Order Code RL31339
Iraq: Post-Saddam
Governance and Security
Updated March 27, 2007
Kenneth Katzman
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division

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Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security
Summary
Operation Iraqi Freedom overthrew Saddam Hussein’s regime, but Iraq
remains unstable because of Sunni Arab resentment and a related insurgency,
compounded by Sunni-Shiite violence that a January 2007 national intelligence
estimate (NIE) says has key elements of a “civil war.” Mounting U.S. casualties
and financial costs — without clear improvements in levels of violence — have
intensified a debate within the United States over whether to wind down U.S.
involvement without completely accomplishing initial U.S. goals. U.S. Defense
Department reports, the December 6, 2006, report of the Iraq Study Group, and the
NIE express pessimism about security in Iraq, although U.S. officials say the 2007
Baghdad security plan is producing some reduction of sectarian violence.

In an effort to counter these trends, President Bush addressed the nation on new
initiatives in Iraq on January 10, 2007 and announced a deployment of at least an
additional 21,500 U.S. combat forces to help stabilize Baghdad and restive Anbar
Province, as well as other measures to create jobs and promote political
reconciliation. He and other officials have asserted that the new security plan would
build on important successes: two elections (January and December 2005) that
chose an interim and then a full-term parliament and government; a referendum that
adopted a permanent constitution (October 15, 2005); progress in building Iraq’s
security forces; and economic growth. While continuing to build, equip, and train
Iraqi security units, the Administration has worked to include more Sunni Arabs in
the power structure, particularly the security institutions.
Some in Congress — as well as the Iraq Study Group — believe that the United
States should begin winding down U.S. combat involvement in Iraq. A House
resolution adopted on February 16, 2007, opposed the sending of additional forces.
On two occasions in February, the Senate did not invoke cloture to vote on similar
measures (S.Con.Res. 2 and S. 574, respectively). On March 23, 2007, the House
passed a binding amendment to an FY2007 supplemental appropriation request (H.R.
1591) that would set a September 1, 2008, deadline for U.S. combat withdrawal —
or sooner, depending on Iraqi progress on reconciliation. The Senate version (S.
965) would set March 1, 2008 as a non-binding goal for U.S. combat withdrawal.
Other bills support the Iraq Study Group’s recommendation for intensified regional
diplomacy to enlist help from neighboring states to calm their protege factions in
Iraq. This is a step the Administration has begun to take by participating in a March
10 meeting in Baghdad involving Iraq’s neighbors, including Iran and Syria.
This report is updated regularly. See also CRS Report RS21968, Iraq:
Elections, Government, and Constitution, by Kenneth Katzman; CRS Report
RL31833, Iraq: Recent Developments in Reconstruction Assistance, by Curt Tarnoff;
CRS Report RL31701, Iraq: U.S. Military Operations, by Steve Bowman; and CRS
Report RL33793, Iraq: Regional Perspectives and U.S. Policy, coordinated by
Christopher Blanchard.

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Contents
Policy in the 1990s Emphasized Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Clinton Administration and Major Anti-Saddam Factions . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Secular Groups: Iraqi National Congress (INC) and Iraq
National Accord (INA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Kurds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Shiite Islamists: Ayatollah Sistani, SCIRI, Da’wa Party, and Sadr . . . 4
Iraq Liberation Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Post-September 11, 2001: Regime Change and War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Post-Saddam Governance and Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Early Transition Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Occupation Period/Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) . . . . . . . . 12
Transitional Administrative Law (TAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Sovereignty Handover/Interim (Allawi) Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
U.N. Backing of Sovereign Government/Coalition Military
Mandate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Post-Handover U.S. Structure in Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Elections in 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Permanent Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
December 15, 2005, Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Maliki Government and Milestones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Regional and International Diplomatic Efforts to Promote
Iraq Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Democracy-Building and Local Governance/FY2006 Supplemental . 22
Economic Reconstruction and U.S. Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Oil Revenues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Lifting U.S. Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Debt Relief/WTO Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Security Challenges, Responses, and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Sunni Arab-Led Insurgency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Al Qaeda in Iraq/Zarqawi Faction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Sectarian Violence and Shiite Militias/Civil War? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Iranian Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
U.S. Efforts to Restore Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
“Clear, Hold, and Build”Strategy/Provincial Reconstruction
Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
U.S. Counter-Insurgent Combat Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
January 10, 2007, Security Plan and Troop “Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Building Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
ISF Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Coalition-Building and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

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President’s January 10 Initiative, Iraq Study Group Report, Legislation,
and Other Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Altering Troop Levels or Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Troop Increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Immediate Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Withdrawal Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Troop Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
International and Regional Diplomacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Political Reconciliation and Reorganization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Reorganize the Power Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Decentralization and Break-Up Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Negotiating With Insurgents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
“Coup” or “Strongman” Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Economic Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
List of Figures
Figure 1. Map of Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
List of Tables
Table 1. Major Shiite, Kurdish, and Secular Factions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Table 2. Major Sunni Factions in Post-Saddam Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 3. Selected Key Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 4. Key Security/Violence Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Table 5. Ministry of Defense Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Table 6. Ministry of Interior Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 7. U.S. Aid (ESF) to Iraq’s Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

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Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance
and Security
Iraq has not previously had experience with a democratic form of government,
although parliamentary elections were held during the period of British rule under a
League of Nations mandate (from 1920 until Iraq’s independence in 1932), and the
monarchy of the Sunni Muslim Hashemite dynasty (1921-1958). The territory that
is now Iraq was formed from three provinces of the Ottoman empire after British
forces defeated the Ottomans in World War I and took control of the territory in
1918. Britain had tried to take Iraq from the Ottomans earlier in World War I but
were defeated at Al Kut in 1916. Britain’s presence in Iraq, which relied on Sunni
Muslim Iraqis (as did the Ottoman administration), ran into repeated resistance,
facing a major Shiite-led revolt in 1920 and a major anti-British uprising in 1941,
during World War II. Iraq’s first Hashemite king was Faysal bin Hussein, son of
Sharif Hussein of Mecca who, advised by British officer T.E Lawrence (“Lawrence
of Arabia”), led the Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire during World War I.
Faysal ruled Iraq as King Faysal I and was succeeded by his son, Ghazi, who was
killed in a car accident in 1939. Ghazi was succeeded by his son, Faysal II, who was
only four years old.
A major figure under the British mandate and the monarchy was Nuri As-Said,
a pro-British, pro-Hashemite Sunni Muslim who served as prime minister 14 times
during 1930-1958. Faysal II, with the help of his pro-British Prime Minister Nuri al-
Sa’id who had also served under his predecessors, ruled until the military coup of
Abd al-Karim al-Qasim on July 14, 1958. Qasim was ousted in February 1963 by a
Baath Party-military alliance. Since that same year, the Baath Party has ruled in
Syria, although there was rivalry between the Syrian and Iraqi Baath regimes during
Saddam’s rule. The Baath Party was founded in the 1940s by Lebanese Christian
philosopher Michel Aflaq as a socialist, pan-Arab movement, the aim of which was
to reduce religious and sectarian schisms among Arabs.
One of the Baath Party’s allies in the February 1963 coup was Abd al-Salam al-
Arif. In November 1963, Arif purged the Baath, including Baathist Prime Minister
(and military officer) Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr, and instituted direct military rule. Arif
was killed in a helicopter crash in 1966 and was replaced by his elder brother, Abd
al-Rahim al-Arif, who ruled until the Baath Party coup of July 1968. Following the
Baath seizure, Bakr returned to government as President of Iraq and Saddam Hussein,
a civilian, became the second most powerful leader as Vice Chairman of the
Revolutionary Command Council. In that position, Saddam developed overlapping
security services to monitor loyalty among the population and within Iraq’s
institutions, including the military. On July 17, 1979, the aging al-Bakr resigned at
Saddam’s urging, and Saddam became President of Iraq. Under Saddam Hussein,
secular Shiites held high party positions, but Sunnis, mostly from Saddam’s home
town of Tikrit, dominated the highest party and security positions. Saddam’s regime
repressed Iraq’s Shiites after the February 1979 Islamic revolution in neighboring

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CRS-2
Iran partly because Iraq feared that Iraqi Shiite Islamist movements, emboldened by
Iran, would try to establish an Iranian-style Islamic republic of Iraq.
Policy in the 1990s Emphasized Containment
Prior to the January 16, 1991, launch of Operation Desert Storm to reverse
Iraq’s August 1990 invasion of Kuwait, President George H.W. Bush called on the
Iraqi people to overthrow Saddam. That Administration decided not to try to do so
militarily because (1) the United Nations had approved only the liberation of Kuwait;
(2) Arab states in the coalition opposed an advance to Baghdad; and (3) the
Administration feared becoming bogged down in a high-casualty occupation.1
Within days of the war’s end (February 28, 1991), Shiite Muslims in southern Iraq
and Kurds in northern Iraq, emboldened by the regime’s defeat and the hope of U.S.
support, rebelled. The Shiite revolt nearly reached Baghdad, but the mostly Sunni
Muslim Republican Guard forces were pulled back into Iraq before engaging U.S.
forces and were intact to suppress the rebellion. Many Iraqi Shiites blamed the
United States for not intervening on their behalf. Iraq’s Kurds, benefitting from a
U.S.-led “no fly zone” set up in April 1991, drove Iraqi troops out of much of
northern Iraq and remained autonomous thereafter.
Subsequent to the war, the thrust of U.S. policy was containment, consisting of
U.N. Security Council-authorized weapons inspections, an international economic
embargo, and U.S.-led enforcement of “no fly zones” over northern and southern
Iraq.2 However, President George H.W. Bush did pursue regime change as well, to
some extent, including reportedly sending Congress an intelligence finding that the
United States would try to promote a military coup against Saddam Hussein. The
Administration apparently believed that a coup from within the regime could produce
a favorable government without fragmenting Iraq. After a reported July 1992 coup
failed, there was a U.S. decision to shift to supporting the Kurdish, Shiite, and other
oppositionists that were coalescing into a broad movement.3 However, the United
States did not undertake any military action specifically on behalf of these groups.
The Clinton Administration and Major Anti-Saddam Factions
During the Clinton Administration, the United States built ties to and
progressively increased support for several of the secular and religious opposition
factions discussed below. Some of these factions have provided major figures in
1 Bush, George H.W., and Brent Scowcroft. A World Transformed. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
1998.
2 The implementation of these policies is discussed in CRS Report RL32379, Iraq: Former
Regime Weapons Programs, Human Rights Violations, and U.S. Policy, by Kenneth
Katzman.
3 Congress more than doubled the budget for covert support to the opposition groups to
about $40 million for FY1993, from previous reported levels of about $15 million to $20
million. Sciolino, Elaine. “Greater U.S. Effort Backed To Oust Iraqi.” New York Times,
June 2, 1992.

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CRS-3
post-Saddam politics, while also fielding militias that are allegedly conducting acts
of sectarian reprisals in post-Saddam Iraq.
Secular Groups: Iraqi National Congress (INC) and Iraq National
Accord (INA). In 1992, the two main Kurdish parties and several Shiite Islamist
groups coalesced into the “Iraqi National Congress (INC),” on a platform of human
rights, democracy, pluralism, and “federalism” (Kurdish autonomy). However, many
observers doubted its commitment to democracy, because most of its groups had
authoritarian leaderships. The INC’s Executive Committee selected Ahmad Chalabi,
a secular Shiite Muslim from a prominent banking family, to run the INC on a daily
basis. (A table on U.S. appropriations for the Iraqi opposition, including the INC, is
an appendix).4
Another secular group, the Iraq National Accord (INA), was founded after Iraq’s
1990 invasion of Kuwait, was supported initially by Saudi Arabia but reportedly later
earned the patronage of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).5 It is led by Dr. Iyad
al-Allawi. The INA enjoyed Clinton Administration support in 1996 after squabbling
among other opposition groups reduced their viability,6 but the INA was penetrated
by Iraq’s intelligence services, which arrested or executed over 100 INA activists in
June 1996. In August 1996, Baghdad launched a military incursion into northern
Iraq, at the invitation of the KDP, to help it capture Irbil from the PUK. The
incursion enabled Baghdad to rout INC and INA agents in the north.
The Kurds. The Kurds, who are mostly Sunni Muslims but are not Arabs, are
probably the most pro-U.S. of all major groups. Historically fearful of persecution
by the Arab majority, the Kurds want to, at the very least, preserve the autonomy of
the post-1991 Gulf war period. The Kurds, both through legal procedures as well as
population movements, are trying to secure the mixed city of Kirkuk, which the
Kurds covet as a source of oil. The Kurds achieved insertion of language in the
permanent constitution requiring a vote by December 2007 on whether Kirkuk might
formally join the Kurdish administered region. (The Iraq Study Group report,
released December 6, 2006, in Recommendation 30 believes that this referendum
should be delayed.)7 For now, both major Kurdish factions — the Patriotic Union
of Kurdistan (PUK) led by Jalal Talabani, and the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP)
led by Masud Barzani — are participating in Iraqi politics, the PUK more so than the
KDP. Talabani is Iraq’s president; Barzani, on June 12, 2005, was named “president
4 Chalabi’s father was president of the Senate in the monarchy that was overthrown in the
1958 military coup, and the family fled to Jordan. He taught math at the American
University of Beirut in 1977 and, in 1978, he founded the Petra Bank in Jordan. He later ran
afoul of Jordanian authorities on charges of embezzlement and he left Jordan, possibly with
some help from members of Jordan’s royal family, in 1989. In April 1992, he was convicted
in absentia of embezzling $70 million from the bank and sentenced to 22 years in prison.
The Jordanian government subsequently repaid depositors a total of $400 million.
5 Brinkley, Joel. “Ex-CIA Aides Say Iraq Leader Helped Agency in 90’s Attacks,” New
York Times, June 9, 2004.
6 An account of this shift in U.S. strategy is essayed in Hoagland, Jim. “How CIA’s Secret
War On Saddam Collapsed,” Washington Post, June 26, 1997.
7 The report can be obtained at [http://www.usip.org].

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CRS-4
of Kurdistan” by the 111-seat Kurdish regional assembly (elected January 30, 2005).8
Both factions were extensively involved in the drafting of the oil law now pending
before the Iraqi parliament; the draft would give the Kurdish regional government a
role in signing oil contracts with foreign investing firms.
Shiite Islamists: Ayatollah Sistani, SCIRI, Da’wa Party, and Sadr.
Shiite Islamist organizations have become dominant in post-Saddam politics; Shiites
constitute about 60% of the population but were under-represented in all pre-2003
governments. Several Shiite factions cooperated with the U.S. regime change efforts
of the 1990s, but others had no contact with the United States. The undisputed Shiite
religious leader, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, remained in Iraq, albeit with a low
profile, during Saddam Hussein’s regime, and he was not involved in U.S.-backed
regime change efforts during the 1990s. As the “marja-e-taqlid” (source of
emulation) and the most senior of the four Shiite clerics that lead the Najaf-based
“Hawza al-Ilmiyah” (a grouping of seminaries), he is a major political force in post-
Saddam politics.9 He has a network of agents (wakils) throughout Iraq and among
Shiites outside Iraq.
About 85 years old, Sistani was born in Iran and studied in Qom, Iran, before
relocating to Najaf at the age of 21. His mentor, was Ayatollah Abol Qasem Musavi-
Khoi, was head of the Hawza until his death in 1992. Like Khoi, Sistani generally
opposes a direct role for clerics in government, but he believes in clerical supervision
of political leaders. He wants Iraq to maintain its Islamic culture and favors modest
dress for women, and curbs on sales of alcohol and Western music and
entertainment.10 He was treated for heart trouble in Britain in August 2004.
Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI). Within
the “United Iraqi Alliance” (UIA) of Shiite political groupings, SCIRI shares power
with other factions, but SCIRI’s influence is bolstered by the fielding of a militia
force, the “Badr Brigades.” SCIRI founders were in exile in Iran after a major
crackdown in 1980 by Saddam, who accused pro-Khomeini Iraqi Shiite Islamists of
trying to overthrow him. During Ayatollah Khomeini’s exile in Najaf (1964-1978),
he was hosted by Grand Ayatollah Muhsin al-Hakim, father of the Hakim brothers
(including current leader Abd al-Aziz) that founded SCIRI. The Ayatollah was then
head of the Hawza. SCIRI leaders say they do not seek to establish an Iranian-style
Islamic republic, but SCIRI reportedly receives substantial amounts of financial and
other aid from Iran. Although it was a member of the INC in the early 1990s, SCIRI
refused to accept U.S. funds, although it did have contacts with the United States.
Da’wa Party/Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki. The Da’wa (Islamic Call)
Party, which did not directly join the U.S.-led effort to overthrow Saddam Hussein
8 For an extended discussion, see CRS Report RS22079, The Kurds in Post-Saddam Iraq,
by Kenneth Katzman and Alfred B. Prados.
9 The three other senior Hawza clerics are Ayatollah Mohammad Sa’id al-Hakim (uncle of
the leader of the Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq, Abd al-Aziz al-Hakim);
Ayatollah Mohammad Isaac Fayadh, who is of Afghan origin; and Ayatollah Bashir al-
Najafi, of Pakistani origin.
10 For information on Sistani’s views, see his website at [http://www.sistani.org].

