2A employers would
have had to pay workers the higher of the prevailing wage rate or the applicable state
minimum wage; employers would not have been subject to the adverse effect wage
rate (discussed above). With respect to housing, employers could have provided
allowances, in lieu of housing, to their workers if the governor of the relevant state
certified that adequate housing was available.37
Under H.R. 3857, an H-2A worker would have been admitted for an initial
period of employment not to exceed 10 months. The worker’s stay could have been
extended in increments of up to 10 months each, but the worker’s total continuous
period of stay, including any extensions, could not have exceeded 20 months.
S. 2087
The Agricultural Employment and Workforce Protection Act of 2005 (S. 2087),
introduced by Senator Chambliss, would have reformed the H-2A program. It would
have eliminated the current limitation that H-2A nonimmigrants can perform only
temporary or seasonal work and would have broadened the definition of agricultural
labor or services for purposes of the H-2A visa to cover labor or services relating to
such activities as dairy, forestry, landscaping, and meat processing. Like S. 359/H.R.
884 and H.R. 3857, S. 2087 proposed to streamline the process of importing H-2A
workers. As under H.R. 3857, a prospective H-2A employer would have filed a
petition with DHS containing certain attestations. Among them, the employer would
have had to attest that he or she: would provide workers with required benefits,
wages, and working conditions; had made efforts to recruit U.S. workers; and would
offer the job to any equally qualified, available U.S. worker who applied. Unless the
petition was incomplete or obviously inaccurate, DHS would have approved or
denied it not later than seven days after the filing date.
Also like S. 359/H.R. 884 and H.R. 3857, S. 2087 would have changed current
H-2A requirements regarding minimum benefits, wages, and working conditions.
Under S. 2087, H-2A employers would have had to pay workers the higher of the
prevailing wage rate or the applicable state minimum wage; employers would not
have been subject to the adverse effect wage rate (discussed above). As under both
S. 359/H.R. 884 and H.R. 3857, employers could have provided housing allowances,
in lieu of housing, to their workers if the governor of the relevant state certified that
adequate housing was available. Under S. 2087, an H-2A worker would have been
admitted for an initial period of employment of 11 months. The worker’s stay could
have been extended for up to two consecutive contract periods.
37 H.R. 3857 would not have established a mechanism for agricultural workers to obtain
LPR status.

CRS-23
Unlike S. 359/H.R. 884 and H.R. 3857, S. 2087 would have established
subcategories of H-2A nonimmigrants. It would have defined a “Level II H-2A
worker” as a nonimmigrant who had been employed as an H-2A worker for at least
three years and worked in a supervisory capacity. The bill would have made
provision for an employer of a Level II H-2A worker, who had been employed in
such status for not less than five years, to file an application for an employment-
based adjustment of status for that worker. Such a Level II H-2A worker could have
continued working in such status until his or her application was adjudicated. Under
the bill, an “H-2AA worker” would have been defined as an H-2A worker who
participated in the cross-border worker program the bill would have established.
These H-2AA workers would have been allowed to enter and exit the United States
each work day in accordance with DHS regulations.
In addition, the bill would have established a blue card program through which
the Secretary of DHS could have conferred “blue card status” upon an alien,
including an unauthorized alien, who had performed at least 1,600 hours of
agricultural employment for an employer in the United States in 2005 and met other
requirements. An alien could have been granted blue card status for a period of up
to two years, at the end of which the alien would have had to return to his or her
home country. Aliens in blue card status would not have been eligible to change to
a nonimmigrant status or adjust to LPR status.
S. 278
The Summer Operations and Seasonal Equity Act of 2005 (S. 278), introduced
by Senator Collins, would have made changes to the numerical limits under the H-2B
program. It would have required that at least 12,000 of the total number of H-2B
slots available annually (currently, 66,000) be made available in each quarter of each
fiscal year. It would have exempted an alien who had been counted toward the
annual H-2B numerical limit within the past three years from being counted again.
Both of these provisions would have expired at the end of FY2007. S. 278 also
would have required DHS to submit specified information to Congress on the H-2B
program on a regular basis.
H.R. 1587
H.R. 1587, introduced by Representative Tancredo for himself and several
cosponsors, would have raised the H-2B cap and placed new requirements on the H-
2B program. It would have increased to 131,000 the number of aliens who could be
issued H-2B visas or otherwise provided H-2B status annually. Not more than half
of these slots, or 65,500, would have been available during the first six months of a
fiscal year. H.R. 1587 would have added new recruitment-related requirements for
prospective H-2B employers, and would have mandated H-2B employer participation
in the Basic Pilot program, an electronic employment eligibility verification system.
H.R. 1587 also would have imposed new requirements on H-2B nonimmigrants.
Among them, these aliens could no longer have been accompanied by family
members.

CRS-24
S. 1918
The Strengthening America’s Workforce Act of 2005 (S. 1918), introduced by
Senator Hagel, contained guest worker provisions similar to those in the bill he
introduced in the 108th Congress. S. 1918 would have revised the H-2B visa and
eliminated the current restriction that H-2B workers can perform only temporary
service or labor. Instead, the bill would have required workers to perform “short-
term service or labor, lasting not more than nine months.” S. 1918 also would have
established a new H-2C visa for temporary workers coming to perform “labor or
services, other than those occupation classifications” covered under the H-2A, H-2B,
or specified high-skilled visa categories. The H-2B visa would have been capped at
100,000 annually, and the H-2C visa would have been capped at 250,000 annually.
S. 1918 would have subjected the H-2B and H-2C programs to a broad set of
requirements concerning recruitment, application procedures, and worker protections,
among other issues. Prior to filing an application with DOL for H-2B or H-2C
workers, prospective employers would have had to take specified steps to recruit U.S.
workers, including authorizing DOL to post the job on the online America’s Job
Bank and on local job banks. Employers also would have had to offer the job to any
qualified, available U.S. worker who applied. In the application to DOL, the
employer would have had to attest to various items. Among these were that the
employer would offer wages to H-2B or H-2C workers that were the greater of the
prevailing wage rate or the actual wage paid by the employer to other similarly
employed and qualified workers, and that the employer would abide by all applicable
laws and regulations relating to the rights of workers to organize. DOL would have
reviewed the application for completeness and accuracy and issued a determination
not later than 21 days after the filing date.
The initial period of admission for an H-2B worker could not have exceeded
nine months in a one-year period. An H-2B worker’s total period of admission could
not have exceeded 36 months in a four-year period. The initial period of admission
for an H-2C worker could not have exceeded two years and could have been
extended for an additional period of up to two years. An H-2C worker’s total period
of admission could not have exceeded four years.
S. 1918 would have enabled H-2B and H-2C nonimmigrants to obtain LPR
status. Employment-based immigrant visas would have been made available to these
nonimmigrants without regard to existing numerical limits under the INA. An
employment-based petition could have been filed by an alien’s employer or collective
bargaining agent or, after the alien had been employed in H-2B or H-2C status for at
least three years, by the alien.
H.R. 3333
The Rewarding Employers that Abide by the Law and Guaranteeing Uniform
Enforcement to Stop Terrorism Act of 2005 (H.R. 3333), introduced by
Representative Tancredo, contained temporary worker provisions similar to those in
the bill he had introduced in the 108th Congress. H.R. 3333 would have eliminated
all the current “H” visa subcategories, including the H-2A and H-2B visas, and
replaced them with a single “H” visa covering aliens coming temporarily to the

