Order Code RS20702
Updated June 1, 2007
South Florida Ecosystem Restoration and the
Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan
Pervaze A. Sheikh and Nicole T. Carter
Analysts in Environmental Policy and Natural Resources
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Summary
The Everglades, a unique network of subtropical wetlands in Florida, is now half
its original size. Many factors contributed to its decline, including flood control projects
and agricultural and urban development. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps)
and other federal, state, tribal, and local agencies collaborated to develop a
Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP, or the plan). CERP aims to
increase storage of wet season waters to augment the water supplies available during the
dry season for both the natural system and urban and agricultural users. The plan
consists of more than 60 projects estimated to take more than 30 years and $10.9 billion
to complete. The Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 2000 (P.L.106-541)
approved the CERP framework and authorized a first set of projects at $1.4 billion.
WRDA 2000 established that CERP costs would be split; the federal government would
pay half the construction and operation costs, and an array of state, tribal, and local
agencies the other half. Issues since 2000 include authorizations for additional CERP
projects (including those in the pending WRDA 2007, H.R. 1495); project priorities and
funding; timeliness and effectiveness of restoration efforts; mitigation of excess
phosphorous; and technological uncertainties. This report summarizes the restoration
efforts and how implementation issues are shaping these efforts.
Introduction
The Water Resources Development Act of 2000 (Title VI, P.L. 106-541)1 authorized
involvement of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) in projects to restore the
Everglades; these projects are coordinated under a planning framework — the
Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP or the plan). The Everglades is the
defining component of the South Florida ecosystem (see Figure 1), which incorporates
1 For more information on WRDA legislation, see CRS Report RL33504, Water Resources
Development Act (WRDA): Corps of Engineers Project Authorization Issues
, coordinated by
Nicole T. Carter. Both the House and Senate have passed a version of WRDA 2007 (H.R. 1495).


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16 national wildlife refuges and four national park units. South Florida is also home to
more than six million people and a large agricultural economy. There is wide agreement
that major changes in water quantity, quality, timing, and distribution since the 1950s
have significantly altered the region’s ecology. During the dry season, the current water
regime in South Florida is unable to sufficiently supply freshwater to meet both natural
system needs and urban and agricultural demand. Water shortages, like those affecting
Florida in 2007 because of lower than normal rainfall, are expected to become more
frequent as demand by urban and agricultural consumers increases.
Figure 1. Principal Components of the South Florida Ecosystem
Everglades History
The Everglades is a network of subtropical wetland landscapes that once stretched
220 miles from Orlando to Florida Bay. Several hundred lakes fed slow-moving creeks,
called sloughs, that joined the Kissimmee River. Depending on rainfall, water flowed
south down the river or topped the river’s banks and flowed through 40,000 acres of
marsh to Lake Okeechobee. During the summer rainy season, the lake would overflow
its southern shore, spilling water into the Everglades. Due to flat topography, this water
moved slowly south to Florida Bay through a shallow 40-mile wide, 100-mile long
sawgrass marsh. These wetlands acted as natural filters and retention areas that recharged
underlying aquifers. The Everglades’ combination of abundant moisture, rich soils, and
subtropical temperatures supported a vast array of species. However, by the mid-1800s,
many in South Florida viewed the Everglades as an unproductive swamp. Flood control
and reclamation efforts that manipulated the Everglades hydrology allowed development
of the East Coast of Florida and permitted agriculture on reclaimed marshland. Principal

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among the human interventions affecting the Everglades is the Corps’ Central and
Southern Florida (C&SF) project, which was first authorized by Congress in 1948 to
control floods and to satisfy other water management needs of South Florida. Water
flows in South Florida are now directed by 1,000 miles of canals, 720 miles of levees, and
almost 200 water control structures.
Current Conditions and Recent Restoration Efforts
Management and development activities have markedly changed the Everglades’
water regime. Because of the C&SF project, water that once flowed from Lake
Okeechobee across the Everglades in a slow-moving sheet is directed into canals and
rivers discharging directly to the ocean. Experts now believe that the Everglades
ecosystem has changed because it now receives less water during the dry season and more
during the rainy season. The altered water regime combined with urban and agricultural
development have reduced the Everglades to half its original size. Habitat loss has
threatened or endangered numerous plant and animal species.
The Everglades is also harmed by degraded water quality. Pollutants from urban
areas and agricultural runoff, including excess nutrients (such as phosphorous and
nitrogen), metals, and pesticides, have harmed plant and animal populations. Nutrients
entering the Everglades have caused a decline in native vegetation and an overabundance
of invasive exotic species. Changes in the quantity, quality, and timing of freshwater
flows have also disrupted the equilibrium of coastal estuaries and reef systems.
The federal government and the State of Florida have undertaken many restoration
activities, such as acquiring lands and preparing a multi-species recovery plan, to address
the health of the Everglades. The South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force (Task
Force), which was formalized by WRDA 1996 (P.L. 104-303), coordinates the numerous
restoration activities. The Task Force facilitates restoration using the following goals: (1)
“get the water right,” (2) restore, preserve, and protect natural habitats and species, and
(3) foster compatibility of built and natural systems. Achieving these goals for South
Florida is estimated at nearly $20 billion, of which $10.9 billion would be spent under
CERP. The plan is the principal mechanism for “getting the water right” (i.e., restoring
natural hydrologic functions and water quality, and providing water supplies).
Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan
CERP focuses on water quantity, quality, timing, and distribution. The plan is
designed to capture and store freshwater, which is currently discharged to the ocean, for
use during the dry season. An estimated 80% of the captured water would be directed to
the natural system, and the remaining 20% would be for agricultural and urban
consumption. CERP calls for removing 240 miles of levees and canals, and building a
network of reservoirs, underground storage wells, and pumping stations that would
capture water and redistribute it to replicate natural flow.
Authorizations and Appropriations. Title VI of WRDA 2000 approved CERP
as contained in the Final Integrated Feasibility Report and Programmatic Environmental
Impact Statement
, as modified by the act. It also authorized $700 million in federal funds
for an initial set of CERP projects. As other CERP projects are prepared, the