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CRS-5
during the 1990s, is both an ally and sometime rival of SCIRI. Its leader is Ibrahim
al-Jafari, a Da’wa activist since 1966 who fled to Iran in 1980 to escape Saddam’s
crackdown, later going to London. He was transitional Prime Minister during April
2005-April 2006. His successor as Prime Minister, Nuri al-Maliki, is the number
two Da’wa leader. Although there is no public evidence that Jafari or Maliki were
involved in any terrorist activity, the Kuwaiti branch of the Da’wa allegedly
committed a May 1985 attempted assassination of the Amir of Kuwait and the
December 1983 attacks on the U.S. and French embassies in Kuwait. (It was
reported in February 2007 that a UIA/Da’wa parliamentarian, Jamal al-Ibrahimi, was
convicted by Kuwait for the 1983 attacks.) Lebanese Hezbollah was founded by
Lebanese clerics loyal to Da’wa founder Ayatollah Mohammad Baqr Al Sadr and
Khomeini, and there continue to be personal and ideological linkages between
Lebanese Hezbollah and Da’wa (as well as with SCIRI). Hezbollah attempted to
link release of the Americans they held hostage in Lebanon in the 1980s to the
release of 17 Da’wa prisoners held by Kuwait for those attacks in the 1980s.
Moqtada al-Sadr Faction. Moqtada Al Sadr is emerging as a major — some
believe the most powerful — figure in Iraq. He has been viewed as a young firebrand
who lacks religious and political weight, but the more established Shiite factions, as
well as Iranian diplomats, are building ties to him because of his large following. His
support is strongest among poor Shiites who identify with other “oppressed
Muslims” and who are therefore skeptical of any U.S. presence in the Middle East.
By fully participating in the December 15, 2005, elections, Sadr appeared to distance
himself from his uprisings in 2003 and 2004, although tensions flared again in 2006
between his militia forces and international (particularly British) forces in Iraq as
well as against rival Shiite factions and Iraqi security forces. During 2003-2004, he
used Friday prayer sermons in Kufa (near Najaf) to agitate for a U.S. withdrawal.
Pro-Sadr candidates also won pluralities in several southern Iraqi provincial council
elections. (In Recommendation 35, the Iraq Study Group recommended that the
United States try to talk to Sadr, as well as Sistani, as well as with other parties
except Al Qaeda-Iraq.)

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Table 1. Major Shiite, Kurdish, and Secular Factions
Iraq National
Allawi, about 60 years old (born 1946 in Baghdad), a former Baathist who
Accord/Iyad al-
helped Saddam silence Iraqi dissidents in Europe in the mid-1970s.
Allawi
Subsequently fell out with Saddam, became a neurologist, and presided over
the Iraqi Student Union in Europe. Survived an alleged regime assassination
attempt in London in 1978. He is a secular Shiite, but many INA members are
Sunni ex-Baathists and ex-military officers. Allawi was interim Prime Minister
(June 2004-April 2005). Won 40 seats in January 2005 election but only 25 in
December 2005. Allawi spends most of his time outside Iraq but reportedly
may be trying to organize a non-sectarian parliamentary coalition.
Iraqi National
Chalabi, who is about 66 years old, educated in the United States
Congress
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) as a mathematician. One of the
(INC)/Ahmad
rotating presidents of the Iraq Governing Council (IGC). U.S.-backed Iraqi
Chalabi
police raided INC headquarters in Baghdad on May 20, 2004, seizing
documents as part of an investigation of various allegations, including
provision of U.S. intelligence to Iran. Case later dropped. Since 2004, has
allied with and fallen out with Shiite Islamist factions; was one of three deputy
prime ministers in the 2005 transition government. With no INC seats in
parliament, now spends substantial time at his home in London, but remains
chair of the Higher National De-Baathification Commission. Recently
assigned as liaison between Baghdad neighborhood committees and the
government in 2007 Baghdad security plan.
Kurds/KDP and
Together, the main factions run a legally-constituted “Kurdistan Regional
PUK
Government (KRG)” with its own executive headed by “president” Masud
Barzani and legislature. PUK leader Talabani became president of Iraq after
January 2005 and remains so, despite March 2007 health problems that
required treatment and recuperation in Jordan. He is now back in Iraq. Barzani
has tried to secure his clan’s base in the Kurdish north and has distanced
himself from national politics. Many Kurds are more supportive of outright
Kurdish independence than are these leaders. Kurds field up to 100,000
peshmerga militia. Their joint slate won 75 seats in January 2005 national
election but only 53 in December.
Grand
Undisputed leading Shiite theologian in Iraq. No formal position in
Ayatollah Ali
government but has used his broad Shiite popularity to become instrumental in
al-Sistani
major political questions. Helped forge UIA and brokered compromise over
the selection of a Prime Minister nominee in April 2006. Strongly criticized
Israel’s July 2006 offensive against Lebanese Hezbollah. However,
acknowledges that his influence is waning and that calls for Shiite restraint are
unheeded as Shiites look to armed parties and militias for defense in sectarian
warfare. Refuses to meet U.S. officials.
Supreme
Best-organized and most pro-Iranian Shiite Islamist party. It was established
Council for the
in 1982 by Tehran to centralize Shiite Islamist movements in Iraq. First leader,
Islamic
Mohammad Baqr Al Hakim, killed by bomb in Najaf in August 2003. Current
Revolution in
leader is his younger brother, Abd al-Aziz al-Hakim, a lower ranking Shiite
Iraq (SCIRI)
cleric and a member of parliament (UIA slate), but he holds no government
position. One of his top aides, Bayan Jabr, is now Finance Minister, and
another, Adel Abd al-Mahdi, is a deputy president. Controls “Badr Brigades”
militia. As part of UIA, SCIRI has about 30 of its members in parliament.
Supports formation of Shiite “region” composed of nine southern provinces.
Has tense relations with Da’wa Party despite common ideology and heritage.

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CRS-7
Da’wa (Islamic
Oldest organized Shiite Islamist party (founded 1957), active against Saddam
Call) Party
Hussein in early 1980s. Its founder, Mohammad Baqr al-Sadr, uncle of
Moqtada Al Sadr, was ally of Iran’s Ayatollah Khomeini and was hung by
Saddam regime in 1980. Da’wa members tend to follow senior Lebanese Shiite
cleric Mohammad Hossein Fadlallah rather than Iranian clerics, and Da’wa is
not as close to Tehran as is SCIRI. Has no organized militia and a lower
proportion of clerics than does SCIRI. Part of UIA, controls about 28 seats in
parliament.
Moqtada Al-
Young (about 31), the lone surviving son of the revered Ayatollah Mohammed
Sadr Faction
Sadiq al-Sadr (killed, along with his other two sons, by regime security forces
in 1999 after he began agitating against Saddam). Inherited father’s political
base in “Sadr City,” a large (2 million population) Shiite district of Baghdad,
but also strong in Diwaniyah, Basra, Amarah, and other major Shiite cities.
Mercurial, has both challenged and tacitly worked with U.S. forces in Iraq.
Still clouded by allegations of involvement in the April 10, 2003, killing in Iraq
of Abd al-Majid Khoi, the son of the late Grand Ayatollah Khoi and head of his
London-based Khoi Foundation. Formed “Mahdi Army” militia in 2003,
although some militia elements now believed beyond Sadr’s control. Now part
of UIA, controls 32 seats in new parliament and ministries of health,
transportation, and agriculture (plus one organization of ministerial rank) and
supports Prime Minister Maliki. However, those parliamentarians boycotted
parliament for three months following the late November 2006 meeting
between Bush and Maliki. Opposes large Shiite “region” in the south. Does
not meet with United States.
Fadilah Party
Fadilah (Virtue) has held about 15 seats in the 2006-2010 parliament as part
of the UIA coalition but publicly broke from the UIA on March 6, 2007,
possibly to negotiate a new coalition with Allawi. Loyal to Ayatollah
Mohammad Yacoubi, it is a splinter group of the Sadr’s faction. Holds seats
on several provincial councils in the Shiite provinces and dominates Basra
provincial council, whose governor is a party member. Also controls
protection force for oil installations in Basra.
Hezbollah Iraq
Headed by ex-guerrilla leader Abdul Karim Muhammadawi, who was on the
IGC and now in parliament. Party’s power base is southern marsh areas around
Amara (Maysan Province), north of Basra. Party militiamen play major role in
policing areas of the province.
Islamic Amal
A relatively small faction, Islamic Amal (Action) Organization is headed by
Ayatollah Mohammed Taqi Modarassi, a moderate cleric. Power base is in
Karbala, and it conducted attacks there against Saddam regime in the 1980s.
Modarassi’s brother, Abd al-Hadi, headed the Islamic Front for the Liberation
of Bahrain, which stirred Shiite unrest against Bahrain’s regime in the 1980s
and 1990s. Islamic Amal won two seats in the January 30 election and has a
member in the new cabinet (Minister of Civil Society Affairs).
Ayatollah
Another Karbala-based faction, loyal to Ayatollah Mahmoud al-Hassani. His
Hassani Faction
armed followers clashed with local Iraqi security forces in Karbala in mid-
August 2006. Hassani, along with Fadilah, are considered opponents of Iran
because of Iran’s support for SCIRI and Da’wa Party.

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CRS-8
Iraq Liberation Act. During 1997-1998, Iraq’s obstructions of U.N. weapons
of mass destruction (WMD) inspections led to growing congressional calls to
overthrow Saddam, beginning with an FY1998 supplemental appropriations act (P.L.
105-174). The sentiment was expressed more strongly in the “Iraq Liberation Act”
(ILA, P.L. 105-338, October 31, 1998). Signed by President Clinton despite doubts
about opposition capabilities, it was viewed as an expression of congressional
support for the concept of promoting an Iraqi insurgency with U.S. air power. The
Bush Administration has cited the ILA as evidence of a bipartisan consensus that
Saddam should be toppled. The ILA stated that it should be the policy of the United
States to “support efforts” to remove the regime headed by Saddam Hussein. In mid-
November 1998, President Clinton publicly articulated that regime change was a
component of U.S. policy toward Iraq. Section 8 states that the act should not be
construed as authorizing the use of U.S. military force to achieve regime change.
The ILA did not specifically terminate after Saddam Hussein was removed from
power. Section 7 provides for post-Saddam “transition assistance” to Iraqi groups
with “democratic goals.” The law also gave the President authority to provide up to
$97 million worth of defense articles and services, as well as $2 million in
broadcasting funds, to opposition groups designated by the Administration.
The signing of the ILA coincided with new crises over Iraq’s obstructions of
U.N. weapons inspections. On December 15, 1998, U.N. inspectors were withdrawn,
and a three-day U.S. and British bombing campaign against suspected Iraqi WMD
facilities followed (Operation Desert Fox, December 16-19, 1998). On February 5,
1999, President Clinton made seven opposition groups eligible to receive U.S.
military assistance under the ILA (P.D. 99-13): INC; INA; SCIRI; KDP; PUK; the
Islamic Movement of Iraqi Kurdistan (IMIK);11 and the Movement for Constitutional
Monarchy (MCM). In May 1999, the Clinton Administration provided $5 million
worth of training and “non-lethal” defense articles under the ILA. About 150
oppositionists underwent Defense Department-run training at Hurlburt air base in
Florida on how to administer a post-Saddam Iraq. However, the Administration
judged that the opposition was not sufficiently capable to merit weapons or combat
training. These trainees were not brought into Operation Iraqi Freedom or into the
Free Iraqi Forces that deployed to Iraq.
11 Because of its role in the eventual formation of the radical Ansar al-Islam group, the IMIK
did not receive U.S. funds after 2001, although it was not formally de-listed.

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CRS-9
Post-September 11, 2001:
Regime Change and War
Several senior Bush Administration officials had long been advocates of a
regime change policy toward Iraq, but the difficulty of that strategy led the Bush
Administration initially to continue its predecessor’s emphasis on containment.12
Some accounts say that the Administration was planning, prior to September 11, to
confront Iraq militarily, but President Bush has denied this. During its first year,
Administration policy tried to strengthen containment of Iraq, which the
Administration said was rapidly eroding, by achieving U.N. Security Council
adoption (Resolution 1409, May 14, 2002) of a “smart sanctions” plan. The plan
relaxed U.N.-imposed restrictions on exports to Iraq of purely civilian equipment13
in exchange for renewed international commitment to enforce the U.N. ban on
exports to Iraq of militarily-useful goods.
Bush Administration policy on Iraq changed to an active regime change effort
after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. In President Bush’s State of the
Union message on January 29, 2002, given as major combat in the U.S.-led war on
the Taliban and Al Qaeda in Afghanistan was winding down, he characterized Iraq
as part of an “axis of evil” (with Iran and North Korea). Some U.S. officials,
particularly deputy Defense Secretary Wolfowitz, asserted that the United States
needed to respond to the September 11, 2001 attacks by “ending states,” such as Iraq,
that support terrorist groups. Vice President Cheney visited the Middle East in
March 2002 reportedly to consult regional countries about the possibility of
confronting Iraq militarily, although the leaders visited reportedly urged greater U.S.
attention to the Arab-Israeli dispute and opposed war with Iraq.
Some accounts, including the books Plan of Attack and State of Denial by Bob
Woodward (published in April 2004 and September 2006, respectively), say that then
Secretary of State Powell and others were concerned about the potential
consequences of an invasion of Iraq, particularly the difficulties of building a
democracy after major hostilities ended. Other accounts include reported memoranda
(the “Downing Street Memo”) by British intelligence officials, based on
conversations with U.S. officials. That memo reportedly said that by mid-2002 the
Administration had already decided to go to war against Iraq and that it sought to
develop information about Iraq to support that judgment. President Bush and British
Prime Minister Tony Blair deny this. (On December 20, 2001, the House passed
H.J.Res. 75, by a vote of 392-12, calling Iraq’s refusal to readmit U.N. weapons
inspectors a “mounting threat” to the United States.)
The primary theme in the Bush Administration’s public case for the need to
confront Iraq was that Iraq posted a “grave and gathering” threat that should be
12 One account of Bush Administration internal debates on the strategy is found in Hersh,
Seymour. “The Debate Within,” The New Yorker, Mar. 11, 2002.
13 For more information on this program, see CRS Report RL30472, Iraq: Oil For Food
Program, Illicit Trade, and Investigations, by Kenneth Katzman and Christopher Blanchard.

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CRS-10
blunted before the threat became urgent. The basis of that assertion in U.S.
intelligence remains under debate.
! WMD Threat Perception. Senior U.S. officials, including President
Bush, particularly in an October 2002 speech in Cincinnati, asserted
the following about Iraq’s WMD: (1) that Iraq had worked to
rebuild its WMD programs in the nearly four years since U.N.
weapons inspectors left Iraq and had failed to comply with 16 U.N.
previous resolutions that demanded complete elimination of all of
Iraq’s WMD programs; (2) that Iraq had used chemical weapons
against its own people (the Kurds) and against Iraq’s neighbors
(Iran), implying that Iraq would not necessarily be deterred from
using WMD against the United States; and (3) that Iraq could
transfer its WMD to terrorists, particularly Al Qaeda, for use in
potentially catastrophic attacks in the United States. Critics noted
that, under the U.S. threat of retaliation, Iraq did not use WMD
against U.S. troops in the 1991 Gulf war. A “comprehensive”
September 2004 report of the Iraq Survey Group, known as the
“Duelfer report,”14 found no WMD stockpiles or production but said
that there was evidence that the regime retained the intention to
reconstitute WMD programs in the future. The formal U.S.-led
WMD search ended December 2004,15 although U.S. forces have
found some chemical weapons caches left over from the Iran-Iraq
war.16 The UNMOVIC work remains formally active.17
! Links to Al Qaeda. Iraq was designated a state sponsor of terrorism
during 1979-1982 and was again so designated after its 1990
invasion of Kuwait. Although they did not assert that Saddam
Hussein’s regime had a direct connection to the September 11
attacks, senior U.S. officials asserted that Saddam’s regime was
linked to Al Qaeda, in part because of the presence of pro-Al Qaeda
militant leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi in northern Iraq. Although
this issue is still debated, the report of the 9/11 Commission found
no evidence of a “collaborative operational linkage” between Iraq
and Al Qaeda.18
14 Duelfer report text is at [http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/iraq/cia93004wmdrpt.html].
15 For analysis of the former regime’s WMD and other abuses, see CRS Report RL32379,
Iraq: Former Regime Weapons Programs, Human Rights Violations, and U.S. Policy, by
Kenneth Katzman.
16 Pincus, Walter. “Munitions Found in Iraq Renew Debate.” Washington Post, July 1, 2006.
17 For information on UNMOVIC’s ongoing activities, see [http://www.unmovic.org/].
18 9/11 Commission Report, p. 66.

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CRS-11
Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF)
In mid-2002, the Administration began ordering a force to the region that, by
early 2003, gave the President an active option to invade Iraq. In concert, the
Administration tried to build up and broaden the Iraqi opposition and, according to
the Washington Post (June 16, 2002), authorizing stepped up covert activities by the
CIA and special operations forces against Saddam Hussein. In August 2002, the
State and Defense Departments jointly invited six major opposition groups to
Washington, D.C., and the Administration expanded its ties to several groups,
particularly those composed of ex-military officers. The Administration also began
training about 5,000 oppositionists to assist U.S. forces,19 although reportedly only
about 70 completed training at Taszar air base in Hungary, eventually serving as
translators during the war. At the same time, the Administration opposed a move by
the major factions to declare a provisional government, believing that doing so would
prevent the emergence of secular, pro-democracy groups.
In an effort to obtain U.N. backing for confronting Iraq — support that then
Secretary of State Powell reportedly argued was needed — President Bush urged the
United Nations General Assembly (September 12, 2002) that the U.N. Security
Council should enforce its 16 existing WMD-related resolutions on Iraq. The
Administration then gave Iraq a “final opportunity” to comply with all applicable
Council resolutions by supporting Security Council Resolution 1441 (November 8,
2002), which gave the U.N. inspection body UNMOVIC (U.N. Monitoring,
Verification, and Inspection Commission) new powers of inspection. Iraq reluctantly
accepted it. In January and February 2003, UNMOVIC Director Hans Blix and
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Director Mohammad al-Baradei
briefed the Security Council on WMD inspections that resumed November 27, 2002.
Although they were not denied access to suspect sites, they criticized Iraq for failing
to actively cooperate to clear up outstanding questions, but also noted progress and
said that Iraq might not have retained any WMD.
During this period, Congress debated the costs and risks of an invasion. It
adopted H.J.Res. 114, authorizing the President to use military force to “defend the
national security of the United States against the continuing threat posed by Iraq” and
“to enforce all relevant U.N. Security Council resolutions against Iraq.” It passed the
House October 11, 2002 (296-133), and the Senate the following day (77-23). It was
signed October 16, 2002 (P.L. 107-243).
In Security Council debate, opponents of war, including France, Russia, China,
and Germany, said the pre-war WMD inspections showed that Iraq could be
disarmed peacefully or contained indefinitely, and no U.N. resolution authorizing
force was adopted. At a March 16, 2003, summit meeting with the leaders of Britain,
Spain, and Bulgaria at the Azores, President Bush asserted that Iraq was not
complying with Resolution 1441 because it was not pro-actively revealing
information, and that diplomatic options had failed. The following day, President
19 Deyoung, Karen, and Daniel Williams, “Training of Iraqi Exiles Authorized,”
Washington Post, Oct. 19, 2002.