CRS-25
United States to perform skilled or unskilled work. There would have been no cap
on the H visa.
An employer interested in employing H nonimmigrants would have had to
recruit U.S. workers by posting the job opportunity on America’s Job Bank and
would have had to offer the job to any equally qualified U.S. worker who applied.
The employer would have had to file an application with DOL containing certain
assurances, including that he or she had complied with the recruitment requirements.
Prospective H nonimmigrants, who could only have been admitted from abroad,
would have had to apply to be included in a database of workers, which DOL would
have been tasked with establishing and maintaining. Once an employer’s application
had been approved, DOL would have provided the employer with a list of possible
job candidates from the database. Aliens admitted on H visas could not have changed
to another nonimmigrant status or been adjusted to LPR status in the United States.
Under H.R. 3333, the new H visa program could not have been implemented
until the Secretary of Homeland Security made certain certifications to Congress,
including that a congressionally mandated automated entry-exit system was fully
operational38 and that at least 80% of aliens who overstayed their nonimmigrants
visas were removed within one year of overstaying.
S. 1033/H.R. 2330
The Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act (S. 1033/H.R. 2330) was
introduced, respectively, by Senator McCain and Representative Kolbe for
themselves and bipartisan groups of cosponsors. It was discussed at the Senate
Judiciary Committee hearings on comprehensive immigration reform held in July
2005 and October 2005. Its guest worker and legalization provisions were similar
in some respects to provisions in bills from the 108th Congress, including S.
1461/H.R. 2899, S. 2010, and S. 2381/H.R. 4262. S. 1033/H.R. 2330 would have
established two new temporary worker visas under the INA — the H-5A and H-5B
visas. It would have capped the H-5A visa initially at 400,000, and established a
process for adjusting the cap in subsequent fiscal years based on demand for the
visas. It would have placed no cap on the H-5B visa.
The H-5A visa would have covered aliens coming temporarily to the United
States initially to perform labor or services “other than those occupational
classifications” covered under the H-2A or specified high-skilled visa categories.
Prospective H-5A nonimmigrants would have filed visa applications on their own
behalf. Employers would not have filed petitions with DHS for them, as they
currently do to employ other nonimmigrant workers. Under S. 1033/H.R. 2330, the
Secretary of State could have granted an H-5A visa to an alien who demonstrated an
intent to perform work covered by the visa. To be eligible for H-5A status, an alien
would have needed to have evidence of employment and to meet other requirements.
Before hiring a prospective H-5A worker, an employer would have had to post the
38 For information on the entry-exit system issue, see CRS Report RL32234, U.S. Visitor and
Immigrant Status Indicator Technology (US-VISIT) Program
, by Lisa M. Seghetti and
Stephen R. Viña.

CRS-26
job opportunity on a DOL electronic job registry to recruit U.S. workers. H-5A
employers also would have been required to comply with all applicable federal, state,
and local laws, and to use an employment eligibility confirmation system, to be
established by the Social Security Administration, to verify the employment
eligibility of newly hired H-5A workers.
An H-5A worker’s initial authorized period of stay would have been three years,
and could have been extended for an additional three years. Under S. 1033/H.R.
2330, H-5A nonimmigrants in the United States could have adjusted to LPR status.
Petitions for employment-based immigrant visas could have been filed by an H-5A
worker’s employer or, if the H-5A worker had maintained H-5A status for a total of
four years, by the worker.
The H-5B visa established by the bill would have covered aliens present and
employed in the United States since before May 12, 2005. Aliens lawfully present
in the United States as nonimmigrants on that date would not have been eligible for
H-5B status. An H-5B alien’s authorized period of stay would have been six years.
At the end of that six-year period, the alien could have applied to adjust to LPR
status, subject to various requirements. Such adjustments of status would not have
been subject to numerical limitations.
S. 1438
The Comprehensive Enforcement and Immigration Reform Act of 2005 (S.
1438) was introduced by Senator Cornyn for himself and Senator Kyl. Like S.
1033/H.R. 2330, it was discussed at the Senate Judiciary Committee hearings on
comprehensive immigration reform held in July 2005 and October 2005. It would
have established a new “W” temporary worker visa under the INA. S. 1438 would
not have placed a cap on the W visa, but would have authorized DOL to do so in the
future based on the recommendations of a task force the bill would have established.
In addition, S. 1438 would have amended the INA to authorize DHS to grant a new
status — Deferred Mandatory Departure (DMD) status — to certain unauthorized
aliens in the United States. It would have placed no limit on the number of aliens
who could have received that status.
The W visa would have covered aliens coming temporarily to the United States
to perform temporary labor or service other than that covered under the H-2A or
specified high-skilled visa categories. S. 1438 would have repealed the H-2B visa
category. Prospective W nonimmigrants would have filed applications on their own
behalf. Employers would not have filed petitions with DHS on behalf of W workers,
as they currently do to employ other nonimmigrant workers. Under S. 1438, the
Secretary of State could have granted a W visa to an alien who demonstrated an
intent to perform eligible work. To be eligible for W status, the alien would have
needed to have evidence of employment, among other requirements. An employer
interested in hiring a W nonimmigrant would have had to apply for authorization to
do so through an Alien Employment Management System to be established by DHS.
Before an employer could have been granted such authorization, he or she would
have had to post the position on a DOL electronic job registry and offer the position
to any equally qualified U.S. worker who applied. S. 1438 would have made it
mandatory for all employers, including W employers, to verify the employment

