

Order Code RL33267
The National Environmental Policy Act:
Streamlining NEPA
Updated January 9, 2007
Linda Luther
Analyst in Environmental Policy
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
The National Environmental Policy Act:
Streamlining NEPA
Summary
In recent years, the time needed to comply with various environmental laws has
been the subject of public scrutiny and debate in Congress. As a result, numerous
administrative and legislative efforts (both proposed and enacted) have intended to
expedite or streamline the environmental compliance process. Although methods to
do so vary, streamlining measures are often proposed or implemented when the
participation of multiple local, state, tribal, or federal agencies is necessary to comply
with various environmental requirements. Streamlining measures may be applied to
various environmental compliance processes, such as federal permitting or approvals.
A major focus of streamlining efforts has been the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321, et seq.), the implementation of which
is overseen by the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). Among other
provisions, NEPA requires federal agencies to analyze environmental impacts and
involve the public before proceeding with any major federal action significantly
affecting the human environment.
Many agencies have implemented administrative and legislative streamlining
actions, including the Department of Agriculture (USDA), Department of
Transportation (DOT), Department of the Interior (DOI), Army Corps of Engineers,
Department of Energy (DOE), and Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC).
Streamlining efforts vary from agency to agency but usually involve one or more of
the following elements: designating a specific agency as the lead agency responsible
for ensuring compliance with applicable requirements, directing the lead agency to
develop a coordinated environmental review process, specifying certain lead agency
authority (e.g., to establish project deadlines or develop dispute resolution
procedures), codifying existing regulations, delegating specific federal authority to
states, designating specific activities as being categorically excluded or exempt from
certain elements of NEPA, and establishing limits on judicial review.
Streamlining proposals have generated a great deal of controversy. Proponents
of such measures argue that streamlining efforts are needed to cut through the
“bureaucratic red tape” often associated with federal project delivery. Others counter
that such actions are an attempt to weaken environmental protection and lessen
public participation in federal decision-making processes.
This report discusses elements of NEPA relevant to streamlining, issues
associated with determining project delays attributed to NEPA, common streamlining
methods, and recently proposed and enacted legislative and administrative
streamlining activities. This report will be updated as warranted.
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Elements of NEPA Relevant to Streamlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The NEPA Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Levels of NEPA Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Determining When an EIS Is Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Elements of an EIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Agency Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
NEPA as an “Umbrella” Statute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Issues in Attributing NEPA Implementation to Project Delays . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Determining Delays Related to NEPA Document Preparation . . . . . . . 8
The Role of Litigation in NEPA’s Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Common Streamlining Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Establishing a Coordinated Compliance Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Codifying Existing Regulations in Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Delineating Lead Agency Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Delegating Authority to States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Specifying Categorically Excluded or Exempt Projects . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Establishing Limits on Judicial Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Overview of Existing Streamlining Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Legislation Enacted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Healthy Forests Restoration Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Vision 100-Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
SAFETEA-LU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Appropriations for the Department of the Interior and
Related Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Administrative Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Forest Service and BLM Timber-Related Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
FERC Liquified Natural Gas Facility Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
NEPA Task Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
CEQ NEPA Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Energy Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Transportation Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
House Resources Committee NEPA Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
For Additional Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The U.S. Department of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Department of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Department of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
List of Tables
Table 1. The House Resources Committee NEPA Task Force
Recommendations To Update NEPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The National Environmental Policy Act:
Streamlining NEPA
Introduction
A multitude of factors can affect the timing of federal project delivery. Factors
that may contribute to delays in a federal project include changes in the project
planning and design process, changes in funding priorities, construction complexities,
local controversy or community opposition to a project, and compliance with myriad
local, state, tribal or federal laws. With regard to the latter, certain federal actions
such as highway construction projects and permitting for mining operations, cattle
grazing, forest thinning, and energy development projects may trigger compliance
with literally dozens of statutory and regulatory requirements. These, in turn, may
require the participation or input of possibly dozens of local, state, tribal, or federal
agencies.
In recent years, the time it takes to comply with various environmental laws has
been the subject of public scrutiny and debate in Congress. One law that has been
the subject of particular scrutiny has been the National Environmental Policy Act of
1969 (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321-4347).
Signed into law by President Nixon on January 1, 1970, NEPA declared a
national policy to protect the environment and created a Council on Environmental
Quality (CEQ) in the Executive Office of the President. To implement the national
policy, NEPA requires that environmental factors be considered when federal
agencies make decisions and that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be
prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the human environment.