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CRS-12
Bush gave Saddam Hussein and his sons, Uday and Qusay, an ultimatum to leave
Iraq within 48 hours to avoid war. They refused and OIF began on March 19, 2003.
In the war, Iraq’s conventional military forces were overwhelmed by the
approximately 380,000-person U.S. and British-led 30-country20 “coalition of the
willing” force assembled, a substantial proportion of which remained afloat or in
supporting roles. Of the invasion force, Britain contributed 45,000, and U.S. troops
constituted the bulk of the remaining 335,000 forces. Some Iraqi units and irregulars
(“Saddam’s Fedayeen”) put up stiff resistance and used unconventional tactics.
Some post-major combat evaluation (“Cobra Two,” by Michael Gordon and Bernard
Trainor, published in 2006) suggest the U.S. military should have focused more on
combating the irregulars rather than bypassing them to take on armored forces. No
WMD was used by Iraq, although it did fire some ballistic missiles into Kuwait; it
is not clear whether those missiles were of prohibited ranges (greater than 150 km).
The regime vacated Baghdad on April 9, 2003, although Saddam Hussein appeared
with supporters that day in Baghdad’s mostly Sunni Adhamiya district. (Saddam was
captured in December 2003, and subsequently tried in Iraq and, on November 5,
2006, convicted for “willful killing” of Shiite civilians in Dujail in 1982. He was
hanged on December 30, 2006.
Post-Saddam Governance and Transition
According to January 2007 statements by President Bush, U.S. goals are for an
Iraq that can sustain, govern, and defend itself and is a partner in the global war on
terrorism. Administration officials have, for the most part, dropped an earlier stated
goal that Iraq serve as a model of democratic reform in the Middle East.
Early Transition Process
The formal political transition has advanced, but has not achieved the level of
political reconciliation needed to cause an end to or reduction in levels of violence.
Occupation Period/Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA). After the
fall of the regime, the United States set up an occupation structure, reportedly
grounded in concerns that immediate sovereignty would favor major factions and
not produce democracy. The Administration initially tasked Lt. Gen. Jay Garner
(ret.) to direct reconstruction with a staff of U.S. government personnel to administer
Iraq’s ministries; they deployed in April 2003. He headed the Office of
Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA), within the Department of
Defense, created by a January 20, 2003 executive order. The Administration’s
immediate post-war policy did not make use of an extensive State Department
initiative, called the “Future of Iraq Project,” that spent at least a year before the war
drawing up plans for administering Iraq after the fall of Saddam. The State
20 Many of the thirty countries listed in the coalition did not contribute forces to the combat.
A subsequent State Department list released on March 27, 2003 listed 49 countries in the
coalition of the willing. See Washington Post, Mar. 27, 2003, p. A19.

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CRS-13
Department project, which cost $5 million, had 15 working groups on major issues.21
Garner, along with White House envoy Zalmay Khalilzad (later Ambassador to Iraq)
tried to quickly establish a representative successor Iraqi regime by organizing a
meeting in Nassiriyah (April 15, 2003) of about 100 Iraqis of varying views and
ethnicities. A subsequent meeting of over 250 notables was held in Baghdad (April
26, 2003), ending in agreement to hold a broader meeting one month later to name
an interim administration.
In May 2003, the Administration, reportedly preferring what they perceived as
stronger leadership in Iraq, named ambassador L. Paul Bremer to replace Garner by
heading a “Coalition Provisional Authority” (CPA), which subsumed ORHA. The
CPA was an occupying authority recognized by U.N. Security Council Resolution
1483 (May 22, 2003). Bremer discontinued Garner’s political transition process and
instead appointed (July 13, 2003) a non-sovereign Iraqi advisory body: the 25-
member “Iraq Governing Council” (IGC). In September 2003, the IGC selected a
25-member “cabinet” to run the ministries, with roughly the same factional and
ethnic balance of the IGC (a slight majority of Shiite Muslims). Although there were
some Sunni figures in the CPA-led political structure, many Sunnis resented the U.S.
invasion and opposed the IGC, which was widely perceived in Iraq as an arm of U.S.
decision-making. Adding to Sunni resentment were some of the CPA’s most
controversial decisions, including to pursue “de-Baathification” — a purge from
government of about 30,000 Iraqis at four top ranks of the Baath Party (CPA Order
1) and not to recall members of the armed forces to service (CPA Order 2).
(Recommendation 27 of the Iraq Study Group says that the United States should
encourage reintegration of ex-Baathists.)
Transitional Administrative Law (TAL). The Bush Administration
initially made the end of U.S. occupation contingent on the completion of a new
constitution and the holding of national elections for a new government, tasks
expected to be completed by late 2005. However, Ayatollah Sistani and others
agitated for early Iraqi sovereignty and direct elections. In November 2003, the
United States announced it would return sovereignty to Iraq by June 30, 2004, and
that national elections would be held by the end of 2005. That decision was
incorporated into an interim constitution — the Transitional Administrative Law
(TAL), signed on March 8, 2004.22 Drafted by the major anti-Saddam factions, it
provided a roadmap for political transition, including (1) elections by January 31,
2005, for a 275-seat transitional National Assembly; (2) drafting of a permanent
constitution by August 15, 2005, and put to a national referendum by October 15,
2005; and (3) national elections for a permanent government, under the new
constitution (if it passed), would be held by December 15, 2005. The new
government would take office by December 31, 2005. Under the TAL, any three
provinces could veto the constitution by a two-thirds majority. If that happened, a
new draft was to be developed and voted on by October 15, 2006. The Kurds
21 Information on the project, including summaries of the findings of its 17 working groups,
can be found at [http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/archive/dutyiraq/].
22 The text of the TAL can be obtained from the CPA website at [http://cpa-iraq.org/
government/TAL.html].

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CRS-14
maintained their autonomous “Kurdistan Regional Government,” and their
peshmerga militia were allowed to operate.
Sovereignty Handover/Interim (Allawi) Government. The TAL did not
directly address the formation of the interim government that would assume
sovereignty. Sistani’s opposition torpedoed an initial U.S. plan to select a national
assembly through nationwide “caucuses.” After considering several other options,
the United States tapped U.N. envoy Lakhdar Brahimi to select a government.23
Dominated by senior faction leaders, it was named and began work on June 1, 2004.
The formal handover ceremony occurred on June 28, 2004, two days before the
advertised June 30 date, partly to confuse insurgents. There was a president (Ghazi
al-Yawar), and Iyad al-Allawi was Prime Minister, with executive power, heading
a cabinet of 26 ministers. Six ministers were women, and the ethnicity mix was
roughly the same as in the IGC. The defense and interior ministers were Sunnis.
U.N. Backing of Sovereign Government/Coalition Military Mandate.
The Administration asserts that it has consistently sought and obtained U.N. and
partner country involvement in Iraq efforts. Resolution 1483 (cited above) provided
for a U.N. special representative to Iraq, and “called on” governments to contribute
forces for stabilization. Resolution 1500 (August 14, 2003) established U.N.
Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI).24 The size of UNAMI in Iraq, headed by
former Pakistani diplomat Ashraf Jahangir Qazi, is now about 55 in Iraq, with at least
an equal number “offshore” in Jordan. It is focused on promoting political
reconciliation, election assistance, and monitoring human rights practices and
humanitarian affairs. U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki Moon visited Baghdad in
March 2007 and later said that UNAMI would expand its presence in Iraq and
perhaps take on additional duties to promote political reconciliation. In an attempt
to satisfy the requirements of several nations for greater U.N. backing of the coalition
force presence, the United States achieved adoption of Resolution 1511 (October 16,
2003), authorizing a “multinational force under unified [meaning U.S.] command.”
(In Recommendations 7 and 26 and several other recommendations, the Iraq Study
Group calls for increased U.N. participation in promoting reconciliation in Iraq.)
Resolution 1546 (June 8, 2004) took U.N. involvement a step further by
endorsing the handover of sovereignty, reaffirming the responsibilities of the interim
government, and spelling out the duration and legal status of U.S.-led forces in Iraq,
as well as authorizing a coalition component force to protect U.N. personnel and
facilities. The Resolution contained the following provisions:
! It “authorize[d]” the U.S.-led coalition to secure Iraq, a provision
interpreted as giving the coalition responsibility for security. Iraqi
forces are “a principal partner” in the U.S.-led coalition, and the
relationship between U.S. and Iraqi forces is spelled out in an
23 Chandrasekaran, Rajiv. “Envoy Urges U.N.-Chosen Iraqi Government,” Washington Post,
Apr. 15, 2004.
24 Its mandate has been renewed each year since, most recently by Resolution 1700 (Aug.
10, 2006).

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CRS-15
annexed exchange of letters between the United States and Iraq. The
U.S.-led coalition retained the ability to take prisoners.
! It stipulated that the coalition’s mandate would be reviewed “at the
request of the government of Iraq or twelve months from the date of
this resolution” (or June 8, 2005); that the mandate would expire
when a permanent government is sworn in at the end of 2005; and
that the mandate would be terminated “if the Iraqi government so
requests.” Resolution 1637 (November 11, 2005) and Resolution
1723 (November 28, 2006) each extended the coalition military
mandate for an additional year (now lasting until at least December
31, 2007), unless earlier “requested by the Iraqi government.” The
renewal resolutions also required review of the mandate on June 15,
2006 and June 15, 2007, respectively.
! Resolution 1546 deferred the issue of the status of foreign forces
(Status of Forces Agreement, SOFA) to an elected Iraqi
government. No SOFA has been signed to date, and U.S. forces
operate in Iraq and use its facilities under temporary memoranda of
understanding. Major facilities include Balad, Tallil, and Al Asad
air bases, as well as the arms depot at Taji; all are being built up with
U.S. military construction funds in various appropriations. Former
Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld said in July 2005 that U.S. military
lawyers are working with the Iraqis on a SOFA or other
arrangements that would cover U.S. operations in Iraq for the
duration of U.S. involvement there.
! In subsequent related developments, the Defense Appropriation for
FY2007 (P.L. 109-289) contains a provision, first passed in the
House version of the measure, prohibiting use of U.S. funds to
establish permanent military installations or bases in Iraq. The same
law contains a provision that the Defense Department not agree to
allow U.S. forces in Iraq to be subject to Iraqi law. (In
Recommendation 22, the Iraq Study Group recommends that the
President should state that the United States does not seek
permanent military bases in Iraq.)
! It established a 100-seat “Interim National Council” to serve as an
interim parliament. The body, selected in August,25 did not have
legislative power but was able to veto government decisions with a
two-thirds majority. The council held some televised “hearings;”
it disbanded after the January 2005 elections for a parliament.
25 Tavernise, Sabrina. “In Climax To a Tumultuous 4-Day Debate, Iraq Chooses An
Assembly,” New York Times, Aug. 19, 2004.

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CRS-16
Post-Handover U.S. Structure in Iraq. The sovereignty handover was
accompanied by steps to lower the U.S. profile in Iraq. As of the June 28, 2004,
handover, the state of occupation ceased, and a U.S. Ambassador (John Negroponte)
established U.S.-Iraq diplomatic relations for the first time since January 1991. A
U.S. embassy formally opened on June 30, 2004; it is staffed with about 1,100 U.S.
personnel.26 Negroponte was succeeded in July 2005 by Ambassador Zalmay
Khalilzad, and he has now been succeeded by Ryan Crocker, formerly Ambassador
to Pakistan. The large new embassy complex, with 21 buildings on 104 acres, is
under construction. An FY2005 supplemental appropriations, P.L. 109-13, provided
$592 million of $658 million requested to construct a new embassy in Baghdad and
to fund embassy operations; an FY2006 supplemental appropriation (P.L. 109-234)
provided $1.327 billion for U.S. embassy operations and security. (In
Recommendations 73-76, the Iraq Study Group report lays out several initiatives that
could be taken “to ensure that [the United States] has personnel with the right skills
serving in Iraq.”) In conjunction with the handover,
! Iraq gained control over its oil revenues and the Development Fund
for Iraq (DFI), subject to monitoring for at least one year (until June
2005) by the U.N.-mandated International Advisory and Monitoring
Board (IAMB). (Resolution 1723 of November 28, 2006, extends
the IAMB monitoring of the DFI until December 31, 2007, subject
to review by June 15, 2007.) Resolution 1546 also gave Iraq
responsibility for close-out of the “oil-for-food program;”27
Resolution 1483 ended that program as of November 21, 2003. (In
Recommendation 23, the Iraq Study Group says the President should
restate that the United States does not seek to control Iraq’s oil.)
! Reconstruction management and advising of Iraq’s ministries were
taken over by the State Department through the U.S. Embassy and
a unit called the “Iraq Reconstruction and Management Office
(IRMO).” IRMO, headed since June 2006 by Ambassador Joseph
Saloom, has about 150 U.S. civilian personnel working outside
Baghdad at the Provincial Reconstruction Teams, or PRTs, which
are increasing in number, as discussed further below. A separate
“Project Contracting Office (PCO),” headed by Brig. Gen. William
McCoy (now under the Persian Gulf division of the Army Corps of
Engineers), funds infrastructure projects such as roads, power plants,
and school renovations.
Elections in 2005
After the handover of sovereignty, the United States and Iraq focused on three
national votes held in 2005. On January 30, 2005, elections were held for a
transitional National Assembly, 18 provincial councils, and the Kurdish regional
assembly. Sunnis, still resentful of the U.S. invasion, mostly boycotted, and no
26 See CRS Report RS21867, U.S. Embassy in Iraq, by Susan B. Epstein.
27 For information on that program, see CRS Report RL30472, Iraq: Oil-for-Food Program,
Illicit Trade, and Investigations, by Kenneth Katzman and Christopher Blanchard.

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CRS-17
major Sunni slates were offered. This enabled the UIA to win a slim majority (140
of the 275 seats) and to ally with the Kurds (75 seats) to dominate the government
formed subsequently, as well as virtually all the provincial councils, including those
in Sunni-inhabited areas. PUK leader Jalal Talabani was named president; Ibrahim
al-Jafari became Prime Minister. U.S. officials said publicly this government was
not sufficiently inclusive of the Sunni minority, even though it had a Sunni Arab as
Assembly speaker; deputy president; deputy prime minister; Defense Minister; and
five other ministers. (See CRS Report RS21968, Iraq: Elections, Government, and
Constitution, by Kenneth Katzman.)
Permanent Constitution. Despite Sunni opposition, the constitution
drafted by a committee appointed by the elected transition government was approved
on October 15, 2005. Sunni opponents achieved a two-thirds “no” vote in two
provinces, but not in the three needed to defeat the constitution. The crux of Sunni
opposition was the provision for a weak central government (“federalism”): it
allows groups of provinces to band together to form autonomous “regions” with
their own regional governments, internal security forces, and a large role in
controlling revenues from any new energy discoveries. The Sunnis oppose this
concept because their region, unlike those dominated by the Kurds and the Shiites,
has thus far lacked significant proven oil reserves and they depend on the central
government for revenues, although some new substantial oil fields have recently been
reported to lie in Anbar Province. A promised special constitutional review, intended
to mollify Sunnis particularly on this point, has not been completed. (In
Recommendation 26, the Iraq Study Group recommends that this review be
conducted on an urgent basis. Recommendation 28 says that all oil revenues should
accrue to the central government, not regions.)
December 15, 2005, Election. In this election, some harder line Sunnis,
seeking to strengthen their position to amend the constitution, moved into the
political arena: the Sunni “Consensus Front” and Iraqi Front for National Dialogue
put forward major slates. The results were court-certified on February 10, but the
convening of the “Council of Representatives” (COR) was delayed until March 16
by wrangling over the post of Prime Minister. With the UIA alone well short of the
two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally form a government, Sunnis, the Sadr
faction, secular groupings, and the Kurds demanded Jafari be replaced; they
subsequently accepted as Prime Minister his top Da’wa aide, Nuri al-Maliki (April
22, 2006). Talabani was selected to continue as president, with two deputies Adel
Abd al-Mahdi of SCIRI and Tariq al-Hashimi of the Consensus Front. (The former
has lost one and the latter has lost three siblings to sectarian violence in 2006; Abd
al-Mahdi was nearly assassinated in a March 2007 bombing.) A COR leadership
team was selected as well, with hardline U.S. critic Mahmoud Mashadani as speaker.
Amid U.S. and other congratulations, Maliki named and won approval of a 39-
member cabinet (including deputy prime ministers) on May 20, 2006. Among his
permanent selections were Kurdish official Barham Salih and Sunni Arab Salam al-
Zubaie as deputy prime ministers. Zubaie was seriously wounded in an assassination
attempt purportedly orchestrated by one of his aides on March 22, 2007. Four
ministers (environment, human rights, housing, and women’s affairs) are women.
Of the 34 permanent ministerial posts named, a total of seven are Sunnis; seven are
Kurds; nineteen are Shiites; and one is Christian (minister of human rights, Ms.