CRS-27
eligibility of new hires through an electronic system. Current electronic employment
eligibility verification is conducted through the largely voluntary Basic Pilot
program.
A W nonimmigrant’s authorized period of stay would have been two years, and
could not have been extended. After residing in his or her home country for one year,
however, an alien could have been readmitted to the United States in W status. An
alien’s total period of admission as a W nonimmigrant could not have exceeded six
years. These stay limitations would not have applied to aliens who spent less than
six months a year in W status, or who commuted to the United States to work in W
status but resided outside the country. S. 1438 would have made W nonimmigrants
ineligible to change to another nonimmigrant status and would not have provided
them with any special mechanism to obtain LPR status. Furthermore, a W
nonimmigrant who did not depart the United States when required to do so would
have been ineligible for any immigration benefit or relief, except for specified forms
of humanitarian relief.
Aliens present in the United States since July 20, 2004, and employed since
before July 20, 2005, could have applied to DHS for Deferred Mandatory Departure
(DMD) status. Aliens lawfully present in the United States as nonimmigrants would
not have been eligible. DHS could have granted an alien DMD status for a period of
up to five years. Employers interested in employing aliens granted DMD status
would have had to apply for authorization through the Alien Employment
Management System mentioned above. Aliens in DMD status could not have
applied to change to a nonimmigrant status or, unless otherwise eligible under INA
§245(i), to adjust to LPR status.39 Aliens who complied with the terms of DMD
status and departed prior to its expiration date would not have been subject to the
INA provision that bars previously unlawfully present aliens from being admitted to
the United States for 3 or 10 years, depending on the length of their unlawful stay.40
If otherwise eligible, these aliens could immediately have sought admission as
nonimmigrants or immigrants. However, they would not have received any special
consideration for admission. Aliens granted DMD status who failed to depart prior
to the expiration of that status would have been ineligible for any immigration benefit
or relief, except for specified forms of humanitarian relief, for 10 years.
H.R. 4065
The Temporary Worker Registration and Visa Act of 2005 (H.R. 4065),
introduced by Representative Osborne, would have established a process for
registering aliens who had been continuously unlawfully present and employed in the
United States since January 1, 2005. Eligible aliens would have applied for this
registration, which would have been valid for six months. Registered aliens would
have been given work authorization and would have been eligible for a new “W”
39 For an explanation of INA §245(i), see CRS Report RL31373, Immigration: Adjustment
to Permanent Resident Status Under Section 245(i)
, by Andorra Bruno.
40 INA §212(a)(9)(B). This ground of inadmissibility, known as the “3 and 10 year bars,”
applies to aliens who have been unlawfully present in the United States for more than 180
days and who then depart or are removed.

CRS-28
temporary worker visa established by the bill. To obtain a W visa, a registered alien
would have had to apply at a consular office in his or her home country not later than
six months after his or her registration was approved. H.R. 4065 would have placed
no numerical limit on the W visa.
The initial period of authorized admission for a W nonimmigrant would have
been three years and could have been extended in three year increments without limit.
H.R. 4065 would have required that W nonimmigrants be continuously employed but
would have placed no restriction on the type of work they could perform. W
nonimmigrants would not have been prohibited from changing to another
nonimmigrant classification or adjusting to LPR status. H.R. 4065, however, would
have made no special provision for them to do so.
Legislation in the 110th Congress
Bills have been introduced in the 110th Congress to reform the H-2A program
and the H-2B program and to establish new temporary worker visas. The House
Judiciary Committee’s Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border
Security, and International Law also has held hearings related to guest worker
programs.
S. 237/S. 340/H.R. 371
The Agricultural Job Opportunities, Benefits, and Security Act of 2007
(AgJOBS Act; S. 237/S. 340/H.R. 371) proposes to overhaul the H-2A agricultural
worker program. The Senate bills were introduced by Senator Feinstein and have a
bipartisan group of cosponsors. The House companion was introduced by
Representative Berman and also has bipartisan cosponsorship. The provisions of the
AgJOBS Act of 2007 are similar to those included in S. 2611, as passed by the
Senate in the 109th Congress (discussed above).
The AgJOBS Act of 2007 would streamline the process of importing H-2A
workers, particularly for jobs covered by collective bargaining agreements.
Prospective H-2A employers would have to file applications with DOL containing
certain assurances. In the case of a job covered by a collective bargaining agreement,
the employer would have to assure, among other things, that there is an applicable
union contract and that the bargaining representatives of the employer’s employees
have been notified of the filing of the application for H-2A workers. An employer
interested in filling a job not covered by a collective bargaining agreement would be
subject to a longer list of required assurances. Among these, the employer would
have to assure that he or she will take specified steps to recruit U.S. workers and will
provide workers with required benefits, wages, and working conditions. Both groups
of employers would have to assure that the job is temporary or seasonal and that the
employer will offer the job to any equally qualified, available U.S. worker who
applies. Unless an employer’s application is incomplete or obviously inaccurate,
DOL would have to certify within seven days of the filing date that the employer had
filed the required application. The employer could then file a petition with DHS for
H-2A workers.