The “detailed statement” referenced in the law is now known as an
environmental impact statement (EIS). CEQ regulations for implementing NEPA,
among other provisions, introduced additional levels of environmental review —
those for environmental assessments (EAs) and categorical exclusions. Generally,
EAs are prepared to determine whether the impacts of a federal action will be
“significant” under NEPA. An action is categorically excluded from the requirement
to prepare an EIS or an EA if it is of a type or in a category known to have no
significant environmental impacts. (For more detail on these requirements, see the
discussion regarding “The NEPA Process” in the following section of this report;
also see CRS Report RS20621, Overview of NEPA Requirements, by Pamela
Baldwin, and CRS Report RL33152, The National Environmental Policy Act:
Background and Implementation, by Linda Luther.)
The preparation of EISs is probably the best-known requirement of NEPA.
However, projects requiring an EIS represent a small fraction of all federal actions.
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For example, from 1984 to 2004, an average of 513 draft and final EISs were filed
with EPA each year.1 By comparison, in 1997, CEQ reported that federal agencies
estimated that approximately 50,000 EAs were prepared annually.2
Determining the total number of federal actions subject to NEPA is difficult, as
most agencies track only the number of actions requiring an EIS. One agency that
has tracked all projects is the Department of Transportation’s (DOT) Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA). In 2005, FHWA reported that just over 84% of
all highway projects were classified as categorical exclusions (representing just over
81.5% of FHWA project funding), 9% required an EA (5.5% of project funding), and
approximately 7% required an EIS (13% of project funding).3 Although they may be
small in number compared with all federal actions, projects requiring an EIS do
include some of those with the greatest impacts and highest stakeholder interest.
Stakeholders such as state and local project sponsors and industry
representatives with an interest in the implementation of federal actions charge that
meeting NEPA’s environmental review requirements is sometimes done inefficiently
and can be overly time-consuming. Such critics charge that the law creates a
complicated array of regulations and logistical delays that stall agency action.
Environmental organizations look at the NEPA process as an essential tool to
help agencies plan and manage federal actions in a responsible way by requiring
policymakers and project sponsors to consider the environmental implications of
their actions before decisions are made. They also view the NEPA process as an
important mechanism in providing the public with an opportunity to be involved in
agency planning efforts. They argue that expediting what is supposed to be a
deliberative process is not necessarily in the best interest of the public or the
environment. Further, they argue that blaming the environmental compliance process
for project delays is misplaced. They contend that if federal projects are, in fact,
delayed by the NEPA process, it is because agencies required to participate in the
process are overburdened and insufficiently funded, staffed, or equipped to meet the
demand.
As a result of the debate between stakeholders regarding NEPA’s
implementation, numerous administrative and legislative actions have been proposed
to expedite compliance with NEPA. The activities associated with such proposals
are often collectively referred to as streamlining. No regulatory or legislative
definition of streamlining exists. It is defined differently by different stakeholders
or agencies for different classes of projects. However, the term is often used to
describe a process or procedures intended to accelerate decision making, especially
when the input of multiple federal, state, tribal, or local agencies is required to
1 CEQ’s “Number of EISs Filed 1970 to 2004,” available at [http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/
nepa/nepanet.htm].
2 Council on Environmental Quality, The National Environmental Policy Act: A Study of Its
Effectiveness After Twenty-five Years, January 1997, p. 28, available at
[http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm].
3 FHWA’s Steamlining and Stewardship webpage “FHWA Projects by Class of Action,”
available at [http://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov/strmlng/projectgraphs.asp].
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comply with multiple environmental laws, regulations, or executive orders. For
example, FHWA may propose a highway construction project that affects wetlands
that are home to an endangered species. Within the context of conducting a review
of the environmental impacts of the project under NEPA, FHWA may also be
required to demonstrate compliance with elements of the Clean Water Act and the
Endangered Species Act. As a result, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Department of the Interior’s Fish
and Wildlife Service would have statutory obligations to participate in the proposed
project. These agencies, with potentially conflicting missions (e.g., protecting
endangered species or sensitive wetlands versus building a highway), are then
required to work together to review various aspects of FHWA’s proposed project.
Streamlining efforts may be implemented with the intent of expediting the
requirement of having these agencies work together.
Many of the issues leading to a call for streamlining, as well as challenges to
implementing such actions, are summed up in the following excerpt from a report
issued by the National Conference of State Legislatures:
Regulators often lack guidance on how to successfully integrate the complicated
requirements of state and federal environmental laws and regulations...
Depending on the complexity of the issue and the priority given the issue by
decision makers, decisions can be slow in coming, thus delaying progress.