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CRS-18
Wijdan Mikha’il). Sadr loyalists were named to the ministries of agriculture, health,
and transportation. Maliki did not immediately name permanent figures for the major
posts of Interior, Defense, and Ministry of State for National Security because major
factions could not agree on nominees. After several weeks of negotiation, on June
8, 2006 he achieved COR confirmation of three compromise candidates for those
posts.
Prime Minister Nuri Kamal al-Maliki
Born in 1950 in Karbala, has belonged to Da’wa Party since 1968. Fled Iraq in 1980 after
Saddam banned the party, initially to Iran. Fled to Syria when he refused Iran’s orders
that he join pro-Iranian Shiite militia groups fighting Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war.
Headed Da’wa offices in Syria and Lebanon and edited Da’wa Party newspaper. Reputed
advocate of aggressive purge of ex-Baathists as member of the Higher National De-
Baathification Commission after Saddam’s fall. Elected to National Assembly (UIA list)
in January 2005 and chaired its “security committee.” Publicly supported Hezbollah
(which shares a background with his Da’wa Party) during July-August 2006 Israel-
Hezbollah conflict, prompting congressional criticism of him during his July 2006 visit
to Washington DC. Believed sympathetic to Kurds’ efforts to incorporate Kirkuk into
the Kurdish region. Has tense relations with SCIRI, whose activists accuse Maliki of
surrounding himself with Da’wa members and shutting SCIRI out of his inner circle.
Believed to be politically dependent on Sadr’s support and had, prior to 2007, repeatedly
shielded Sadr’s Mahdi Army militia from U.S. military sweeps. In October 2006, said
he is an ally of the United States but is “not America’s man in Iraq.” Following the Bush-
Maliki meeting in Jordan on November 30, 2006, President Bush reiterated that Maliki
is “the right guy for Iraq.”
Maliki Government and Milestones
According to the Administration and the Iraq Study Group, the Iraqi government
has committed to several milestones to achieve national reconciliation. Some
proposals in the 110th Congress call for linkage between the accomplishment of these
milestones, or benchmarks, and the continued U.S. combat presence:
(1) By September 2006, formation of a committee to review the constitution
under the special amendment process promised; approval of a law to implement
formation of regions; approval of an investment law; and approval of a law for
the Independent High Electoral Commission (IHEC). The law on regions
(adopted October 12, 2006) proved controversial because of Sunni opposition,
and in an effort to defuse tensions, the major factions agreed to delay the
formation of any new region for 18 months. The IHEC law was passed on
January 23, 2007 but the eight independent commissioners have not been named,
to date. An investment law was approved in October 2006. The constitutional
review committee has been formed, but it has not completed drafting
amendments;
(2) By October 2006, approval of a provincial election law (which would
presumably lead to more Sunnis on provincial councils; the 51-seat Baghdad city
council has only one Sunni Arab, for example); and approval of a new oil law.
No progress has been reported on the provincial election law. In work on the oil
law, on February 20, 2007, Iraq’s cabinet approved the draft oil law and

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CRS-19
submitted it for parliamentary consideration. A related law on the sharing of oil
revenues, and annexes discussing how contracts with foreign investors would be
evaluated, need to be adopted as well. The draft had been long delayed by
differences over the central government’s review process for energy deals with
foreign firms. The Kurds wanted the right to sign such deals without much
government interference, but they relented an accepted a degree of shared
responsibility and control. The law is expected to be adopted in some form,
despite broad Sunni opposition, because of Shiite and Kurdish dominance of the
COR;
(3) By November 2006, approval of a de-Baathification reform law; and approval
of a flag and national anthem law. On March 27, 2007, it was reported that
Maliki and Talabani have approved a draft de-Baathification reform law that
would allow members of all but the top three party levels to regain their jobs or
obtain pensions. However, suggesting possible continued deadlock on that law,
the national de-Baathification commission criticized the draft as not attentive to
the victims of the Saddam regime;
(4) By December 2006, approval of laws to curb militias; and to offer amnesty
to insurgent supporters;
(5) By January 2007, completion of the constitutional review process;
(6) By February 2007, the formation of independent commissions to oversee
governance;
(7) By March 2007, holding of a referendum on the special amendments to the
constitution;
(8) By April 2007, Iraqi assumption of control of its military;
(9) by June 2007, the holding of provincial elections;
(10) by September 2007, Iraqi security control of all 18 provinces. Several Iraqi
Army divisions are now under Iraqi control and the Iraq Security Forces now
have security control for the provinces of Muthanna, Dhi Qar, and Najaf; and
(11) by December 2007, Iraqi security self-reliance.
As noted above, to date only a few of the milestones have been completely met,
but Iraqi factions continue to negotiate to implement the remaining goals.
Complicating movement on lawmaking has been the failure to achieve a quorum in
parliament on most days since November 2006, although the return to parliament of
the Sadr bloc in January 2007 has improved attendance somewhat. Iraqi leaders also
announced on January 17, 2007, that they had returned 2,300 ex-Baathists to their
jobs or given them pensions instead. The State Department’s report on human rights
for 2006, released March 6, 2007, said that “widespread violence seriously
compromised the government’s ability to protect human rights,” a formulation that
appears to place the blame for much of the human suffering in Iraq on the overall
security environment and not on the Maliki government’s performance or intentions.

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CRS-20
In other efforts, U.S. officials have reportedly tried to forge a new parliamentary
coalition among mainstream Shiites, Sunnis, and secular blocs that would exclude
Sadr. In January 2007, this strategy reportedly ran into opposition from Ayatollah
Sistani, who has sought to ensure full cooperation among all Shiite blocs. An
alternate coalition began to emerge in March 2007, when the Fadila party publicly
broke from the UIA umbrella and began talks with Allawi’s secular bloc about a new
coalition that might exclude SCIRI and Da’wa. Some take the view that, should
Maliki fail to achieve the milestones discussed above, the United States might try to
engineer his replacement. President Bush’s early December 2006 meeting in
Washington, DC with SCIRI leader Hakim, who reputedly wants Adel Abd al-Mahdi
to replace Maliki, fed such speculation.
Regional and International Diplomatic Efforts to Promote Iraq
Stability. The Iraqi government has received diplomatic support, even though
most of its neighbors, except Iran, resent the Shiite and Kurdish domination of the
regime. There are about 50 foreign missions in Iraq, including most European and
Arab countries. Jordan has appointed an ambassador and Kuwait has pledged to do
so. Iran upgraded its representation to Ambassador in May 2006. On the other hand,
some countries, such as Portugal in March 2007, have closed their embassies because
of security concerns. There were attacks on diplomats from Bahrain, Egypt, Algeria,
Morocco, and Russia in 2005 and 2006.
Iraq continued its appeal for regional support an the Iraq-sponsored regional
conference of its neighbors and major regional and outside powers (the United States,
the Gulf monarchy states, Egypt, the permanent members of the United Nations
Security Council) in Baghdad on March 10, 2007. Iran and Syria attended, as did
the United States, with most participants terming the discussions “constructive,” and
a follow-on meeting, possibly in Istanbul, is planned for April 2007. Regional
working groups on Iraq’s security, fuel supplies, and Iraqi refugees were established
under this new diplomatic framework.

At the same time, Turkey is complaining that Iraq’s Kurds are harboring the
anti-Turkey PKK guerrilla group in northern Iraq, and Turkey has been threatening
to send in forces if the U.S.-led coalition and the Iraqi Kurdish factions do not arrest
members of that group who are in Iraq. The threat prompted the U.S. naming of an
envoy to Turkey on this issue in August 2006 (Gen. Joseph Ralston, ret, former Vice
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff). On February 8, 2007, Turkish Foreign
Minister warned against proceeding with the December 2007 referendum on
Kirkuk’s affiliation with the Kurdish region, reflecting broader concerns that the
referendum could set off additional sectarian violence and pave the way for Kurdish
independence.

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CRS-21
Table 2. Major Sunni Factions in Post-Saddam Iraq
Iraqi Consensus Front
Front led by Iraqi Islamic Party (IIP), headed by Tariq al-
(Tariq al-Hashimi and
Hashimi, now a deputy president. Holds 44 seats in COR.
Adnan al-Dulaymi)
IIP withdrew from the January 2005 election but led the Sunni
“Consensus Front” coalition in December 2005 elections.
The front, critical but accepting of U.S. presence, includes
Iraqi General People’s Council of Adnan al-Dulaymi, and the
Sunni Endowment. Hashimi visited the United States in
December 2006 and met with President Bush, expressing
support for a new COR coalition that would exclude Sadr.
Iraqi Front for National
Mutlak, an ex-Baathist, was chief negotiator for Sunnis on the
Dialogue
new constitution, but was dissatisfied with the outcome and
(Saleh al-Mutlak)
now advocates major revisions. Harder line than the
Consensus Front, it holds 11 seats in the COR. COR
Speaker Mahmoud Mashadani, a hardliner, is a senior
member; in July 2006, he called the U.S. invasion “the work
of butchers.”
Muslim Scholars
Hardline Sunni Islamist group, has boycotted all post-Saddam
Association
elections. Believed to have ties to and influence over
(MSA, Harith al-Dhari
insurgent factions. Wants timetable for U.S. withdrawal from
and
Iraq. Dhari attended October 2006 meeting in Mecca with
Abd al-Salam al-
other Iraqi religious figures, agreeing to condemn sectarian
Qubaysi)
killings. Nonetheless, Iraqi government issued a warrant for
Dhari’s arrest in November 2006 for suspected ties to the
Sunni insurgency, causing Dhari to remain outside Iraq.
Sunni Tribes
Not an organized faction per se, but receiving increasing
attention from U.S. commanders as a source of Sunni anti-
insurgent political support and as promoters of local stability
in Anbar Province. Some large tribal confederations include
Dulaym, and Jabburi (mixed Sunni-Shiite tribe).
Iraqi Insurgents
Numerous factions and no unified leadership, although an
eight group “Mujahedin Shura” was formed in early 2006, led
by an Iraqi (Abdullah Rashid al-Baghdadi, aka Abu Umar al-
Baghdadi). Proclaimed an “Islamic State of Iraq” led by
Baghdadi (October 2006), and many insurgent groups now
fight under that name. Some groups led by ex-Saddam regime
leaders, others by Islamic extremists. Major Iraqi factions
include Islamic Army of Iraq, New Baath Party, Muhammad’s
Army, and the 1920 Revolution Brigades.
Foreign Fighters/
Estimated 3,000 in Iraq. Were led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi,
Al Qaeda in Iraq
a Jordanian national, until he was killed in U.S. airstrike June
7, 2006. Succeeded by Abu Hamza al-Muhajir. Advocates
attacks on Iraqi Shiite civilians to spark civil war. Related
foreign fighter faction, which includes some Iraqis, is Ansar
al-Sunna, but this group is not in the Mujahedin Shura.

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CRS-22
Democracy-Building and Local Governance/FY2006 Supplemental.
The United States and its coalition partners have tried to build civil society and
democracy at the local level. U.S. officials say Iraqis are freer than at any time in the
past 30 years, with a free press and the ability to organize politically. A State
Department report to Congress in October 2006 details how the FY2004
supplemental appropriation (P.L. 108-106) “Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund”
(IRRF) is being spent (“2207 Report”):
! About $1.014 billion is allocated for “Democracy Building;”
! About $71 million is allocated for related “Rule of Law” programs;
! About $159 million is allocated to build and secure courts and train
legal personnel;
! About $128 million is allocated for “Investigations of Crimes
Against Humanity,” primarily former regime abuses;
! $10 million is for U.S. Institute of Peace democracy/civil society/
conflict resolution activities;
! $10 million is for the Iraqi Property Claims Commission (which is
evaluating Kurdish claims to property taken from Kurds, mainly in
Kirkuk, during Saddam’s regime); and
! $15 million is to promote human rights and human rights education
centers.
Run by the State Department Bureau of International Narcotics and Law
Enforcement Affairs (State/INL), USAID, and State Department Bureau of
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (DRL), some of the democracy and rule of
law building activities conducted with these funds, aside from assistance for the
various elections in Iraq in 2005, include the following:
! Several projects that attempt to increase the transparency of the
justice system, computerize Iraqi legal documents, train judges and
lawyers, develop various aspects of law, such as commercial laws,
promote legal reform, and support the drafting of the permanent
constitution.
! Activities to empower local governments, policies that are receiving
increasing U.S. attention and additional funding allocations from the
IRRF. These programs include (1) the “Community Action
Program” (CAP) through which local reconstruction projects are
voted on by village and town representatives. About 1,800
community associations have been established thus far; (2)
Provincial Reconstruction Development Committees (PRDCs) to
empower local governments to decide on reconstruction priorities;
and (3) Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs), local enclaves to
provide secure conditions for reconstruction, as discussed in the
section on security, below. The conference report on an FY2006
supplemental appropriation (P.L. 109-234) designated $50 million
in ESF for Iraq to be used to keep the CAP operating. That level
of aid is expected in FY2007 under provisions of a continuing
resolution (P.L. 109-383).

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CRS-23
! Programs to empower women and promote their involvement in
Iraqi politics, as well as programs to promote independent media.
! Some funds have been used for easing tensions in cities that have
seen substantial U.S.-led anti-insurgency combat, including Fallujah,
Ramadi, Sadr City district of Baghdad, and Mosul. In August 2006,
another $130 million in U.S. funds (and $500 million in Iraqi funds)
were allocated to assist Baghdad neighborhoods swept by U.S. and
Iraqi forces in “Operation Together Forward.”
! As noted above, according to Iraq’s national timetable, a law on
elections for provincial councils was to be drafted by the end of
October 2006 and provincial elections to be held by June 2007,
although it appears that this timetable will not be met.
(Recommendation 29 of the Iraq Study Group report says provincial
elections “should be held at the earliest possible date.”)
In addition to what is already allocated, the FY2006 regular foreign aid
appropriations (conference report on P.L. 109-102) incorporated a Senate amendment
(S.Amdt. 1299, Kennedy) to that legislation providing $28 million each to the
International Republican Institute and the National Democratic Institute for
democracy promotion in Iraq. The FY2006 supplemental appropriation (P.L. 109-
234) provided another $50 million in ESF for Iraq democracy promotion, allocated
to various organizations performing democracy work there (U.S. Institute of Peace,
National Democratic Institute, International Republican Institute, National
Endowment for Democracy, and others). A female American staffer for NDI was
killed in an ambush in Baghdad on January 17, 2006.
Economic Reconstruction and U.S. Assistance
The Administration asserts that economic reconstruction will contribute to
stability, although some aspects of that effort appear to be faltering. As discussed
in recent reports by the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction (SIGIR),
the difficult security environment has slowed reconstruction,28 although the SIGIR
told Congress in March 2007 that he now has some optimism that coordination with
and among the Iraqis has improved. For more detail, see CRS Report RL31833,
Iraq: Recent Developments in Reconstruction Assistance, by Curt Tarnoff.
A total of about $34 billion has been appropriated for reconstruction funding
(including security forces), of which $20.917 billion has been appropriated for the
“Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund” (IRRF) in two supplemental appropriations:
FY2003 supplemental, P.L. 108-11, which appropriated about $2.5 billion; and the
FY2004 supplemental appropriations, P.L. 108-106, which provided about $18.42
28 The defense authorization bill for FY2007 (P.L. 109-364) set October 1, 2007, for
termination of oversight by the SIGIR. However, P.L. 109-440 extends that term until 10
months after 80% of the IRRF have been expended but includes FY2006 reconstruction
funds for Iraq in the definition of the IRRF. The SIGIR’s mandate is therefore expected to
extend until some time in 2008.