CRS-29
The AgJOBS Act of 2007 would likewise make changes to the H-2A program’s
requirements regarding minimum benefits, wages, and working conditions. Among
these proposed changes, the adverse effect wage rate (discussed above) would remain
at the January 2003 level for three years after the date of enactment, and employers
would be permitted to provide housing allowances, in lieu of housing, to their
workers if the governor of the relevant state certifies that adequate housing is
available. An H-2A worker’s initial period of employment could not exceed 10
months. The worker’s stay could be extended in increments of up to 10 months each,
but the worker’s total continuous period of stay, including any extensions, could not
exceed three years.
The AgJOBS Act of 2007 also proposes a legalization program for agricultural
workers similar to that included in S. 2611, as passed by the Senate in the 109th
Congress. Under the program, the Secretary of DHS would grant “blue card status”
to an alien worker who had performed at least 863 hours, or 150 work days, of
agricultural employment in the United States during the 24-month period ending on
December 31, 2006, and meets other requirements. No more than 1.5 million blue
cards could be issued during the five-year period beginning on the date of enactment.
To be eligible to adjust to LPR status, the alien in blue card status would have to,
among other requirements, perform either at least 100 workdays of U.S. agricultural
work per year for the five years after enactment, or at least 150 workdays of U.S.
agricultural work per year for the three years after enactment.41 Existing numerical
limits under the INA would not apply to adjustments of status under the bill.42

H.R. 1645
The Security Through Regularized Immigration and a Vibrant Economy Act of
2007 (STRIVE Act; H.R. 1645), introduced by Representative Gutierrez for himself
and a bipartisan group of cosponsors, includes the AgJOBS Act of 2007 (described
above) as Title VI, Subtitle C. In addition, Title IV of H.R. 1645 proposes to
establish a new H-2C temporary worker program. The new H-2C visa would cover
aliens coming temporarily to the United States to initially perform temporary labor
or services other than the labor or services covered under the H-2A visa or other
specified visa categories. A prospective H-2C employer would have to file a petition
with DOL. In the petition the employer would have to attest to various items,
including that the employer is offering wages to H-2C workers that are the greater of
the prevailing wage rate for the occupational classification in the area of employment
or the actual wage paid by the employer to other similarly employed and qualified
workers; and that there are not sufficient qualified and available U.S. workers to
perform the work. In most cases, prior to filing the petition, the prospective
employer also would have to make efforts to recruit U.S. workers, as specified in the
bill. To be eligible for H-2C status, the alien would need to have evidence of
employment and meet other requirements.
41 A “work day” is defined in the legislation as a day in which the individual is employed
for at least 5.75 hours in agricultural employment.
42 For information on numerical limits, see CRS Report RL32235.

CRS-30
An H-2C worker’s initial authorized period of stay would be three years, and
could be extended for an additional three years. H-2C nonimmigrants in the United
States could apply to adjust to LPR status. Petitions for employment-based
immigrant visas could be filed by an H-2C worker’s employer or, if the alien had
been employed as an H-2C worker for a total of five years, by the worker.
S. 330
The Border Security and Immigration Reform Act of 2007 (S. 330), introduced
by Senator Isakson, would establish a new W temporary worker program for
agricultural or nonagricultural workers. The guest worker provisions are in Title III,
§302 of the bill. An employer interested in importing W workers would first apply
to DOL for labor certification. After receiving certification, the employer would file
an application with DHS, as required by DHS. Aliens who have been unlawfully
employed in the United States since January 1, 2007, could participate in the new
program if they apply for registration and meet other requirements, as set forth in
§301 of the bill. W visas would be issued for an initial period of up to two years and
could be renewed for an unlimited number of two-year terms. The guest worker and
registration provisions in S. 330 would not take effect, however, until after the
Secretary of DHS certifies that specified border security and enforcement-related
measures authorized under other titles of the bill are fully operational.
S. 1639
S. 1639, introduced by Senator Kennedy, is based on S.Amdt. 1150, as amended
on the Senate floor in late May and early June 2007.43 Among its many provisions,
S. 1639 would repeal the H-2B program, reform the H-2A program, and establish
new guest worker programs. The Senate began consideration of S. 1639 in late June
2007.
Agricultural Workers. The H-2A reform provisions are in Title IV, Subtitle
B of S. 1639. These provisions are similar to those in S. 237/S. 340/H.R. 371 before
the 110th Congress, and in S. 2611, as passed by the Senate in the 109th Congress
(these proposals are discussed above). Section 404 of S. 1639 would streamline the
process of importing H-2A workers, particularly for jobs covered by collective
bargaining agreements. Prospective H-2A employers would have to file applications
with DOL containing certain assurances. In the case of a job covered by a collective
bargaining agreement, the employer would have to ensure, among other things, that
there is an applicable union contract and that the bargaining representatives of the
employer’s employees have been notified of the filing of the application for H-2A
workers. An employer interested in filling a job not covered by a collective
bargaining agreement would be subject to a longer list of required assurances.
43 S.Amdt. 1150, the bipartisan compromise proposal for immigration reform, was proposed
by Senator Kennedy as an amendment in the nature of a substitute to S. 1348. (The text of
S.Amdt. 1150 appears in “Text of Amendment Submitted Monday, May 21, 2007,”
Congressional Record, daily edition, vol.153 (May 24, 2007), pp. S6625-S6687.) S. 1348,
the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007, was introduced by Senate Majority
Leader Reid as the marker for Senate debate on comprehensive immigration reform; it is
based on S. 2611, as passed by the Senate in the 109th Congress (discussed above).

CRS-31
Among these, the employer would have to ensure that he or she will take specified
steps to recruit U.S. workers and will provide workers with required benefits, wages,
and working conditions. Both groups of employers would have to ensure that the job
is temporary or seasonal and that the employer will offer the job to any equally
qualified, available U.S. worker who applies. Unless an employer’s application is
incomplete or obviously inaccurate, DOL would have to certify within seven days of
the filing date that the employer had filed the required application. The employer
could then file a petition with DHS for H-2A workers.
Section 404 of S. 1639 would likewise make changes to the H-2A program’s
requirements regarding minimum benefits, wages, and working conditions. Among
these proposed changes, the adverse effect wage rate (discussed above) would remain
at the January 2003 level for three years after the date of enactment, and employers
would be permitted to provide housing allowances, in lieu of housing, to their
workers if the governor of the relevant state certifies that adequate housing is
available. Unlike in S. 237/S. 340/H.R. 371 in the 110th Congress and in S. 2611, as
passed by the Senate in the 109th Congress, an H-2A worker’s maximum continuous
period of authorized status would be 10 months. The worker could not again apply
for admission to the United States as an H-2A worker until he or she had been
outside the country for a period of time, as specified.
In addition to these H-2A reform provisions, S. 1639 proposes a legalization
process for agricultural workers in Title VI, Subtitle C. Under Section 622, the
Secretary of DHS would grant a Z-A nonimmigrant visa to an alien worker who had
performed at least 863 hours, or 150 work days, of agricultural employment in the
United States during the 24-month period ending on December 31, 2006, and meets
other requirements, including payment of a $100 fine. No more than 1.5 million Z-A
visas could be issued. Spouses or minor children of Z-A nonimmigrants would be
eligible for Z-A dependent visas, which would not be subject to a numerical limit.
Not later than eight years after enactment, Z-A nonimmigrants would have to either
renew the alien’s Z visa status or apply to adjust to LPR status. With respect to the
latter option, the Secretary of DHS would adjust the status of a Z-A alien to that of
an LPR if specified requirements are met. The alien would have to perform either
at least 100 workdays of U.S. agricultural work per year for the five years after
enactment, or at least 150 workdays of U.S. agricultural work per year for the three
years after enactment.44 The other requirements would include payment of a $400
fine and payment of applicable federal taxes. The Z-A nonimmigrant would have to
file the application for adjustment of status in person with a U.S. consulate abroad.
Existing numerical limits under the INA would not apply to adjustments of status of
Z-A or Z-A dependent aliens under the bill.45
Y Nonimmigrants. Title IV, Subtitle A of S. 1639 proposes to establish a
new Y temporary worker visa category. The Y-1 visa would cover aliens coming
temporarily to the United States to perform temporary labor or services other than the
labor or services covered under specified nonimmigrant visas for high-skilled
44 A “work day” is defined in the legislation as a day in which the individual is employed
for at least 5.75 hours in agricultural employment.
45 For information on numerical limits, see CRS Report RL32235.