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Administration proposes them for authorization and inclusion in the next WRDA. The
Corps has proposed two CERP projects for authorization — the Indian River Lagoon
(IRL) and Picayune Strand restoration projects (estimated total costs of $1.4 billion and
$375 million, respectively).2 They are included in the House and Senate versions of
WRDA 2007 (H.R. 1495) being considered by the 110th Congress.
Title VI of WRDA 2000 established that construction as well as operation and
maintenance costs of CERP projects would be equally shared by Floridian stakeholders
and the federal government.3 CERP authorization was achieved after years of delicate
negotiations among federal, state, local, and tribal stakeholders. Federal agencies
responsible for components of CERP receive appropriations for these activities through
their annual appropriations bills. Information on the status of appropriations for CERP
activities performed by the Corps is available in CRS Report RL34009, Energy and Water
Development: FY2008 Appropriations
, coordinated by Carl Behrens. Appropriations
status for CERP activities performed by Department of the Interior agencies is available
in CRS Report RL34011, Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies: FY2008
Appropriations
, coordinated by Carol Hardy-Vincent.
Current CERP Issues
While support for CERP approval was rather broad, some reservations remain over
its implementation. Recent concerns have included how projects are being prioritized,
the pace of federal efforts and investments, and the pace of mitigation efforts for excess
phosphorous. Other issues include effectiveness of restoration efforts and uncertainties
in technologies.
Project Priorities, Costs, and Funding. Since enactment of WRDA 2000,
$0.37 billion in federal funds and $1.63 billion in state funds have been put toward CERP
projects.4 Much of the state’s funds have gone toward projects that are part of the state’s
Acceler8 effort to accelerate the design, construction, and funding for eight priority CERP
projects. Some stakeholders are concerned that the Acceler8 prioritization may increase
effort on meeting water supply needs of agricultural and urban users, and decrease
attention to investments for ecosystem restoration. This concern is raised by those
wanting to maintain a focus on restoration and by those concerned with the Corps’
mission being expanded into water supply projects for municipal and agricultural users.
Proponents of Accerler8 argue that the priority projects have both water supply and
restoration benefits and were agreed to as part of the CERP program; these proponents
also perceive the pace of federal funding as being too slow.
Federal water resources policies justify federal participation in ecosystem restoration
projects, like CERP projects, based on the projects’ environmental benefits for the nation.
2 For more information on these projects, see CRS Report RL33504, Water Resources
Development Act (WRDA): Corps of Engineers Authorization Issues.

3 Operation and maintenance costs are estimated at more than $180 million annually for the
completed plan.
4 Sine WRDA 2000, $2.44 billion in federal funds and $3.85 billion in state funds have been put
toward Everglades restoration activities undertaken outside of the CERP framework.