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CRS-24
billion. Of the IRRF funds, about $20.171 billion has been obligated, and, of that,
about $17.290 billion has been disbursed. According to State Department reports,
the sector allocations for the IRRF are as follows:
! $5.03 billion for Security and Law Enforcement;
! $1.315 billion for Justice, Public Safety, Infrastructure, and Civil
Society;
! $1.013 billion for Democracy;
! $4.22 billion for Electricity Sector;
! $1.724 billion for Oil Infrastructure;
! $2.131 billion for Water Resources and Sanitation;
! $469 million for Transportation and Communications;
! $333.7 million for Roads, Bridges, and Construction;
! $746 million for Health Care;
! $805 million for Private Sector Development (includes $352 million
for debt relief for Iraq);
! $410 million for Education, Refugees, Human Rights, Democracy,
and Governance (includes $99 million for education); and
! $213 million for USAID administrative expenses.
FY2006 Supplemental/FY2007/FY2008. To continue reconstruction, an
FY2006 supplemental appropriation (P.L. 109-234) provides $1.485 billion for Iraq
reconstruction. Foreign Operations programs for FY2007 are currently operating
under the terms of a continuing appropriations resolution (P.L. 109-383, as amended)
that provides funding at the FY2006 level or the House-passed FY2007 level
($305.8 million in ESF for Iraq reconstruction, $254 million for counter-narcotics;
and $18 million for anti-terrorism).
The FY2007 Defense Appropriation (P.L. 109-289) provides another $1.7
billion for the Iraqi security forces (discussed further below) and $500 million in
additional funds for the Commanders Emergency Response Program (CERP) under
which U.S. military can expend funds for small construction projects intended to
build good will with the Iraqi population. The FY2008 requests asks for $1 billion
in CERP funds. (In Recommendation 64, the Iraq Study Group says that U.S.
economic assistance to Iraq should be increased to $5 billion per year rather than be
“permitted to decline.” Recommendation 67 calls on the President to appoint a
Senior Advisor for Economic Reconstruction in Iraq.)
On February 5, 2007, the Administration requested additional FY2007 funds
and regular and supplemental 2008 funds. For FY2007 supplemental: $3.84 billion
for the security forces; $2.072 billion in ESF; $200 million for counter-narcotics and
law enforcement; and $7 million for non-proliferation and anti-terrorism. Amounts
close to that requested are appropriated in House and Senate versions of FY2007
supplemental legislation (H.R. 1591 and S. 965, respectively), although the Senate
bill cuts the ESF request by about $250 million and reallocates some categories
related to democracy promotion and other functions.
For FY2008 (regular): $2 billion for the security forces; $298 million in ESF;
and $75.8 million for counter-narcotics and law enforcement. For FY2008

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CRS-25
(supplemental): $772 million in ESF; $159 million in counter-narcotics and law
enforcement; and $35 million for Iraq refugees.
Iraq provides some additional funds for reconstruction. In 2006, and again in
2007, the Iraqi government allocated $2 billion in Iraqi revenues for development
activities. Iraq’s 2007 budget, adopted February 8, 2007, allocates $10 billion in
unspent funds for reconstruction under President Bush’s January 10 plan, discussed
further below.
Oil Revenues. The oil industry is the driver of Iraq’s economy, and
rebuilding this industry has received substantial U.S. and Iraqi attention, as
encapsulated in the draft oil law now before the COR. Before the war, it was widely
asserted by Administration officials that Iraq’s vast oil reserves, believed second only
to those of Saudi Arabia, would fund much, if not all, reconstruction costs. The oil
industry infrastructure suffered little damage during the U.S.-led invasion (only about
nine oil wells were set on fire), but it has become a target of insurgents and
smugglers. Insurgents have focused their attacks on pipelines in northern Iraq that
feed the Iraq-Turkey oil pipeline that is loaded at Turkey’s Mediterranean port of
Ceyhan. (Iraq’s total pipeline system is over 4,300 miles long.) The attacks, coupled
with corruption, smuggling, and other deterioration, has kept production and exports
below expected levels, although high world oil prices have compensating for the
output shortfall. The northern export route was shut in early 2006 but is now
operating. The Iraqi government needs to import refined gasoline because it lacks
sufficient refining capacity. (In Recommendation 62, the Iraq Study Group says that
the Iraqi government should accelerate oil well refurbishment and that the U.S.
military should play a greater role in protecting oil infrastructure.)
A related issue is long-term development of Iraq’s oil industry and which
foreign energy firms, if any, might receive preference for contracts to explore Iraq’s
vast reserves. Some are concerned that the draft oil law, when implemented, will
favor U.S. firms because the draft does not give preference to development contracts
signed during the Saddam era, such as those signed with Russian and Chinese firms.
Among newer investors, Poland reportedly is negotiating with Iraq for possible
investments in Iraq’s energy sector. As referenced above, several small companies,
such as Norway’s DNO, Turkey’s Genel; Canada’s Western Zagros; Turkish-
American PetPrime; and Turkey/U.S.’s A and T Energy have already contracted with
the Kurdistan Regional Government to explore for oil (potential output of 100,000
barrels per day) near the northern city of Zakho, and the draft oil law does give
regions, such as the Kurdish region, an ability to sign contracts with outside firms,
subject to review by a “Federal Oil and Gas Council.” That Council, because of the
composition stipulated in the draft law, is likely to be dominated by Shiite
representatives. (In Recommendation 63, the Iraq Study Group says the United
States should encourage investment in Iraq’s oil sector and assist in eliminating
contracting corruption in that sector.)

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CRS-26
Table 3. Selected Key Indicators
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Exports
Oil
Oil
Revenue
Oil Production
Production
Exports
(pre-
Revenue
Revenue
(2007 to
(weekly avg.)
(pre-war)
war)
(2005)
(2006)
date)
1.99 million
$23.5
$31.3
$5.4
barrels per day
2.5 mbd
1.63 mbd
2.2 mbd
billion
billion
billion
(mbd)
Electricity
Baghdad
Pre-War Load
Current
(hrs. per
Served (MWh)
Load Served
day)
National Average (hrs. per day)
102,000
83,000
6.0
10.9
Other Economic Indicators
GDP Growth Rate (2006 estimate by IMF)
10.6%
GDP
$18.9 billion (2002)
$33.1 billion (2005)
New Businesses Begun Since 2003 30,000
U.S. oil imports from Iraq
approx. 660,000 bpd
Note: Figures in the table are provided by the State Department “Iraq Weekly Status Report” dated
March 21, 2007. Oil export revenue is net of a 5% deduction for reparations to the victims of the
1990 Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait, as provided for in U.N. Security Council Resolution
1483 (May 22, 2003). That 5% deduction is paid into a U.N. escrow account controlled by the U.N.
Compensation Commission to pay judgments awarded.
Lifting U.S. Sanctions. In an effort to encourage private U.S. investment in
Iraq, the Bush Administration has lifted most U.S. sanctions on Iraq, beginning with
Presidential Determinations issued under authorities provided by P.L. 108-7
(appropriations for FY2003) and P.L. 108-11 (FY2003 supplemental):
! On July 30, 2004, President Bush issued an executive order ending
a trade and investment ban imposed on Iraq by Executive Order
12722 (August 2, 1990) and 12724 (August 9, 1990), and reinforced
by the Iraq Sanctions Act of 1990 (Section 586 of P.L. 101-513,
November 5, 1990 (following the August 2, 1990 invasion of
Kuwait.) The order did not unblock Iraqi assets frozen at that time.
! On September 8, 2004, the President designated Iraq a beneficiary
of the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP), enabling Iraqi
products to be imported to the United States duty-free.
! On September 24, 2004, Iraq was removed from the U.S. list of state
sponsors of terrorism under Section 6(j) of the Export
Administration Act (P.L. 96-72). Iraq is thus no longer barred from
receiving U.S. foreign assistance, U.S. votes in favor of international

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CRS-27
loans, and sales of arms and related equipment and services.
Exports of dual use items (items that can have military applications)
are no longer subject to strict licensing procedures.29
! The FY2005 supplemental (P.L. 109-13) removed Iraq from a
named list of countries for which the United States is required to
withhold a proportionate share of its voluntary contributions to
international organizations for programs in those countries.
Debt Relief/WTO Membership. The Administration is attempting to
persuade other countries to forgive Iraq’s debt, built up during Saddam’s regime, and
estimated of Saddam Hussein. The debt is estimated to total about $116 billion, not
including reparations dating to the first Persian Gulf war. In 2004, the “Paris Club”
of 19 industrialized nations agreed to cancel about 80% of the $39 billion Iraq owes
them. However, with the exception of Kuwait, the Persian Gulf states that supported
Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war have not to date firmly agreed to write-off Iraq’s
approximately $50 billion in debt to those countries (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United
Arab Emirates, and Qatar). On December 17, 2004, the United States signed an
agreement with Iraq writing off 100% of Iraq’s $4.1 billion debt to the United States;
that debt consisted of principal and interest from about $2 billion in defaults on Iraqi
agricultural credits from the 1980s.30 On December 13, 2004, the World Trade
Organization (WTO) agreed to begin accession talks with Iraq.
Security Challenges,
Responses, and Options
Since the fall of Saddam Hussein, the United States has employed a multi-
faceted approach to stabilizing Iraq. However, the January 2007 National
Intelligence Estimate (unclassified key judgments) said: “... in the coming 12 to 18
months, we assess that the overall security situation will continue to deteriorate at
rates comparable to the latter part of 2006.”31 The Iraq Study Group said in its
December 6 report that the “situation in Iraq is grave and deteriorating.”32 President
Bush, in his January 10, 2007, speech on Iraq, said, “The situation in Iraq is
unacceptable to the American people and it is unacceptable to me.” The deterioration
in security is, at least partly, the result of growing sectarian violence superimposed
on a tenacious Sunni-led insurgency.
29 A May 7, 2003, executive order left in place the provisions of the Iran-Iraq Arms Non-
Proliferation Act (P.L. 102-484); that act imposes sanctions on persons or governments that
export technology that would contribute to any Iraqi advanced conventional arms capability
or weapons of mass destruction programs.
30 For more information, see CRS Report RL33376, Iraq’s Debt Relief: Procedure and
Potential Implications for International Debt Relief, by Martin A. Weiss.
31 Text of key judgments at [http://www.dni.gov].
32 See p. xiii of the Executive Summary of the Iraq Study Group Report. Dec. 6, 2006.

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CRS-28
Congress has mandated two major periodic Administration reports on progress
in stabilizing Iraq. A Defense Department quarterly report, which DOD has titled
“Measuring Stability and Security in Iraq,” was required by an FY2005 supplemental
appropriation (P.L. 109-13), and renewed by the FY2007 Defense Appropriation
(P.L. 109-289). The latest version was issued in March 2007 and provides some of
the information below. Another report, first issued April 6, 2006 (“1227 Report”),
is required by Section 1227 of the Defense Authorization Act for FY2006 (P.L. 109-
163).
Sunni Arab-Led Insurgency
A Sunni Arab-led insurgency has defied official U.S. expectations in
intensity and duration. Many Sunni insurgents are motivated by opposition to
perceived U.S. rule in Iraq, to democracy, and to Shiite political dominance; others
want to return the Baath Party to power, while others would accept a larger Sunni
political role without the Baath. Still others are pro-Al Qaeda fighters, either
foreign or Iraqi, that want to defeat the United States and spread radical Islam
throughout the region. The insurgent groups are believed to be loosely coordinated
within cities and provinces. However, in early 2006, a group of Iraqi insurgent
factions announced the formation of a national “Mujahedin Shura (Council)”
purportedly including Al Qaeda in Iraq, and its successor umbrella organization calls
itself “The Islamic State of Iraq.”
The insurgency failed to derail the political transition,33 but it has caused high
levels of sectarian violence and debate in the United States over the continuing U.S.
commitment in Iraq. Sunni insurgent groups continue to conduct large-scale, well-
coordinated attacks on police stations and other fixed positions, suicide attacks on
markets frequented by Shiites, and occasional mass kidnappings of 50 or more
people at a time from fixed locations. Since January 2007, insurgent groups have
been exploding chlorine trucks to cause widespread civilian injury. Targets of their
grenades, IEDs (improvised explosive devices), mortars, and direct weapons fire are
U.S. forces and Iraqi officials and security forces, as well as Iraqi civilians of rival
sects, Iraqis working for U.S. authorities, foreign contractors and aid workers, oil
export and gasoline distribution facilities, and water, power, and other facilities. A
New York Times report of December 19, 2006, said that Sunni insurgents had
succeeded in destroying many of the power stations that feed electricity to Baghdad,
contributing to the relative lack of power there.
Whole Sunni-dominated neighborhoods of Baghdad, including Amiriya,
Adhamiya, Jihad, Amal, and Doura apparently serve as Sunni insurgent bases, and
these districts are also the front lines of sectarian warfare with Shiite militias pushing
west from the largely Shiite districts east of the Tigris River in Baghdad. Some of
these and other districts are reported to have been largely depopulated or devoid of
normal commerce or activity. Sunni insurgent violence flared in the Haifa Street area
33 For further information, see Baram, Amatzia. “Who Are the Insurgents?” U.S. Institute
of Peace, Special Report 134, April 2005; and Eisenstadt, Michael and Jeffrey White.
“Assessing Iraq’s Sunni Arab Insurgency.” Washington Institute for Near East Policy,
Policy Focus No. 50, December 2005.

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CRS-29
of Baghdad in January 2007, and the insurgents have made substantial inroads into
the mixed province of Diyala thus far in 2007, necessitating a move by the
commander of Multi-National Division-North, Benjamin Mixon, to deploy additional
U.S. forces to Diyala.
The U.N. Security Council has adopted the U.S. interpretation of the insurgency
in Resolution 1618 (August 4, 2005), condemning the “terrorist attacks that have
taken place in Iraq,” including attacks on Iraqi election workers and foreign
diplomats in Iraq. The FY2006 supplemental (P.L. 109-234) provides $1.3 million
in Treasury Department funds to disrupt insurgent financing.
Al Qaeda in Iraq/Zarqawi Faction.34 A numerically small but politically
significant component of the insurgency is non-Iraqi, mostly in a faction called Al
Qaeda-Iraq. The faction was founded by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a Jordanian Arab
who reputedly fought against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan alongside other
Arab volunteers.35 He was killed in a June 7, 2006, U.S. airstrike and has been
succeeded by the little known Abu Hamza al-Muhajir (also known as Abu Ayyub
al-Masri), an Egyptian national. Al Qaeda-Iraq has been a U.S. focus from very
early on in the war because of its alleged perpetration of large scale suicide and other
bombings against both combatant and civilian targets. This trend began with major
suicide bombings in 2003, beginning with one against U.N. headquarters at the Canal
Hotel in Baghdad (August 19, 2003),36 followed by the August 29, 2003, bombing
in Najaf that killed SCIRI leader Mohammad Baqr Al Hakim. The faction, and
related factions, have also kidnapped a total of over 250 foreigner workers, and killed
at least 40 of those. Zarqawi’s strategy was to spark Sunni-Shiite civil war, an
outcome that President Bush has said largely succeeded. In actions intended to
spread its activities outside Iraq, Al Qaeda-Iraq reputedly committed the August 19,
2005, failed rocket attack in the Jordanian port of Aqaba against two U.S. warships
docked there, as well as the November 10, 2005, bombing of Western-owned hotels
in Amman, Jordan.
34 See CRS Report RL32217, Iraq and Al Qaeda: Allies or Not?, by Kenneth Katzman.
35 Zarqawi went to Iraq in late 2001, along with several hundred associates, after escaping
the U.S. war effort in Afghanistan, settling in northern Iraq, after transiting Iran and
Saddam-controlled Iraq. He took refuge with a Kurdish Islamist faction called Ansar al-
Islam near the town of Khurmal. After the Ansar enclave was destroyed in OIF, Zarqawi
went to the Sunni Arab areas of Iraq, naming his faction the Association of Unity and Jihad.
He then formally affiliated with Al Qaeda (through a reputed exchange of letters) and
changed his faction’s name to “Al Qaeda Jihad in Mesopotamia (Iraq).” It is named as a
Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO), assuming that designation from the earlier Unity and
Jihad title, which was designated as an FTO in October 2004.
36 Among the dead in the latter bombing was the U.N. representative in Iraq, Sergio Vieira
de Mello, and it prompted an evacuation of U.N. personnel from Iraq.

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CRS-30
Table 4. Key Security/Violence Indicators
Indicator
Previous Level
Current Level
Number of U.S. forces in Iraq
160,000 (most of
approximately 150,000 (middle stages
2005 during
of post-January 10, 2007 “surge.”)
election periods)
Surge — involving additional 29,000
including support troops to be fully in
place by June 2007 — will bring U.S.
force levels to about 165,000
U.S./Other Casualties
3,235 U.S. forces; plus about 250
coalition partner soldiers (including
101 British soldiers). Of U.S. deaths,
3,085 since end to “major combat
operations” declared May 1, 2003.
2,620 by hostile action. About 300
U.S. contractors killed.
U.S. Casualties by
“Explosively-Forced
170
Projectiles”
Partner forces in Iraq
28,000 (2005)
13,205 from 25 other countries
Number of Iraqi Insurgents
—
25,000 U.S. estimates; Iraqi estimates
run to 40,000, plus 150,000 supporters
Non-Iraqi (Al Qaeda) fighters
—
1,300 - 3,500
Number of Iranian intelligence
150+
and Revolutionary Guard Qods
Forces alleged in Iraq
Number of all Attacks/day
120/day (mid-
150/day
2006)
Attacks on Infrastructure
13/day (2004)
1.5/day
Iraqi Police Killed since 2004
12,000 +
Number of Shiite militiamen
20,000 (2003)
80,000 (60,000 Mahdi, 15,000 Badr,
5,000 other)
Internally Displaced Persons
300,000 (August
1.8 million
06)
Iraqis Leaving Iraq
—
2 million (incl. 700,000 to Jordan,
(since fall of Saddam)
600,000 to Syria)
Iraq Civilian Deaths
38/day (end 2005)
34,000 total: 94/day (all 2006)
Iraqi Army Battalions engaged
104 (Nov. 06)
112
in operations
Total Iraqi Security Forces
329,800, with new goal of 362,000
Equipped and Trained
Iraqi Army and Special
57 (May 2006)
92
Operations Battalions in the
Lead on Operations
National Police Battalions in
6 (May 2006)
6
the Lead
Number of Provinces Under
0 (end 2005)
3 (Muthanna, Dhi Qar, and Najaf).
Iraqi Security Control
Basra, Maysan, and Wasit to be
handed over later in 2007)
Sources: Information in this table is provided by a variety of sources, including U.S. government
reports on Iraq, Iraqi statements, the Iraq Study Group report, U.N. figures, and press reports.
Note: Additional figures on total numbers of Iraqi security forces, by force component, is contained
in Tables 5 and 6.