CRS-32
workers and others. The Y-1 visa program would sunset after five years. The Y-2
visa would cover aliens coming temporarily to the United States to perform seasonal
nonagricultural labor or services.46 The Y-3 visa would cover the spouses or children
of Y-1 or Y-2 aliens. A prospective employer of Y nonimmigrants would have to file
an application for labor certification with DOL that includes attestations regarding
U.S. worker protections, wages, and other items. The employer would have to make
efforts to recruit U.S. workers prior to filing the labor certification application. After
receiving certification from DOL, the employer would file a petition with DHS to
import Y workers.
Y-1 nonimmigrants would be granted a period of admission of two years. This
period could be extended for two additional two-year periods.47 Between each two-
year period of admission, however, the alien would have to be physically present
outside the United States for 12 months. Y-2B nonimmigrants48 would be granted
a period of admission of 10 months. Following this period, they would need to be
physically present outside the United States for two months before they could be
readmitted to the country in Y status. There would be no limit on the number of
times a Y-2B nonimmigrant could be so readmitted.
Section 409 of S. 1639 proposes annual numerical limits on the Y visas. The
annual cap on the Y-1 visa would be 200,000. The Y-3 visa would be capped at 20%
of the Y-1 visa annual limit The Y-2 visa would be capped at 100,000 for the first
fiscal year. In subsequent years, the cap would increase or decrease based on demand
for the visas, subject to a maximum cap of 200,000. In addition, §409 would
establish an exemption from the Y-2B cap for workers who have been present in the
United States as Y-2B aliens in any one of the three fiscal years preceding the start
date of the new petition.
Z Nonimmigrants. S. 1639 also would establish another new nonimmigrant
category (the Z category) for certain alien workers in the United States. Although the
Z category would not be a traditional nonimmigrant worker category and would
provide a mechanism for certain unauthorized aliens to legalize their status,49 aliens
granted Z status would have work authorization (and some Z aliens would be
required to be employed full-time) and may perform the same type of lower-skilled
work as guest workers. Under Section 601 of S. 1639, the Secretary of DHS could
permit Z aliens to remain lawfully in the United States under specified conditions.
46 S. 1639 § 403(a) would define an alien admitted to the United States under the new Y-2
nonimmigrant classification as a “Y-2B nonimmigrant” or “Y-2B worker.”
47 Y-1 nonimmigrants who are accompanied by family members in Y-3 status would be
limited to one additional two-year period.
48 S. 1639 § 403(a) would define an alien admitted to the United States under the new Y-2
nonimmigrant classification as a “Y-2B nonimmigrant” or “Y-2B worker.”
49 While Z status would be available to otherwise eligible unauthorized aliens in the United
States, unlawful status would not be an explicit requirement for Z status. Instead, to be
eligible for Z status under §601, an alien could not have been lawfully present in the United
States on January 1, 2007, or on the date of application for Z status under any nonimmigrant
classification or any other immigration status made available under a treaty or other
multinational agreement ratified by the Senate.

CRS-33
The Z-1 classification would cover aliens who have been continuously physically
present in the United States since January 1, 2007, and are employed. The Z-2 and
Z-3 classification would cover specified family members of Z-1 aliens, where the
family members have been continuously physically present in the United States since
January 1, 2007. An alien making an initial application for Z-1 status would have to
pay a $1,000 penalty, as well as a $500 penalty for each alien seeking Z-2 or Z-3
status as the Z-1 applicant’s derivative. Section 601 of S. 1639 would provide for
certain applicants for Z status to receive probationary benefits in the form of
employment authorization pending final adjudication of their applications. The
period of admission for a Z nonimmigrant would be four years. Provided that the Z
nonimmigrant continued to be eligible for nonimmigrant status and met additional
specified requirements, the alien could seek an unlimited number of four-year
extensions of the period of admission. There would be no limitation on the number
of aliens who could be granted Z-1, Z-2, or Z-3 status.
The Secretary of DHS could adjust the status of a Z nonimmigrant to LPR status
if specified requirements are met. Among the requirements for a Z-1 nonimmigrant
to adjust status, the alien would need to have an approved immigrant petition; file an
adjustment of status application in person at a U.S. consulate abroad; and, if the
alien is a head of household, pay a $4,000 penalty at the time of submission of the
immigrant petition.
Bush Administration Proposal
On January 7, 2004, President Bush outlined an immigration reform proposal,
at the center of which was a new temporary worker program.50 The President
featured this proposal in his 2004, 2005, and 2006 State of the Union addresses.
According to a 2004 White House fact sheet on the proposal, the temporary worker
program would “match willing foreign workers with willing U.S. employers when
no Americans can be found to fill the jobs.” The program, which would grant
participants legal temporary status, would initially be open to both foreign workers
abroad and unauthorized aliens within the United States. At some future date,
however, it would be restricted to aliens outside the country. The temporary
workers’ authorized period of stay would be three years and would be renewable for
an unspecified period of time. Temporary workers would be able to travel back and
forth between their home countries and the United States, and, as stated in the
background briefing for reporters, would “enjoy the same protections that American
workers have with respect to wages and employment rights.” The proposal also
called for increased workplace enforcement of immigration laws.
50 The Administration did not offer a detailed legislative proposal. Some materials on the
Administration proposal, however, are available on the White House website. The
President’s January 7, 2004, remarks on the proposal are available at
[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040107-3.html]. A fact sheet
on the proposal, entitled Fair and Secure Immigration Reform is available at
[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040107-3.html]. The transcript
of a January 6, 2004 background briefing for reporters is available at
[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040106-3.html].