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A concern of some stakeholders is that some specific Everglades restoration projects
proposed for authorization or under development have primarily local benefits, rather than
national benefits.5 Another concern has been that the CERP costs have increased, with
increasing costs associated with land acquisition being one factor. Acceler8 proponents
argue that these increasing costs are a reason to move more quickly. The increasing costs
are of particular concern to stakeholders who worry that the commitment of federal funds
to CERP might limit the funds available for other ecosystem restoration projects across
the nation. The sponsors and beneficiaries of traditional Corps projects that provide
navigation and flood control are concerned that not only Everglades restoration but also
other large-scale restoration activities, such as wetlands restoration in coastal Louisiana,
may divert funds away from their projects.
Timely Completion of Restoration. No CERP projects have been completed
since enactment, and all 15 CERP components scheduled for completion by 2007 have
been delayed.6 There exists serious concern that delays may jeopardize the plan’s
feasibility. For example, delays in the Modified Waters Deliveries Project (Mod Waters),
a pre-CERP project to restore flows to Everglades National Park, may result in
insufficient water flows for the implementation of CERP components on the eastern side
of the Everglades National Park. This interdependency of CERP and non-CERP projects
for achieving ecosystem restoration goals was codified in WRDA 2000, which restricted
appropriations for specific components of CERP until Mod Waters is complete.
Phosphorus Mitigation. Another area of controversy that is related to potential
delays in restoration stems from a May 2003 Florida state law (Chapter 2003-12)7 that
authorizes a plan to mitigate phosphorus pollution reaching the Everglades. Some critics
of the law argue that the plan extends previously established phosphorus mitigation
deadlines and may compromise restoration efforts. The law’s proponents argue that the
plan represents a realistic strategy for curbing phosphorus. In the Interior and Related
Agencies Appropriations Act, FY2006 (P.L. 109-54) there are several provisions that
condition funds for restoration on the achievement of water quality standards in federal
properties.8 These provisions were also included in the FY2004 and FY2005 Interior
appropriations. If water quality standards are not achieved, appropriations for restoration
5 For example, some stakeholders argue that the Indian River Lagoon Project should be
authorized because it would restore an estuary of national significance. The project would
restore the seabed floor, revive bottom-dwelling communities, and enable excess freshwater to
be stored in reservoirs, instead of being dumped into the ocean. Some critics contend that the
restoration of IRL would largely serve local interests and that environmental benefits largely
would be contained and not spread throughout the Everglades ecosystem.
6 National Research Council (NRC), Progress Toward Restoring the Everglades: The First
Biennial Review, 2006
, Prepublication version (Washington, DC: September 27, 2006).
7 This law amends the Everglades Forever Act of 1994 (Florida Statutes §373.4592). Excess
phosphorus is one of the primary water pollutants in the Everglades and is generally attributed
to agricultural runoff. Excessive levels of phosphorus and other nutrients stimulate the
conversion of native sawgrass marshes and sloughs to vegetation stands dominated by cattails.
This conversion has resulted in less habitat for wading birds and other wildlife.
8 For information on FY2007 Interior appropriations, see CRS Report RL33399, Interior,
Environment, and Related Agencies: FY2007 Appropriations
, coordinated by Carol Hardy-
Vincent.

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may be reduced according to provisions in these acts. The enacted language indicates
congressional interest in overseeing the achievement of water quality standards for waters
entering federal lands in Florida.
Restoration Effectiveness. Some environmental groups question the extent to
which CERP contributes to Everglades restoration and whether so complicated and costly
a plan is necessary. There also is concern that the plan does not include enough measures
to improve water quality in the Everglades. Some groups and federal agencies have noted
that CERP does not explicitly give natural systems precedence in water allocation, and
that it is focused first on water supply rather than on ecological restoration. To address
this point, the Corps revised the project implementation sequencing to include restoration
activities in earlier phases. These changes have not satisfied some groups and scientists
who continue to oppose CERP. Some environmental groups, which support CERP and
Florida’s financial participation in the effort, worry about the source of Florida’s
contribution. They argue against using funds designated for the purchase of land needed
for restoration to finance other types of CERP projects. These groups contend that land
acquisition is essential for successful Everglades restoration. A report by the National
Research Council also suggests that acquiring needed land early in the restoration process
is important for lowering the potential for irreversible damage due to development within
the Greater Everglades.9
Others have raised questions regarding the management of Lake Okeechobee and
other aspects of flood management for central Florida on the Caloosahatchee River’s
ecosystem and how these water management issues are being integrated into Everglades
restoration efforts and planning. Others also have questioned the extent to which the
impacts of sea level rise and climate change have been integrated into CERP, and their
potential effects on the future of the Everglades ecosystem.
Technological and Cost Uncertainties. Ecosystem restoration is a relatively
young applied science, and, in many cases, the technologies and scientific data to support
it are still being developed. To manage the resulting uncertainty, CERP is being
implemented using adaptive management — a flexible learning-based approach that
integrates new information into the restoration effort as it proceeds. Consequently, CERP
is not as detailed as a typical Corps feasibility proposal. Another mechanism for coping
with uncertainty of ecosystem restoration outcomes is the use of pilot projects. WRDA
2000 authorized four pilot projects, including projects to test aquifer storage and recovery
(ASR), a water management strategy that has never been used on such a large scale as
proposed under CERP. ASR uses aquifers as underground reservoirs to store surface
water that will be withdrawn later during dry periods. These pilot projects have not been
completed, and as a result, there are uncertainties in their effectiveness of early water
storage projects.10
9 NRC, Re-engineering Water Storage in the Everglades: Risks and Opportunities (Washington,
DC: January 2005).
10 NRC, Progress Toward Restoring the Everglades: The First Biennial Review, 2006.