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CRS-31
Outside Support for Sunni Insurgents. Numerous accounts have said
that Sunni insurgents are receiving help from neighboring states (money and
weapons),37 although others believe that outside support for the insurgency is not
decisive. Largely because of this outside support, the first 17 recommendations of
the Iraq Study Group report call for intensified regional diplomacy, including multi-
lateral diplomacy with Syria and Iran, in an effort to persuade outside parties not to
stoke the violence in Iraq by aiding protege factions in Iraq.
In September 2005, U.S. ambassador Khalilzad publicly accused Syria of
allowing training camps in Syria for Iraqi insurgents to gather and train before going
into Iraq. These reports led to U.S. warnings, imposition of additional U.S.
sanctions against Syria, and U.S. Treasury Department’s blocking of assets of some
suspected insurgent financiers. Syria tried to deflect the criticism by moves such as
the February 2005 turnover of Saddam Hussein’s half-brother Sabawi to Iraqi
authorities. The latest DOD “Measuring Stability” report says that Syria provides
help to Sunni insurgents, mainly Baathist factions.
Other assessments say the Sunni insurgents, both Iraqi and non-Iraqi, receive
funding from wealthy donors in neighboring countries such as Saudi Arabia,38 where
a number of clerics have publicly called on Saudis to support the Iraqi insurgency.
Press reports say that Saudi officials told visiting Vice President Cheney in
November 2006 that the Saudis might be compelled to assist Iraq’s Sunnis if the
United States withdraws from Iraq.
Sectarian Violence and Shiite Militias/Civil War?
The security environment in Iraq has become more complex over the past year
as Sunni-Shiite sectarian violence has increased. Top U.S. officials said in late 2006
that sectarian-motivated violence — manifestations of an all-out struggle for political
and economic power in Iraq — had displaced the Sunni-led insurgency as the primary
security challenge. However, more recently, U.S. officials have said the new
Baghdad security plan has reduced sectarian violence and the Sunni insurgency again
poses the single greatest security threat. According to the January 2007 National
Intelligence Estimate, “... the term ‘civil war’ does not adequately capture the
complexity of the conflict in Iraq, [but] the term ‘civil war’ accurately describes key
elements of the Iraqi conflict....”
U.S. officials date the escalation of sectarian violence to the February 22, 2006,
Al Qaeda-Iraq bombing of the Askariya Shiite mosque in Samarra. The attack set off
a wave of purported Shiite militia attacks on about 60 Sunni mosques and the killing
of about 400 persons in the first days after the sectarian attacks. Since then, Shiite
militias have retaliated through attacks on Sunni insurgents and Sunni civilians,
intended in part to drive Sunnis out of mixed neighborhoods. Press accounts (New
37 Blanford, Nicholas. “Sealing Syria’s Desolate Border,” Christian Science Monitor, Dec.
21, 2004.
38 Krane, Jim. “U.S. Officials: Iraq Insurgency Bigger.” Associated Press report published
in the Philadelphia Inquirer. July 9, 2004; Schmitt, Eric, and Thom Shanker. “Estimates
By U.S. See More Rebels With More Funds,” New York Times, Oct. 22, 2004.

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CRS-32
York Times, December 24, 2006) say the attacks are converting mixed Sunni-Shiite
districts of Baghdad, such as Hurriya, into predominantly Shiite districts. Many of
those abducted turn up bound and gagged, dumped in about nine reported sites
around Baghdad, including the Tigris River. Sunnis are accusing the Shiites of using
their preponderant presence in the emerging security forces, as well as their party-
based militias, to commit the atrocities, but many Shiites, for their part, blame Sunni
insurgents for the instigation. In late 2005, U.S. forces uncovered militia-run
detention facilities (“Site 4”) and arrested those (Badr and related Iraqi police)
running them.
The sectarian violence has caused U.S. officials to focus on curbing the Mahdi
Army of Moqtada Al Sadr and other Shiite militias, and not only on Sunni insurgents.
U.S. officials have praised Interior Minister Jawad Bolani for trying to remove
militiamen and death squad participants from the security forces; in October 2006,
he fired 3,000 Ministry employees for alleged sectarian links, along with two
commanders of National Police components. That same month, an entire brigade
of National Police were taken out of duty status for retraining for alleged toleration
of sectarian killings in Baghdad. However, in late 2006, U.S. commanders expressed
frustration with Maliki for forcing them to release suspected Mahdi militia
commanders and to dismantle U.S. checkpoints in Sadr City, set up to try to prevent
Shiite sectarian militiamen from operating. U.S. officers blamed these restrictions,
in part, for the failure of “Operation Together Forward,” a Baghdad security
operation involving about 4,000 additional U.S. troops deployed in Baghdad
(supplementing the 9,000 U.S. forces there previously), focused on such violent
districts as Doura, Amiriyah, Rashid, Ghaziliyah, and Mansour. U.S. commanders
expressed early optimism, but in late October 2006, U.S. military officials said
publicly that the operation had not reduced violence overall and would be “re-
focused.” Also apparently contributing to the failure was Iraq’s deployment of only
two out of the six battalions committed to the operation, which was only 1,500
soldiers out of 4,000 pledged.
In an apparent attempt to demonstrate cooperation with President Bush’s
January 10, 2007 security plan, Maliki reportedly communicated to Sadr that Maliki
would not stand in the way of operations against the Mahdi forces, and Maliki
announced that about 600 Mahdi fighters had been arrested in several prior months.
Perhaps suggesting new ability to operate against Shiite elements, U.S. forces
arrested the deputy Health Minister on February 8, 2007, for allegedly funneling
money to Mahdi Army forces engaged in sectarian killings. As the Baghdad security
plan began to operate in February 2007, U.S. forces began to pressure Mahdi forces
and to patrol Sadr City, and there are numerous reports that Sadr told his
commanders not to resist U.S. forces but instead to cease active patrols and
operations, for now. Other reports say Sadr himself fled, or at least visited, Iran as
the U.S.-Iraqi plan began, perhaps fearing that he would be a U.S. target, even though
he is based in Kufa (near Najaf), not Baghdad. On the other hand, U.S. forces
released a senior Sadr aide in March 2007, purportedly at Maliki’s behest.
An additional Shiite threat came unexpectedly in January 2007 from a
previously little known faction called the “Soldiers of Heaven.” The group massed
several hundred fighters outside Karbala in a purported plot to attack Shiite pilgrims
and senior clerics there during the Shiite celebration of Ashura. Some Iraqi officials

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CRS-33
said the group sought to carry out wanton destruction to prepare for the return of the
“Hidden Imam” — the twelfth Imam of Shiite Islam whose return would supposedly
usher in a new era of purification. Many of the group’s members, and its leader,
were killed or captured in a one-day battle on January 27, 2007, by Iraqi forces
backed by U.S. air power and ground operations.
Iraqi Christians and their churches have become major targets of Shiite and
Sunni armed factions, viewing them as allies of the United States. Since the fall of
Saddam Hussein, as many as 100,000 Christians might have left Iraq, leaving the
current size of the community in Iraq at about 600,000 - 800,000. The two most
prominent Christian sects in Iraq are the Chaldean Catholics and the Assyrian
Christians.
Discussed below are the three major organized militias in Iraq: the Kurdish
Peshmerga, the Badr Brigades, and the Mahdi Army.
! Kurdish Peshmerga. Together, the KDP and PUK may have as
many as 100,000 peshmergas (fighters), most of which are
providing security in the Kurdish regional area (Dahuk,
Sulaymaniyah, and Irbil Provinces). Some are in the Iraqi Security
Forces (ISF) and deployed in such cities as Mosul, Tal Affar, and
Baghdad (as part of the 2007 Baghdad security plan). Peshmerga
units have sometimes fought each other; in May 1994, the KDP and
the PUK clashed with each other over territory, customs revenues,
and control over the Kurdish regional government in Irbil.
Peshmerga do not appear to be involved in the Sunni Arab-Shiite
Arab sectarian violence gripping Iraq.
! Badr Brigades. This militia is led by Hadi al-Amiri (a member of
parliament). The Badr Brigades were recruited, trained, and
equipped by Iran’s Revolutionary Guard, aligned with Iran’s
hardliners, during the Iran-Iraq war, during which Badr guerrillas
conducted forays from Iran into southern Iraq to attack Baath Party
officials. Most Badr fighters were recruited from the ranks of Iraqi
prisoners of war held in Iran. However, many Iraqi Shiites viewed
SCIRI as an Iranian puppet and Badr operations in southern Iraq
during the 1980s and 1990s did not shake Saddam’s grip on power.
The Badr “Organization” registered as a separate political entity, in
addition to its SCIRI parent, during elections in 2005. Badr
militiamen play unofficial policing throughout southern Iraq, and
many Badr members also reputedly are in the National Police.
! Mahdi Army. The November 2006 “Measuring Stability” report says
this militia “has replaced Al Qaeda in Iraq as the most dangerous
accelerant of potentially self-sustaining sectarian violence in Iraq.”
This represents a gaining of strength since U.S. military operations
suppressed Mahdi uprisings in April and August of 2004. That
fighting was ended with compromises under which Mahdi forces
stopped fighting in exchange for lenient treatment or releases of
prisoners, amnesty for Sadr himself, and reconstruction aid. Mahdi

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CRS-34
assertiveness since 2005 has accounted for a sharp deterioration of
relations between it and British and U.S. forces, and the Mahdi
forces are likely to become even more assertive as Britain reduces its
forces during 2007. At least 40 British soldiers have died in
suspected Mahdi attacks in southern Iraq since 2005, including a
British helicopter shot down in May 2006, and Mahdi forces also
shelled a British base near Amarah in August 2006, contributing to
a British decision to leave the base. The militia took over Amarah
briefly for a few days in late October 2006. Since mid-2006, there
have been some U.S. casualties in Sadr strongholds. Some experts,
citing independent-minded Mahdi commanders such as one named
Abu Deraa, believe Sadr himself has tried to rein in Mahdi violence
but no longer has full control of his armed following.
Iranian Support. U.S. officials, most recently in a February 11, 2007, U.S.
defense briefing in Baghdad, have repeatedly accused Iran of aiding Shiite militias.
More specifically, they assert that the Qods (Jerusalem) Force of Iran’s
Revolutionary Guard is providing armed Iraqi Shiite factions (most likely Sadr’s
Mahdi forces) with explosives and weapons, including the highly lethal “explosively
forced projectiles” (EFPs). Because of Iran’s support for Shiite militias, the United
States and Iran announced in March 2006 that they would conduct direct talks on the
issue of stabilizing Iraq, but Iran subsequently said the talks were not needed
because Iraq had a new government.
The Iraq Study Group (Recommendations 9, 10, and 11) said that the United
States should engage Iran multilaterally to enlist its assistance on Iraq. The
Administration initially rejected that recommendation — the President’s January 10,
2007, Baghdad security initiative included announcement of an additional aircraft
carrier group and additional Patriot anti-missile systems to the Gulf, moves clearly
directed against Iran. He also said in that speech that U.S. forces would work to
dismantle Iranian (and Syrian) networks that are aiding armed elements in Iraq, and
a Washington Post report of January 26, 2007, said that the Administration has
altered its policy to allow for U.S. forces to combat Iranian agents in Iraq directly if
they are observed actively assisting Iraqi armed factions. Also in December 2006
and January 2007, U.S. forces arrested alleged Iranian Revolutionary Guard Qods
Forces agents — two at a SCIRI compound in Baghdad and five more at a compound
in Irbil. The Iraqi government compelled the release of the first two arrested; the
others are still held. However, in an apparent shift, the Administration supported
and participated in the March 10, 2007, regional conference in Baghdad as noted
above. (For more information, see CRS Report RS22323, Iran’s Influence in Iraq,
and CRS Report RL32048, Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses, both by
Kenneth Katzman.)

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CRS-35
U.S. Efforts to Restore Security
For the nearly four years since the fall of Saddam Hussein, the Administration
has tried to refine its stabilization strategy, with increasing focus on curbing sectarian
violence. Options for further alterations are discussed later in this paper.
“Clear, Hold, and Build”Strategy/Provincial Reconstruction Teams.
In its November 2005 “National Strategy for Victory in Iraq,” the Administration
publicly articulated a strategy called “clear, hold, and build,” intended to create and
expand stable enclaves by positioning Iraqi forces and U.S. civilian reconstruction
experts in areas cleared of insurgents. The strategy, based partly on an idea advanced
by Andrew Krepinevich in the September/October 2005 issue of Foreign Affairs,39
stipulates that the United States should devote substantial resources to preventing
insurgent re-infiltration and promoting reconstruction in selected areas, cultivating
these areas as a model that could eventually expand throughout Iraq. The strategy
formed the basis of Operation Together Forward (I and II) as well as the President’s
January 10, 2007, Baghdad security plan.
In conjunction with the U.S. strategy, the Administration has formed Provincial
Reconstruction Teams (PRTs), a concept used extensively in Afghanistan. Each
PRT is civilian led, composed of about 100 U.S. State Department and USAID
officials and contract personnel, to assist local Iraqi governing institutions, such as
the provincial councils (elected in the January 2005 elections), representatives of the
Iraqi provincial governors, and local ministry representatives. The concept ran into
some U.S. military objections to taking on expanded missions, but the debate was
resolved with an agreement by DOD to provide security to the U.S.-run PRTs. Thus
far, ten PRTs have been inaugurated, of which the following seven are run by the
United States: Mosul, Kirkuk, Hilla, Baghdad, Anbar Province, two in Salah ad-Din
Province, and Baquba. Of the partner-run PRTs, Britain has formed a PRT in Basra,
Italy has formed one in Dhi Qar province, and South Korea runs one in Irbil. In
conjunction with the President’s January 10, 2007, strategy announcement, plans are
to open an additional twelve PRTs, including six more in Baghdad and three more
in Anbar. These plans will necessitate adding 400 diplomats and contractors to staff
the new PRTs, although the State Department has asked that about half of these new
positions be filled with military personnel at least temporarily.
PRT Funding. An FY2006 supplemental request asked for $400 million for
operational costs for the PRTs, of which the enacted version, P.L. 109-234, provides
$229 million. The requested $675 million for development grants to be distributed
by the PRTs is fully funded through the ESF appropriation for Iraq in this law. In
connection with the President’s January 10, 2007 initiative, the Administration asked
for $414 million in additional FY2007 project funds for PRTs.
U.S. Counter-Insurgent Combat Operations. The Administration
position is that continued combat operations are needed to combat sectarian violence
and the Sunni insurgency. U.S. military headquarters in Baghdad (Combined Joint
Task Force-7, CJTF-7) is a multi-national headquarters “Multinational Force-Iraq,
39 Krepinevich, Andrew. “How to Win in Iraq,” Foreign Affairs, September/October 2005.

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MNF-I,” now headed by four-star U.S. Gen. David Petraeus, who previously led U.S.
troops in the Mosul area and established the training and equipping program for the
ISF. As of December 2006, the head of Multinational Corps-Iraq is Lt. Gen. Ray
Odierno.
A major focus of U.S. counter-insurgent combat has been Anbar Province,
which includes the cities of Fallujah and Ramadi (provincial capital), the latter of
which is the most restive of all Iraqi cities and which is assessed to have virtually no
functioning governance. There have been about 40,000 U.S. troops in Anbar
conducting combat primarily in and around Ramadi. In the run-up to the December
15, 2005, elections, U.S. (and Iraqi) forces conducted several major operations (for
example Operations Matador, Dagger, Spear, Lightning, Sword, Hunter, Steel
Curtain, and Ram) to clear contingents of foreign fighters and other insurgents from
Sunni cities along the Euphrates River.
January 10, 2007, Security Plan and Troop “Surge.” Acknowledging
that the initiatives above had not brought security or stability, the President’s January
10, 2007, Baghdad security initiative is intended primarily to bring security to
Baghdad and create conditions under which Iraq’s communities can reconcile. The
plan, which in many ways reflects recommendations in a January 2007 report by the
American Enterprise Institute entitled “Choosing Victory: A Plan for Success in
Iraq,”40 was announced as formally under way on February 7, 2007, and includes the
following components:
! the infusion of an additional 28,700 U.S. forces to Baghdad and
4,000 Marines to Anbar Province, an increase of 7,200 over force
levels announced January 10, 2007. The increase includes support
troops and 2,200 military police requested by Petraeus. The plan
envisions that these forces, along with additional Iraqi forces, will
be able to secure and hold neighborhoods and areas cleared of
insurgents and thereby cause the population not to depend on
militias or other armed elements for security. The forces are being
based, along with Iraqi soldiers, in about 100 fixed locations around
Baghdad, of which about 33 will be so-called “Joint Security
Stations.” About 10,000 of the additional U.S. forces are in place;
the deployment is expected to be completed by June 2007 and,
according to Petraeus, will remain at the higher levels until at least
late in 2007, and possibly longer;
! cooperation from the Iraqi government, such as progress on the
reconciliation steps discussed earlier, and the commitment of the
Iraqi forces discussed previously 3 brigades (about 6,000 soldiers),
plus an unspecified number of police commandos and regular police.
40 The two principal authors of the report are Frederick W. Kagan and Jack Keane (General,
U.S. Army, ret.).