CRS-34
The proposal would not establish a special mechanism for participants in the
temporary worker program to obtain LPR status. According to the fact sheet, the
program “should not permit undocumented workers to gain an advantage over those
who have followed the rules.” Temporary workers would be expected to return to
their home countries at the end of their authorized period of stay, and the
Administration favored providing them with economic incentives to do so. As stated
in the fact sheet:
The U.S. will work with other countries to allow aliens working in the U.S. to
receive credit in their nations’ retirement systems and will support the creation
of tax-preferred savings accounts they can collect when they return to their native
countries.
Although it does not include a permanent legalization mechanism, the program
would not prohibit temporary workers from applying for legal permanent residency
under existing immigration law.
According to the Administration, the proposed temporary worker program
should support efforts to improve homeland security by controlling the U.S. borders.
The fact sheet states that “the program should link to efforts to control our border
through agreements with countries whose nationals participate in the program,” but
does not elaborate further on this issue.
At the October 2005 Senate Judiciary Committee hearing on comprehensive
immigration reform, Labor Secretary Elaine Chao reiterated the Administration’s
support for the immigration reform ideas that President Bush outlined in January
2004.51 She did not offer a detailed legislative proposal and did not take a position
on any of the pending immigration reform bills. Secretary Chao described the
Administration’s plan as having three components — border security, interior
enforcement, and a temporary worker program — and not allowing “amnesty.” She
maintained that “an improved temporary worker program will enhance border
security and interior enforcement by providing a workable and enforceable process
for hiring foreign workers.”
Both in her written testimony and in responses to Senators’ questions, Secretary
Chao made some general statements about the type of temporary worker program the
Administration favors. She made reference to “streamlining the process so that
willing workers can efficiently be matched with employers ... [when] there are no
willing U.S. workers.” Although she did not describe this streamlined process, she
did state that private for-profit or nonprofit organizations could play a role in
matching employers and workers. She also explained that under the President’s
temporary worker program, prospective employers would be subject to labor
certification, as they currently are under the H-2A and H-2B programs. In describing
how the President’s program would overcome problems in existing guest worker
programs, Secretary Chao referred generally to “a technologically advanced new
system” through which “workers will have visa documentation that clearly
establishes their eligibility to work” and “employers will have access to a verification
51 Secretary Chao’s written testimony is available at [http://judiciary.senate.gov/hearing
.cfm?id=1634].

CRS-35
system that enables them to quickly check the eligibility and verify the identity of
potential employees.”
On May 15, 2006, during Senate consideration of immigration reform
legislation,52 President Bush gave a national address on immigration reform. He
voiced support for comprehensive immigration reform that accomplished five
objectives, including creation of a temporary worker program. The President
maintained that a temporary worker program was needed to secure U.S. borders,
another of his five objectives. The President outlined the type of program he favors,
as follows:
I support a temporary worker program that would create a legal path for foreign
workers to enter our country in an orderly way, for a limited period of time. This
program would match willing foreign workers with willing American employers
for jobs Americans are not doing. Every worker who applies for the program
would be required to pass criminal background checks. And temporary workers
must return to their home country at the conclusion of their stay.
Policy Considerations
Issues raised in connection with temporary worker programs — such as U.S.
economic development, Mexican economic development, law enforcement, and
worker protections — coupled with the U.S. experience with the H-2A and H-2B
programs, suggest policy issues likely to arise in the evaluation of guest worker
proposals.
Comparison of Program Requirements
A new guest worker program could include agricultural workers or
nonagricultural workers or both. It could replace or supplement one or both of the
existing H-2A and H-2B programs. The assessment of any proposed program would
likely include a comparison of the requirements of the proposed and existing
programs, especially in the case of a new program covering both agricultural and
nonagricultural workers since current H-2A and H-2B requirements vary
considerably.
The area of wages provides an example. Under the H-2B program, employers
must pay their workers at least the prevailing wage rate. Employers importing
agricultural workers through the H-2A program are subject to potentially higher wage
requirements. As explained above, they must pay their workers the highest of the
minimum wage, the prevailing wage rate, or the AEWR. Therefore, a new guest
worker program that covered both agricultural and nonagricultural workers and
included a unified wage requirement would represent a change in existing wage
requirements for employers.
52 See above discussion of S. 2611 in the 109th Congress.