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CRS-37
! provision of at least $1.2 billion in new U.S. aid, including the $414
million for PRTs, and the remainder for job creation and CERP
projects, in part to revive long-dormant state-owned factories.
U.S. commanders say that the security plan is showing positive early results,
particularly a drop in the number of victims of sectarian violence found daily around
Baghdad, and the reopening and revival of some open-air markets and shopping
patterns. However, others say that Sunni insurgents continue to conduct bombings
in Baghdad with virtual impunity, that the insurgents have merely moved elsewhere,
and that the Shiite militias are waiting out the U.S. deployments to revive their
activities later. As noted previously, U.S. commanders, including overall commander
David Petraeus and commander of Multi-National Division-North Benjamin Mixon,
are expressing increasing concern about violence in Diyala Province as of March
2007 and are deploying additional forces there and in “belts” around Baghdad where
insurgents have moved to in order to regroup and try to thwart the U.S. “troop surge.”
In his first news conference as commander of forces in Iraq, Gen. Petraeus reiterated
comments from other military leaders that there is no purely military solution to
Iraq’s security situation.
Building Iraqi Security Forces (ISF)41
A major pillar of U.S. policy has been to equip and train Iraqi security forces
(ISF) that could secure Iraq by themselves, although the 2007 Baghdad security plan
moves away from reliance on this strategy. President Bush stated in a June 28, 2005
speech, “Our strategy can be summed up this way: As the Iraqis stand up, we will
stand down.”42 However, the President’s January 10, 2007, plan relies more heavily
on combat by U.S. forces than on transferring security responsibilities to the ISF.
The commander of the ISF training mission, the Multinational Transition Security
Command-Iraq (MNSTC-I), is Gen. Martin Dempsey.
Still, Iraqi leaders are holding to proposed timetables for Iraqi security control:
by April 2007, Iraq is to assume full control of its military. The degrees to which the
Iraqi government has assumed operational ISF control, and of ISF security control
over territory, are shown in the security indicators table. A map showing areas under
Iraqi control and ISF lead can be found in the Iraq Weekly Status Report of the State
Department, available online at [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c3212.htm]. Britain
says it is planning to turn over Basra Province and then Maysan and Wasit provinces,
during 2007, security conditions permitting. However, areas under ISF control or
leadership are not necessarily pacified or stable, as noted by the major battle in Najaf
on January 27, 2007. The Iraq Study Group recommends that the training and
equipping of the ISF be completed by the first quarter of 2008 (Recommendation 42.)
With the total ISF goal of 325,000 reached, in late 2006 the target level of the
ISF was increased to 362,000 to try to compensate for the forces’ weaknesses. As
41 For additional information, see CRS Report RS22093, Iraq’s New Security Forces: The
Challenge of Sectarian and Ethnic Influences, by Jeremy Sharp.
42 Speech by President Bush can be found at [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news.releases/
2005/06/print/20050628-7.html].

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CRS-38
noted in the March 2007 “Measuring Stability” report, many ISF members are
absent-without-leave or might have deserted at any given time, thereby reducing the
actual fielded forces. In addition, the Defense Department plans to increase the
number of U.S. forces embedded with or mentoring the ISF from 4,000 to well over
10,000, a plan endorsed by the Iraq Study Group report (Recommendations 43 and
44).
The most recent DOD “Measuring Stability” report reiterates previously
reported criticisms of the ISF, including that the ISF continue to lack an effective
command structure or independent initiative, and that there continues to be a culture
of corruption throughout the ISF structure. On the other hand, some U.S.
commanders praised their performance in the January 27, 2007, Najaf battle for
detecting and then confronting the large, armed formation, and U.S. officials say that
the Iraqi units that are showing up for the new Baghdad security plan are at 80%
strength or better.
Other major issues noted are ethnic balance and related militia/insurgent
penetration and involvement in sectarian violence, particularly among the police
forces. U.S. commanders have consistently acknowledged difficulty recruiting
Sunni Arabs into the ISF and have said this is a deficiency they are trying to correct.
Most of the ISF, particularly the police, are Shiites, with Kurdish units mainly
deployed in the north. There are few units of mixed ethnicity, and, as discussed
above, many Sunnis see the ISF as mostly Shiite and Kurdish instruments of
repression and responsible for sectarian killings. Widely reported is that many ISF
members view themselves as loyal to their former militias or party leaders, and not
to a national force. One controversial element of the January 10, 2007, new
Baghdad security plan is its apparent reliance on several mostly Kurdish brigades, a
deployment likely to be resented by both Shiite and Sunni Arabs in the capital.
Another positive trend noted by U.S. officials is what they say is increasing
tribal cooperation in Anbar Province. According to press reports, tribal leaders have,
in recent months, persuaded 2,000 men (almost all Sunni) to join the ISF in the
province, and these forces are participating in securing the border with Syria as well
as helping secure Ramadi and other parts of Anbar.
The police forces are widely judged to be more corrupt and sectarian than the
military forces. In 2005, U.S. officials stated that 2006 would be the “year of the
police,” but little progress was noted. The Iraq Study Group (Recommendations 50-
61) contain several suggestions for reforming and improving the police, including
assigning the lead role in advising and training the anti-crime portions of the police
forces to the U.S. Department of Justice, and transferring those police forces that are
involved in anti-insurgency operations to the Ministry of Defense from their current
organizational structure under the Ministry of Interior.
Weaponry. Most observers say the ISF are severely underequipped,
dependent primarily on donations of surplus equipment by coalition members. Some
of its equipment is discussed in the table below. The October 2006 report of the
SIGIR ([http://www.sigir.mil/reports/quarterlyreports/default.aspx]) notes problems
with tracking Iraqi weapons; of the approximately 370,000 weapons turned over to
Iraq by the United States since Saddam’s fall, only 12,000 serial numbers were

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CRS-39
properly recorded. Some fear that some of these weapons might have fallen into the
hands of insurgents or sectarian militias, although it is also possible the weapons are
still in Defense and Interior Ministry stocks but are not catalogued. (In
Recommendation 45, the Iraq Study Group said the United States should encourage
the Iraqi government to accelerate its Foreign Military Sales requests for U.S. arms
and that departing U.S. combat units should leave behind some of their equipment
for use by the ISF.)
ISF Funding. The accelerated training and equipping of the Iraqis is a key part
of U.S. policy. The Administration has been shifting much U.S. funding into this
training and equipping mission:
! According to the State Department, a total of $5.036 billion in IRRF
funds has been allocated to build (train, equip, provide facilities for,
and in some cases provide pay for) the ISF. Of those funds, as of
September 20, 2006, about $4.938 billion has been obligated and
$4.621 billion of that has been disbursed.
! An FY2005 supplemental appropriation (P.L. 109-13) provided an
additional $5.7 billion to equip and train the ISF, funds to be
controlled by the Department of Defense and provided to MNSTC-I.
Of that amount, about $4.7 billion has been obligated. Therefore,
the total obligated (spent) for the ISF to date is about $9.6 billion.
! The FY2006 supplemental (P.L. 109-234) provided another $3
billion for the ISF but withholds the remaining ISF facilities
construction funding.
! The FY2007 Defense appropriations law (P.L. 109-289) provides an
additional $1.7 billion to train and equip the ISF. The FY2007
supplemental request asks an additional $3.84 billion for this
purpose, and the FY2008 request is for $2 billion. Both the House
and Senate FY2007 bills (H.R. 1591 and S. 965) appropriate the
requested levels for FY2007 supplemental funding.

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CRS-40
Table 5. Ministry of Defense Forces
(As of March 21, 2007)
IRRF Funds
Force
Size/Strength
Allocated
Iraqi Army
128,500 total. Forces in units are in 112
$1.097 billion for
battalions (about 80,000 personnel), with new
facilities; $707
goal of 132 battalions. Remainder not in
million for
formed units. Trained for eight weeks, paid
equipment; $656
$60/month. Has mostly East bloc equipment,
million for
including 77 T-72 tanks donated by Poland.
training, personnel,
and operations
Special
About 1,600 divided between Iraqi Counter-
Operations
Terrorist Force (ICTF) and a Commando
Forces
Battalion. Trained for 12 weeks, mostly in
Jordan.
Strategic
About 2,900 personnel in seven battalions to
Infrastructure
protect oil pipelines, electricity infrastructure.
Battalions
The goal is 11 battalions.
Mechanized
About 1,500. Recently transferred from
Police
Ministry of Interior control.
Brigade
Air Force
About 900, its target size. Has 9 helicopters,
$28 million
3 C-130s; 14 observation aircraft. Trained for
allocated for air
six months. UAE and Jordan to provide other
fields (from funds
aircraft and helos.
for Iraqi Army,
above)
Navy
About 1,100, the target size. Has a Patrol Boat
Squadron and a Coastal Defense Regiment.
Fields about 35 patrol boats for anti-smuggling
and anti-infiltration. Controls naval base at
Umm Qasra, Basra port, and Khor al-Amaya
oil terminals. Some training by Australian
Navy.
Totals
136,500
U.S./Other
U.S. training, including embedding with Iraqi units (10 per
Trainers
battalion), involves about 4,000 U.S. forces (increasing to 10,000),
run by Multinational Security Transition Command - Iraq (MNSTC-
I). Training at Taji, north of Baghdad; Kirkush, near Iranian border;
and Numaniya, south of Baghdad. All 26 NATO nations at NATO
Training Mission - Iraq (NTM-I) at Rustamiyah (300 trainers).
Others trained at NATO bases in Norway and Italy. Jordan,
Germany, and Egypt also have done training.

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CRS-41
Table 6. Ministry of Interior Forces
(As of March 21, 2007)
Force/Entity
Size/Strength
IRRF Funds
Allocated
Ministry of Interior
Total size unknown. 3,000 employees dismissed
in October for corruption/sectarianism.
Iraqi Police Service
135,000, including 1,300 person Highway Patrol. $ 1.806
(IPS)
(About the target size.) Gets eight weeks of
billion
training, paid $60 per month. Not organized as
battalions.
Dignitary Protection About 500 personnel
National Police
About 25,400. Comprises “Police Commandos,”
Public Order Police,” and “Mechanized Police.”
Organized into 28 battalions. Overwhelmingly
Shiite. Gets four weeks of counter-insurgency
training. Iraq Study Group (Recommendation 50)
proposes transfer to MOD control.
Emergency
About 300, able to lead operations. Hostage
Response Unit
rescue.
Border Enforcement 32,100. Controls 258 border forts built or under
$437 million
Department
construction. Has Riverine Police component to
(incl. $3
secure water crossings. Iraq Study Group
million for
(Recommendation 51) proposes transfer to MOD
stipends to
control.
150 former
WMD
workers.
Totals (all forces)
193,300
Training
Training by 2,000 U.S. personnel (DOD-lead) as embeds and
partners. Pre-operational training mostly at Jordan International
Police Training Center; Baghdad Police College and seven
academies around Iraq; and in UAE. Iraq Study Group
(Recommendation 57) proposes U.S. training at local police
station level. Countries doing training aside from U.S.: Canada,
Britain, Australia, Sweden, Poland, UAE, Denmark, Austria,
Finland, Czech Republic, Germany (now suspended), Hungary,
Slovenia, Slovakia, Singapore, Belgium, and Egypt.
Facilities Protection
Growing allegations that some of the 145,000
$53 million
Service (FPS)
members of the FPS, which are attached to
allocated for
individual ministries, are involved in sectarian
this service
violence. U.S. and Iraq began trying to rein in the thus far.
force in May 2006 by placing it under some
Ministry of Interior guidance, including issuing
badges and supervising what types of weapons it
uses. (In Recommendation 54, the Iraq Study
Group says the Ministry of Interior should
identify, register, and otherwise control FPS.)

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CRS-42
Coalition-Building and Maintenance43
Some believe that the Bush Administration did not exert sufficient efforts to
enlist greater international participation in peacekeeping originally and that the U.S.
mission in Iraq is being complicated by diminishing foreign military contributions.
The Administration view is that partner drawdowns reflect a stabilizing security
environment in the areas those forces are serving. A list of contributing countries,
although not force levels, can be found in the Department of State’s “Iraq Weekly
Status Report” referenced earlier. Britain continues to lead a multinational division
in southern Iraq, based in Basra, but Prime Minister Tony Blair said on February 21,
2007, that British forces would be reduced from 7,100 currently to about 5,500 by
mid-2007, and possibly to below 5,000 by the end of 2007, and that Basra Province
would be turned over to ISF control. A Poland-led force (Polish forces number 900,
down from a high of 2,600 in 2005) has been based in Hilla and includes forces from
the following foreign countries: Armenia, Slovakia, Denmark, El Salvador, Ukraine,
Romania, Lithuania, Latvia, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan. However, Poland is phasing
out its role and might withdraw its remaining forces later in 2007.
The coalition shrinkage began with Spain’s May 2004 withdrawal of its 1,300
troops. Spain made that decision following the March 11, 2004, Madrid bombings
and subsequent defeat of the former Spanish government that had supported the war
effort. Honduras, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua followed Spain’s
withdrawal (900 total personnel), and the Philippines withdrew in July 2004 after
one of its citizens was taken hostage. On the other hand, many nations are replacing
their contingents with trainers for the ISF or financial contributions or other
assistance to Iraq. Among other changes are the following.
! Ukraine, which lost eight soldiers in a January 2005 insurgent attack,
withdrew most of its 1,500 forces after the December 2005 elections.
! Bulgaria pulled out its 360-member unit after the December 2005
elections. However, in March 2006 it sent in a 150-person force to
take over guard duties of Camp Ashraf, a base in eastern Iraq where
Iranian oppositionists are located.
! South Korea withdrew 270 of its almost 3,600 troops in June 2005,
and, in line with a November 2005 decision, withdrew another 1,000
in May 2006, bringing its troop level to about 2,200 (based in Irbil
in Kurdish-controlled Iraq). The deployment has been extended
until the end of 2007.
! Japan completed its withdrawal of its 600-person military
reconstruction contingent in Samawah on July 17, 2006. The
Australian forces protecting the Japanese contingent (450 out of the
43 For additional information on international contributions to Iraq peacekeeping and
reconstruction, see CRS Report RL32105, Post-War Iraq: Foreign Contributions to
Training, Peacekeeping, and Reconstruction, by Jeremy Sharp and Christopher Blanchard.

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CRS-43
total Australian deployment in Iraq of 1,350) moved to other areas,
and security in Muthanna was handed over to ISF control.
! Italy completed its withdrawal in December 2006 after turning over
Dhi Qar Province over to ISF control.
! Romanian leaders are debating whether to withdraw or reduce their
890 forces.
! On February 21, 2007, the same day as the British drawdown
announcement, Denmark said it will likely withdraw its 460 troops
from the Basra area by August 2007, and Lithuania said it is
“seriously considering” withdrawing its 53 troops from Iraq. On the
other hand, Georgia said on March 10, 2007, that it would greatly
increase its current Iraq force of 850 to about 2,000 to assist the
Baghdad security plan.
NATO/EU/Other Civilian Training. As noted above, all NATO countries
have now agreed to train the ISF through the NTM-I, as well as to contribute funds
or equipment. Several NATO countries and others are offering to also train civilian
personnel. In addition to the security training offers discussed above, European
Union (EU) leaders have offered to help train Iraqi police, administrators, and judges
outside Iraq. At the June 22, 2005 Brussels conference discussed above, the EU
pledged a $130 million package to help Iraq write its permanent constitution and
reform government ministries. The FY2005 supplemental appropriations (P.L. 109-
13) provided $99 million to set up a regional counter-terrorism center in Jordan to
train Iraqi security personnel and civil servants.
President’s January 10 Initiative, Iraq Study Group
Report, Legislation, and Other Options
In formulating the new Baghdad security initiative announced on January 10,
2007, President Bush said he weighed the December 6, 2006, report of the Iraq Study
Group, as well as input from several other reviews, including one directed by
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Pace and another under direction of the
National Security Council. In the time surrounding the speech, a number of senior
personnel shifts were announced: U.S. Ambassador Khalilzad’s replacement by
Ambassador to Pakistan Ryan Crocker, Gen. Abizaid’s replacement by CENTCOM
Commander by Admiral William Fallon; Gen. Casey’s replacement as head of
MNF-I by General David Petraeus. Robert Gates replaced Donald Rumsfeld as
Defense Secretary in December 2006.
The President’s January 10 plan appeared to deviate from many aspects of the
Iraq Study Group report, although the differences have narrowed since January. The
Administration has noted that the Study Group report said the Group might support
a temporary surge along the lines proposed by the President. The Iraq Study Group
itself was launched in March 2006; chosen by mutual agreement among its
congressional organizers to co-chair are former Secretary of State James Baker and

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CRS-44
former Chairman of the House International Relations Committee Lee Hamilton.
The eight other members of the Group are from both parties and have held high
positions in government. The group was funded by the conference report on P.L.
109-234, FY2006 supplemental, which provided $1 million to the U.S. Institute of
Peace for operations of the group. The Group submitted its report to President Bush
on December 6, 2006.44 Some of the specific recommendations have been discussed
throughout this paper and, among the major themes of the 79 recommendations,
along with comparable or contrasting features of the President’s plan, are the
following.
! Foremost, transition from U.S.-led combat to Iraqi security self-
reliance by early 2008 (Recommendations 40-45), with continued
U.S. combat against Al Qaeda in Iraq and force protection, in
addition to training and equipping the ISF. The Administration has
rejected placing a timetable on winding down U.S. combat against
Iraqi Sunni insurgents and other armed elements.
! Heightened regional and international diplomacy, including with
Iran and Syria, and including the holding of a major international
conference in Baghdad (Recommendations 1-12). As noted above,
the President’s January 10 initiative initially rejected multilateral
talks with Iran and Syria, but the Administration later appeared to
adopt the recommendation by backing the March 10, 2007, regional
conference discussed above.
! As part of an international approach, renewed commitment to Arab-
Israeli peace (Recommendations 13-17). This was not a major
feature of the President’s plan, although he has authorized stepped
up U.S. diplomacy by Secretary of State Rice on this issue.
! Additional economic, political, and military support for the
stabilization of Afghanistan (Recommendation 18). This was not
specified in the President’s January 10 plan, although, separately,
there have been announced increases in U.S. troops and aid for
Afghanistan.
! Setting milestones for the Iraqi government to achieve political
reconciliation, security, and governance, including possibly
withholding some U.S. support if the Iraqi government refuses or
fails to do so (Recommendations 19-37). The President’s plan does
not threaten to reduce support for the Iraqi government if it fails to
uphold its commitments.
! Giving greater control over police and police commando units to the
Iraqi Ministry of Defense, which is considered less sectarian than the
Ministry of Interior that now controls some of these forces, and
reforming the Ministry of Interior (Recommendations 50-58). The
44 Full text at [http://www.usip.org].

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CRS-45
President’s plan, according to a White House fact sheet released on
January 10, requires reform of the Ministry of Interior.
! Securing and expanding Iraq’s oil sector (Recommendations 62-63).
The President’s plan expects Iraq to pass a pending oil law, which
would, in part, encourage foreign investment in Iraq’s energy sector.
! Increasing economic aid to Iraq and enlisting more international
donations of assistance (Recommendations 64-67). The President’s
plan includes increases in aid, as discussed above.
! Ensuring that the United States has the right skills serving in Iraq
and has sufficient intelligence on developments there
(Recommendations 73-79). This is not specifically addressed in the
President’s plan.
Congressional reaction to the President’s January 10 plan appeared to be
negative, judging from congressional votes since the plan was announced. The
contention appeared to center on the additional U.S. forces sent to Iraq, and many
experts say additional forces will delay the time when Iraq’s security forces can
handle their own security affairs. Others say that increasing troops does not resolve
the underlying political differences in Iraq. Supporters of the plan said that it offers
substantially more prospects of success than any of the likely alternatives.
In House action, on February 16, 2007, the House passed (246-182) a non-
binding resolution (H.Con.Res. 63) expressing opposition to the sending of
additional forces to Iraq. However, on February 17, 2007, the Senate did not vote
to close off debate and did not vote on a version of that resolution (S. 574). Earlier,
a Senate resolution opposing the troop increase (S.Con.Res. 2) was reported out of
the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on January 24 (12-9 vote). A cloture
motion on this measure failed on February 1, 2007. After these actions, the Senate
leadership introduced S.J.Res. 9, a measure that would require the president to
redeploy U.S. combat forces by March 31, 2008, for all except the same functions as
recommended by the Iraq Study Group.
The House leadership subsequently inserted a binding provision of FY2007
supplemental appropriations legislation (H.R. 1591) that would require the president,
as a condition of maintaining U.S. forces in Iraq, to certify (by July 1, 2007) that Iraq
had made progress toward several political reconciliation benchmarks. Even if he
certifies by October 1, 2007, that the benchmarks have been met, the provision
amendment would require the start of a redeployment from Iraq by March 1, 2008,
and to be completed by September 1, 2008. The whole bill passed the House on
March 23, 2007. In the Senate, a provision of the FY2007 supplemental
appropriations bill (S. 965) would set a non-binding goal for U.S. withdrawal of
March 1, 2008, in line with S.J.Res. 9 cited above.
Other resolutions have been introduced that oppose the increase in U.S. forces,
including H.R. 353, H.R. 438, H.Con.Res. 23, H.Res. 41, S.Con.Res. 4, and
S.Con.Res. 7. Another Senate resolution, S. 233, would prohibit the expenditure of
U.S. funds for a troop increase, and another, S. 308, would require congressional

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CRS-46
authorization for an increase in forces. On the other hand, S.Res. 70 says that U.S.
forces in Iraq should have all the resources they require and that Iraq must make
progress on the milestones it has submitted to the Administration. H.R. 511 states
a sense of Congress not to cut off any funds for OIF.45
The sections below discuss options that have been under discussion even before
the report of the Iraq Study Group. Some of the ideas discussed may be similar to
some of the recommendations of the Study Group as well as the President’s plan.
Altering Troop Levels or Mission
Even before announcing his January 10 plan, President Bush opposed major
reductions in troop levels or changes to their mission, stating that the United States
must uphold its “commitment” to the Iraqi government and maintaining that the
Iraqi government would collapse upon an immediate pullout. Other consequences,
according to the Administration, would be full-scale civil war, safehaven for Al
Qaeda - Iraq, emboldening of Al Qaeda more generally, and increased involvement
of regional powers in the fighting in Iraq. In the 109th Congress, H.Res. 861 stated
that “... it is not in the national security interest of the United States to set an arbitrary
date for the withdrawal or redeployment” of U.S. forces from Iraq; the resolution
passed the House on June 16 by a vote of 256-153, with 5 voting “present.”
Troop Increase. Some observers have said that the United States should
increase troops levels in Iraq even further to tamp down sectarian violence and
prevent Sunni insurgents from re-infiltrating areas cleared by U.S. operations. The
American Enterprise Institute paper mentioned above recommends that at least
20,000 additional U.S. forces would be required to secure Baghdad, a number
roughly in line with the President’s January 10 plan. However, the AEI report’s
authors say that a troop “surge” needs to be relatively sustained, lasting at least 18
months, to have the desired effect.46
Immediate Withdrawal. Some Members argue that the United States should
begin to withdraw immediately, maintaining that the decision to invade Iraq was a
mistake in light of the failure thus far to locate WMD, that the large U.S. presence
in Iraq is inflaming the insurgency, and that remaining in Iraq will result in additional
U.S. casualties without securing U.S. national interests. Those who take this
position include most of the approximately 70 Members of the “Out of Iraq
Congressional Caucus,” formed in June 2005. In November 2005, Representative
John Murtha, ranking member (now chairman) of the Defense Appropriations
Subcommittee, introduced a resolution (H.J.Res. 73, 109th Congress) calling for a
U.S. withdrawal “at the earliest practicable date” and the maintenance of an “over
the horizon” U.S. presence, mostly in Kuwait (some say U.S. troops could be based
45 For a description of all legislation on Iraq in the 110th Congress, go to the related CRS web
page at [http://www.crs.gov/products/browse/officialsources/WS00004.shtml]. CRS has
a similar compilation of bills from the 109th Congress at [http://www.crs.gov/products/
browse/officialsources/WS00002.shtml].
46 Keane, Jack and Frederick Kagan. “The Right Type of Surge,” Washington Post op-ed,
December 27, 2006.

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CRS-47
in the Kurdish north) from which U.S. forces could continue to battle Al Qaeda -
Iraq. A related resolution, H.Res. 571 (written by Representative Duncan Hunter,
chairman of the House Armed Services Committee), expressed the sense “that the
deployment of U.S. forces in Iraq be terminated immediately;” it failed 403-3 on
November 18, 2005. Representative Murtha has introduced a similar bill in the 110th
Congress (H.J.Res. 18); a Senate bill (S. 121) as well as a few other House bills
(H.R. 663, H.R. 455, and H.R. 645) contain similar provisions.
Other Members argue that U.S. forces are now policing a civil war rather than
fighting an insurgency. Some have introduced legislation (H.R. 508 and H.R. 413)
that would repeal the original authorization for the Iraq war.
Withdrawal Timetable. Another alternative is the setting of a timetable for
a U.S. withdrawal or the beginning of a withdrawal. The Iraq Study Group suggests
a winding down of the U.S. combat mission by early 2008 but does not recommend
a firm timetable. In the 110th Congress, Senator Obama has introduced S. 433,
setting a deadline for withdrawing combat troops by March 31, 2008, a date similar
to that stated in S.J.Res. 9 and S. 965.
In the 109th Congress, the timetable issue was debated extensively. In
November 2005, Senator Levin, who takes the view that the United States needs to
force internal compromise in Iraq by threatening to withdraw, introduced an
amendment to S. 1042 (FY2006 defense authorization bill) to compel the
Administration to work on a timetable for withdrawal during 2006. Reportedly, on
November 10, 2005, Chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee John
Warner reworked the Levin proposal into an amendment that stopped short of setting
a timetable for withdrawal but requires an Administration report on a “schedule for
meeting conditions” that could permit a U.S. withdrawal. That measure, which also
states in its preamble that “2006 should be a period of significant transition to full
Iraqi sovereignty,” achieved bi-partisan support, passing 79-19. It was incorporated,
with only slight modifications by House conferees, in the conference report on the
bill (H.Rept. 109-360, P.L. 109-163). On June 22, 2006, the Senate debated two
Iraq-related amendments to an FY2007 defense authorization bill (S. 2766). One,
offered by Senator Kerry, setting a July 1, 2007, deadline for U.S. redeployment from
Iraq, was defeated 86-13. Another amendment, sponsored by Senator Levin, called
on the Administration to begin redeployment out of Iraq by the end of 2006, but with
no deadline for full withdrawal. It was defeated 60-39.
Troop Reduction. Depending on the results of the President’s January 10,
2007, initiative, there might be debate on a possible troop reduction. U.S. officials
have said that success of the January 10 initiative might pave the way for an eventual
U.S. force reduction, although some envision a reduction if the plan does not
succeed. During his tour as senior U.S. commander in Iraq, General Casey presented
to President Bush options for a substantial drawdown of U.S. forces in Iraq,
dependent on security progress, to about 120,000, with a subsequent reduction to
about 100,000. The plan faded, as have all previous such reduction plans, when the
security situation did not calm.

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CRS-48
International and Regional Diplomacy
As noted above, many of the Iraq Study Group recommendations propose
increased regional, multi-lateral, and international diplomacy, beyond steps already
taken by the Administration, such as attending the March 10 regional conference
discussed above. One idea, included in the Study Group report, is to form a “contact
group” of major countries and Iraqi neighbors to prevail on Iraq’s factions to
compromise. In the 110th Congress, a few bills (H.R. 744, H.Con.Res. 43, and
H.Con.Res. 45) support the Iraq Study Group recommendation for an international
conference on Iraq. In the 109th Congress, these ideas were included in several
resolutions, including S.J.Res. 36, S.Res. 470, S.J.Res. 33, and S. 1993, although
several of these bills also include provisions for timetables for a U.S. withdrawal.
Other ideas involve recruitment of new force donors. In July 2004, then-
Secretary of State Powell said the United States would consider a Saudi proposal for
a contingent of troops from Muslim countries to perform peacekeeping in Iraq,
reportedly under separate command. Some Iraqi leaders believed that such
peacekeepers would come from Sunni Muslim states and would inevitably favor
Sunni factions within Iraq. On the other hand, several experts believe that the lack
of progress in stabilizing Iraq is caused by internal Iraqi disputes and processes and
that new regional or international steps would yield minimal results. For more
information, see CRS Report RL33793, Iraq: Regional Perspectives and U.S. Policy,
coordinated by Christopher Blanchard.
Another idea is to identify a high-level international mediator to negotiate with
Iraq’s major factions. Some Members of Congress wrote to President Bush in
November 2006 asking that he name a special envoy to Iraq to follow up on some of
the Administration’s efforts to promote political reconciliation in Iraq.
Political Reconciliation and Reorganization
Some proposals involve different methods for altering Iraq’s power structure so
that no major ethnic or sectarian community feels excluded or has incentive to back
violence.
Reorganize the Power Structure. Some experts believe that adjusting
U.S. troop levels would not address the underlying causes of violence in Iraq. Those
who want to build a unified and strong central government, including the Bush
Administration, have identified the need to assuage Sunni Arab grievances through
the political process, and several of the benchmarks required of the Iraqi government
are intended to achieve that objective. Others believe that more sweeping political
reconciliation efforts are needed, but there is little agreement on what additional or
alternative package of incentives, if any, would persuade most Sunnis leaders — and
their constituents — to fully support the government. Some believe that Sunnis
might be satisfied by a wholesale cabinet/governmental reshuffle that gives several
leading positions, such as that of President, to a Sunni Arab, although many Kurds
might resent such a move because a Kurd now holds that post. Others oppose major
governmental change because doing so might necessitate the voiding of the 2005
elections, a move that would appear un-democratic.

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CRS-49
Decentralization and Break-Up Options. Some commentators maintain
that Iraq cannot be stabilized as one country and should be broken up into three
separate countries: one Kurdish, one Sunni Arab, and one Shiite Arab. Another
version of this idea, propounded by Senator Biden and Council on Foreign Relations
expert Leslie Gelb (May 1, 2006, New York Times op-ed) is to form three
autonomous regions, dominated by each of the major communities. A former U.S.
Ambassador and an adviser to the Kurds, Peter Galbraith, also advocates this option.
According to this view, decentralizing Iraq into autonomous zones would ensure that
Iraq’s territorial integrity is preserved while ensuring that these communities do not
enter all-out civil war with each other. Some believe that, to alleviate Iraqi concerns
about equitable distribution of oil revenues, an international organization should be
tapped to distribute Iraq’s oil revenues.
Critics of both forms of this idea believe that any segregation of Iraq, legal or
de-facto, would cause parts of Iraq to fall firmly under the sway of Iraq’s powerful
neighbors. Others believe that the act of dividing Iraq’s communities in any way
would cause widespread violence, particularly in areas of mixed ethnicity, as each
community struggles to maximize its territory and its financial prospects. This
recommendation was rejected by the Iraq Study Group as potentially too violent.
Negotiating With Insurgents. A related idea is to negotiate with
insurgents. The Iraq Study Group report welcomes contact with almost all parties
in Iraq, with the exception of Al Qaeda-Iraq (Recommendations 34-35). The
Administration — and the Iraqi government — appears to have previously adopted
this recommendation to some extent, and General Petraeus, in his March 7, 2007,
news conference, appeared to suggest that any solution to Iraq would require some
agreement with insurgent groups. In an interview before leaving Iraq, outgoing
Ambassador Khalilzad said in late March 2007 that he had had talks with some
insurgents in Jordan and elsewhere, but with insurgents that are perceived as open to
reconciliation and laying down their arms.
The U.S. talks reportedly have been intended to promote splits between Iraqi
Sunni insurgents and factions loyal to Al Qaeda. However, no major insurgent
faction has lain down arms in response to any talks with U.S. personnel or Iraqi
officials. The insurgents who have attended such talks reportedly want an increased
role for Sunnis in government, a timetable for U.S. withdrawal, and a withdrawal of
the Shiite-dominated ISF from Sunni regions. Some U.S. officials appear to believe
that talking directly with insurgents increases insurgent leverage and emboldens them
to continue attacks.
“Coup” or “Strongman” Option. Another option began receiving
discussion in October 2006 as Iraqi elites began to sense a growing rift between the
Administration and Maliki. Some Iraqis believe the United States might try to use
its influence among Iraqis to force Maliki to resign and replace him with a military
strongman or some other figure who would crack down on sectarian militias. Some
say former Prime Minister Allawi might be trying to position himself as such an
alternative figure. However, experts in the United States see no concrete signs that
such an option might be under consideration by the Administration. Forcing out
Maliki would, in the view of many, conflict with the U.S. goal of promoting
democracy and rule of law in Iraq.

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CRS-50
Economic Measures
Some believe that the key to calming Iraq is to accelerate economic
reconstruction, and they see the draft oil law as drawing in the foreign investment to
Iraq’s key energy sector that is needed to drive economic development. According
to this view, accelerated reconstruction will drain support for insurgents by creating
employment, improving public services, and creating confidence in the government.
This idea was incorporated into the President’s January 10 initiative, in part by
attempting to revive state-owned factories that can employ substantial numbers of
Iraqis. Prior to that, this concept was reflected in the decision to form PRTs, as
discussed above. Others doubt that economic improvement alone will produce major
political results because the differences among Iraq’s major communities are
fundamental and resistant to economic solutions.
Another idea has been to set up an Iraqi fund, or trust, that would ensure that all
Iraqis share equitably in Iraq’s oil wealth. In an op-ed in the Wall Street Journal
(December 18, 2006) Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton and Senator John Ensign
supported the idea of an “Iraq Oil Trust” modeled on the Alaska Permanent Fund.

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CRS-51
Table 7. U.S. Aid (ESF) to Iraq’s Opposition
(Amounts in millions of U.S. $)
Unspecified
INC
War crimes Broadcasting
opposition
Total
activities
FY1998
—
2.0
5.0 (RFE/RL
3.0
10.0
(P.L. 105-174)
for “Radio
Free Iraq”)
FY1999
3.0
3.0
—
2.0
8.0
(P.L. 105-277)
FY2000
—
2.0
—
8.0
10.0
(P.L. 106-113)
FY2001
12.0
2.0
6.0
5.0
25.0
(P.L. 106-429)
(aid in Iraq)
(INC radio)
FY2002
—
—
—
25.0
25.0
(P.L. 107-115)
FY2003
3.1
—
—
6.9
10.0
(no earmark)
Total,
18.1
9.0
11.0
49.9
88.0
FY1998-
(about 14.5
FY2003
million of this
went to INC)
FY2004
—
—
—
0
0
(request)
Notes: According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office (Apr. 2004), the INC’s Iraqi
National Congress Support Foundation (INCSF) received $32.65 million in U.S. Economic Support
Funds (ESF) in five agreements with the State Department during 2000-2003. Most of the funds —
separate from drawdowns of U.S. military equipment and training under the “Iraq Liberation Act” —
were for the INC to run its offices in Washington, London, Tehran, Damascus, Prague, and Cairo, and
to operate its Al Mutamar (the “Conference”) newspaper and its “Liberty TV,” which began in August
2001, from London. The station was funded by FY2001 ESF, with start-up costs of $1 million and
an estimated additional $2.7 million per year in operating costs. Liberty TV was sporadic due to
funding disruptions resulting from the INC’s refusal to accept some State Department decisions on
how U.S. funds were to be used. In August 2002, the State Department and Defense Department
agreed that the Defense Department would take over funding ($335,000 per month) for the INC’s
“Information Collection Program” to collect intelligence on Iraq; the State Department wanted to end
its funding of that program because of questions about the INC’s credibility and the propriety of its
use of U.S. funds. The INC continued to receive these funds even after Saddam Hussein was
overthrown, but was halted after the June 2004 return of sovereignty to Iraq. The figures above do
not include covert aid provided — the amounts are not known from open sources. Much of the “war
crimes” funding was used to translate and publicize documents retrieved from northern Iraq on Iraqi
human rights; the translations were placed on 176 CD-Rom disks. During FY2001 and FY2002, the
Administration donated $4 million to a “U.N. War Crimes Commission” fund, to be used if a war
crimes tribunal is formed. Those funds were drawn from U.S. contributions to U.N. programs. See
General Accounting Office Report GAO-04-559, State Department: Issues Affecting Funding of Iraqi
National Congress Support Foundation, April 2004.

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CRS-52
Figure 1. Map of Iraq

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