CRS-36
Eligible Population
A guest worker program could be limited to aliens within the country (many of
whom presumably would be unauthorized aliens) or to aliens outside the country or
could include both groups. The possible participation of illegal aliens in a guest
worker program is controversial. Some parties would likely see their inclusion as
rewarding lawbreakers and encouraging future unauthorized immigration, especially
if the program enabled some participants to obtain LPR status. The option of
excluding unauthorized aliens has raised another set of concerns. Some observers
maintain that a large guest worker program limited to new workers could leave
unauthorized aliens in the United States particularly vulnerable to exploitation by
unscrupulous employers. More generally, many who view a guest worker program
as a means of addressing the unauthorized alien problem see the inclusion of
unauthorized aliens as integral to any proposal.
Another eligibility question is whether the program would be limited to
nationals of certain countries. The Bush Administration began discussion of a guest
worker program with Mexico in 2001 as part of binational migration talks, and some
immigration experts maintain that “there are very good reasons for crafting a special
immigration relationship with Mexico, given its propinquity, its historical ties and
NAFTA.”53 Some immigrant advocacy groups, however, have argued that it would
be unfair to single out Mexicans for special treatment, especially if legalization were
part of the agreement.54
Legalization of Program Participants
The issue of whether to include a legalization or earned adjustment program as
part of a guest worker proposal is controversial. Earned adjustment is the term used
to describe legalization programs that require prospective beneficiaries to “earn” LPR
status through work and/or other contributions. Some see permanent legalization as
an essential element of a guest worker proposal,55 while others oppose the inclusion
of any type of LPR adjustment program. In the current debate, reference is often
made to two legalization programs established by the Immigration Reform and
Control Act (IRCA) of 1986: (1) a general program for unauthorized aliens who had
been continually resident in the United States since before January 1, 1982; and (2)
53 Comment of T. Alexander Aleinikoff, Migration Policy Institute. Quoted in Eric Schmitt,
“The Nation: Separate and Unequal; You Can Come In. You Stay Out,” New York Times,
July 29, 2001, Section 4, p. 5.
54 President Bush was asked in July 2001 whether an immigration proposal under
consideration at the time to legalize the status of some unauthorized Mexicans would be
expanded to cover immigrants from other countries. The President responded, “We’ll
consider all folks here,” but did not provide further details. See Edwin Chen and Jonathan
Peterson, “Bush Hints at Broader Amnesty,” Los Angeles Times, July 27, 2001, Part A, part
1, p. 1.
55 For example, in an August 2001 letter to President Bush and Mexican President Vicente
Fox setting forth the Democrats’ immigration principles, then-Senate Majority Leader
Thomas Daschle and then-House Minority Leader Richard Gephardt stated that “no
migration proposal can be complete without an earned adjustment program.”

CRS-37
a special agricultural worker (SAW) program for aliens who had worked at least 90
days in seasonal agriculture during a designated year-long period.56 Approximately
2.7 million individuals have adjusted to LPR status under these programs.57
Recent H-2A reform bills suggest a willingness on the part of some
policymakers to establish an earned adjustment program, at least for agricultural
workers. A key set of questions about any legalization mechanism proposed as part
of a guest worker program would concern the proposed legalization process and
associated requirements. Major H-2A reform proposals introduced in the 107th
Congress (S. 1313/H.R. 2736 and S. 1161), for example, would have established
similarly structured earned adjustment programs for agricultural workers. Under
both proposals, workers who had performed a requisite amount of agricultural work
could have applied for temporary resident status. After satisfying additional work
requirements in subsequent years, they could have applied for LPR status. The
applicable requirements in the proposals, however, differed significantly. For
temporary resident status, S. 1313/H.R. 2736 would have required the alien to have
performed at least 540 hours, or 90 work days, of agricultural work during a 12-
month period. S. 1161 would have required at least 900 hours, or 150 work days, of
agricultural work during a similar period. To qualify for adjustment to LPR status,
S. 1313/H.R. 2736 would have required at least 540 hours, or 90 work days, of
agricultural work in each of three years during a four-year period. S. 1161 would
have required at least 900 hours, or 150 work days, of agricultural work in each of
four years during a specified six-year period.
Various issues and concerns raised in connection with such earned adjustment
proposals for agricultural workers may be relevant in assessing other guest worker
legalization programs. Among these issues is the feasibility of program participants’
meeting the applicable requirements to obtain legal status. S. 1161, for example, was
criticized for incorporating work requirements for legalization that, some observers
said, many agricultural workers could not satisfy. It also has been argued that multi-
year work requirements could lead to exploitation, if workers were loathe to
complain about work-related matters for fear of being fired before they had worked
the requisite number of years. A possible countervailing set of considerations
involves the continued availability of workers for low-skilled industries, such as
agriculture, meat packing, and services industries. Some parties have expressed a
general concern that a quick legalization process with light work requirements could
soon deprive employers of needed workers, if some newly legalized workers were to
leave certain industries to pursue more desirable job opportunities.
56 P.L. 99-603, November 6, 1986. The general legalization program is at INA §245A, and
the SAW program is at INA §210.
57 Certain individuals who had not legalized under the general program and were participants
in specified class action lawsuits were given a new time-limited opportunity to adjust to
LPR status by the Legal Immigration Family Equity Act (LIFE; P.L. 106-553, Appendix B,
Title XI, December 21, 2000) and the LIFE Act Amendments (P.L. 106-554, Appendix D,
Title XV, December 21, 2000).

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Treatment of Family Members
The treatment of family members under a guest worker proposal is likely to be
an issue. Currently, the INA allows for the admission of the spouses and minor
children of alien workers on H-2A, H-2B and other “H” visas who are accompanying
the worker or following to join the worker in the United States. In considering any
new program, one question would be whether guest workers coming from abroad
could be accompanied by their spouses and children.
If the guest worker program in question were open to unauthorized aliens in the
United States, the issue of family members would become much more complicated.
Relevant questions would include the following: Would the unauthorized spouse
and/or minor children of the prospective guest worker be granted some type of legal
temporary resident status under the program? If not, would they be expected to
leave, or be removed from, the country? If the program had a legalization
component, would the spouse and children be eligible for LPR status as derivatives
of the guest worker?
The treatment of family members became a significant issue in the 1986
legalization programs described above. As enacted, IRCA required all aliens to
qualify for legalization on their own behalf; it made no provision for granting
derivative LPR status to spouses and children. Legalized aliens, thus, needed to file
immigrant visa petitions on behalf of their family members. These filings were
primarily in the family preference category covering spouses and children of LPRs
(category 2A) and had the effect of lengthening waiting times in this category.58 To
partially address the increased demand for visa numbers, the Immigration Act of
199059 made a limited number of additional visa numbers available for spouses and
children of IRCA-legalized aliens for FY1992 through FY1994. It also provided for
temporary stays of deportation and work authorization for certain spouses and
children of IRCA-legalized aliens in the United States.
As suggested by the experience of the IRCA programs, the treatment of family
members in any guest worker program with a legalization component could have
broad implications for the U.S. immigration system. Even in the absence of a
legalization component, however, the treatment of family members in a guest worker
program could have important ramifications. With respect to the program itself, for
example, it could affect the willingness of aliens to apply to participate.
Labor Market Test
A key question about any guest worker program is the type of labor market
conditions that would have to exist, if any, in order for an employer to import alien
workers.60 Under both the H-2A and H-2B programs, employers interested in hiring
58 See CRS Report RL32235.
59 P.L. 101-649, November 29, 1990.
60 Questions about the existence of industry-wide labor shortages are outside the scope of
this report. For a discussion of the shortage issue with respect to agriculture, see CRS
(continued...)

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foreign workers must first go through the process of labor certification. Intended to
protect job opportunities for U.S. workers, labor certification entails a determination
of whether qualified U.S. workers are available to perform the needed work and
whether the hiring of foreign workers will adversely affect the wages and working
conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers. As described above, recruitment is
the primary method used to determine U.S. worker availability. While there is
widespread agreement on the goals of labor certification, the process itself has been
criticized for being cumbersome, slow, and ineffective in protecting U.S. workers.61
A proposed guest worker program could retain some form of labor certification
or could establish a different process for determining if employers could bring in
foreign workers. As described above, past legislative proposals to reform the H-2A
program sought to overhaul current labor certification requirements by, for example,
establishing a system of worker registries. Another option suggested by some in H-
2A reform debates is to adopt the more streamlined labor market test used in the
temporary worker program for professional specialty workers (H-1B program). That
test, known as labor attestation, requires employers to attest to various conditions.
Some argue that labor attestation is inadequate for unskilled jobs without educational
requirements. Assuming that protecting U.S. workers remained a policy priority, the
labor market test incorporated in any guest worker program would need to be
evaluated to determine whether it would likely serve this purpose.
Numerical Limits
Related to the issues of labor market tests and U.S. worker protections is the
question of numerical limitations on a guest worker program. A numerical cap
provides a means, separate from the labor market test, of limiting the number of
foreign workers. Currently, as explained above, the H-2A program is not numerically
limited, while the H-2B program is capped at 66,000 annually. Like the H-2B
program, other capped temporary worker programs have fixed statutory numerical
limits. By contrast, a guest worker program that was outlined by former Senator Phil
Gramm during the 107th Congress, but never introduced as legislation, included a
different type of numerical cap — one that would have varied annually based on
regional unemployment rates. According to the program prospectus released by
Senator Gramm:
Except for seasonal work, the number of guest workers permitted to enroll would
be adjusted annually in response to changes in U.S. economic conditions,
specifically unemployment rates, on a region-by-region basis.
Numerical limitations also are relevant in the context of unauthorized
immigration. Some view a temporary worker program as a way to begin reducing the
60 (...continued)
Report RL30395, Farm Labor Shortages and Immigration Policy, by Linda Levine. Also
see CRS Report 95-712, The Effects on U.S. Farm Workers of an Agricultural Guest Worker
Program
, by Linda Levine.
61 See U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Inspector General, Consolidation of Labor’s
Enforcement Responsibilities for the H-2A Program Could Better Protect U.S. Agricultural
Workers
, Report Number 04-98-004-03-321, March 31, 1998.

CRS-40
size of the current unauthorized alien population and/or future inflows. In light of
the estimated current size and annual growth rate of the unauthorized population, it
could be argued that a guest worker program would need to be sizeable to have any
significant impact. On the other hand, critics contend that a guest worker program,
especially a large one, would be a counterproductive means of controlling
unauthorized immigration. In their view, temporary worker programs serve to
increase, not reduce, the size of the unauthorized population.
Enforcement
Another important consideration is how the terms of a guest worker program
would be enforced. Relevant questions include what types of mechanisms would be
used to ensure that employers complied with program requirements. With respect to
the H-2A program, for example, the INA authorizes the Labor Secretary to —
take such actions, including imposing appropriate penalties and seeking
appropriate injunctive relief and specific performance of contractual obligations,
as may be necessary to assure employer compliance with terms and conditions
of employment ...62
A related question is whether the enforcement system would be complaint-driven or
whether the appropriate entity could take action in the absence of a specific
complaint.
Another enforcement-related question is what type of mechanism, if any, would
be used to ensure that guest workers departed the country at the end of their
authorized period of stay. Historically, the removal of aliens who have overstayed
their visas and thereby lapsed into unauthorized status, but have not committed
crimes, has not been a priority of the U.S. immigration system. Some have suggested
that a large scale guest worker program could help address the problem of visa
overstaying and unauthorized immigration generally by severely limiting job
opportunities for unauthorized aliens. Others doubt, however, that large numbers of
unauthorized residents would voluntarily leave the country; as explained above, they
argue instead that a new guest worker program would likely increase the size of the
unauthorized alien population as many guest workers opted to overstay their visas.
Other ideas have been put forth to facilitate the departure of temporary workers
at the end of their authorized period of stay. One suggestion is to involve the
workers’ home countries in the guest worker program. Another option is to create
an incentive for foreign workers to leave the United States by, for example,
withholding or otherwise setting aside a sum of money for each worker that would
only become available once the worker returned home. In evaluating any such
financially based incentive system, it may be useful to consider, among other
questions, how much money would be available to a typical worker and whether such
an amount would likely provide an adequate incentive to return home.
62 INA §218(g)(2).

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Homeland Security
A final consideration relates to border and homeland security, matters of
heightened concern since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Supporters of
new temporary worker programs argue that such programs would make the United
States more secure. They cite security-related benefits of knowing the identities of
currently unknown individuals in the country and of legalizing the inflow of alien
workers and thereby freeing border personnel to concentrate on potential criminal
and terrorist threats. Opponents reject the idea that guest worker programs improve
homeland security and generally focus on the dangers of rewarding immigration law
violators with temporary or permanent legal status. Security concerns may affect
various aspects of a temporary worker program. Possible security-related provisions
that may be considered as part of a new guest worker program include special
screening of participants, monitoring while in the United States, and issuance of
fraud-resistant documents.
Conclusion
The question of a new guest worker program is controversial. A key reason for
this is the interrelationship between the recent discussion of guest worker programs
and the issue of unauthorized immigration. The size of the current resident
unauthorized alien population in the United States, along with continued
unauthorized immigration and related deaths at the U.S.-Mexico border, are major
factors cited in support of a new temporary worker program. At the same time, the
importance of enforcing immigration law and not rewarding illegal aliens with any
type of legalized status are primary reasons cited in opposition to such a program.
It would seem that some bridging of this gap on the unauthorized alien question —
perhaps in some of the areas analyzed above — would be a prerequisite to gaining
broad support for a guest worker proposal.