Another barrier is the fact that individual regulators tend to be experts in only
one set of laws and regulations. This tends to create some resistance to proposals
that coordinate or integrate the provisions of different laws. Regulators tend to
be cautious about integrating the requirements of different laws unless they can
define all possible regulatory and technical impacts.4
This statement recognizes that barriers to efficient decision making arise not from
NEPA alone, but from the challenges of integrating compliance with a multitude of
laws and regulations that may apply to a given federal action.
Elements of NEPA Relevant to Streamlining
Background
NEPA has been interpreted by the courts to be a procedural statute with two
primary aims.5 First, it obligates federal agencies to consider every significant aspect
of the environmental impact of an action before proceeding with it. Second, it
ensures that the agency will inform the public that it has indeed considered
environmental concerns in its decision-making process. In this capacity, NEPA has
4 The National Conference of State Legislatures, Environment, Energy and Transportation
Program, “Assessment of Regulatory and Administrative Streamlining at United States
Department of Energy Cleanup Sites,” August 1996. This report was available online on or
around November 2004, but is no longer available.
5 Baltimore Gas & Electric Co. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 462 U.S. 87,
97, 100 (1983).
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become one of the primary mechanisms through which the public is able to
participate in the federal decision-making process.
As a procedural statute, the courts have ruled that NEPA does not require
agencies to elevate environmental concerns above others. Instead, NEPA requires
only that the agency assess the environmental consequences of an action and its
alternatives before proceeding. If the adverse environmental effects of the proposed
action are adequately identified and evaluated, the agency is not constrained by
NEPA from deciding that other benefits outweigh the environmental costs and
moving forward with the action.
NEPA is a declaration of policy with action-forcing provisions, not a regulatory
statute comparable to other environmental laws intended to protect air, water,
wetlands, or endangered species. It establishes the basic framework for integrating
environmental considerations into federal decision making. However, the law itself
does not provide many details on how this process should be accomplished. For
example, although NEPA gave CEQ a variety of duties, the authority to promulgate
regulations implementing NEPA’s environmental review requirements was not one.6
That authority was ultimately given to CEQ by executive order in 1977,7 but it did
not include authority to enforce those regulations.8 A major impetus for CEQ’s
regulations was to reduce the time and paperwork required to prepare an EIS.
The CEQ regulations were intended to be generic in nature. Each federal
agency was required to develop its own NEPA procedures that would be specific to
typical classes of actions undertaken by that agency.9 Separately, CEQ regulations
directed federal agencies to review their existing policies, procedures, and regulations
to ensure that they were in full compliance with the intent of NEPA.10
6 Before its regulations were promulgated, four United States Supreme Court decisions did
determine that CEQ’s interpretation of NEPA’s requirements was owed “substantial
deference” by courts.
7 Executive Order 11991, Relating to Protection and Enhancement of Environmental
Quality, signed by President Carter, May 24, 1977, 42 Fed. Reg. 26967. The final CEQ
regulations were ultimately promulgated in 1978 and became effective in 1979 (see, 43 Fed.
Reg. 55978, Nov. 28, 1978; 40 C.F.R. §§ 1500-1508). In addition to promulgating
regulations, CEQ has provided support and informal guidance to federal agencies
implementing NEPA’s requirements. For example, in 1981, CEQ issued its “Forty Most
Asked Questions Concerning CEQ’s NEPA Regulations.” That and other CEQ guidance
are available at [http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm].
8 CEQ is charged with providing oversight and guidance to agencies with regard to EIS
preparation. EPA is required to review and comment publicly on the environmental impacts
of proposed federal activities, including those for which an EIS is prepared. EPA is also the
official recipient of all EISs prepared by federal agencies. However, neither EPA nor CEQ
has enforcement authority with regard to an agency’s environmental review requirements.
9 40 C.F.R. § 1507.3.
10 40 C.F.R. § 1500.6.
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The NEPA Process
Levels of NEPA Analysis. Section 102(2)(C) of NEPA requires that all
federal decisions include in “every recommendation or report on proposals for
legislation and other major Federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the
human environment, a detailed statement by the responsible official on the
environmental impact of the proposed action.”11 The “detailed statement” is now
referred to as an environmental impact statement (EIS).
Projects for which it is not initially clear whether impacts will be significant
require the preparation of an environmental assessment (EA). If, at any time during
the EA preparation, it is determined that a project’s impacts will be significant, an
EIS must be prepared. However, if in preparing the EA the agency determines that
the project will have no significant environmental impact, a Finding of No
Significant Impact (FONSI) will be issued by the lead agency. The FONSI must
briefly present the reasons why the project will not have a significant effect on the
environment.
If a project is of a type or in a category known to have no significant
environmental impacts, it is categorically excluded from the requirement to prepare
and EA or EIS. Individual agencies are required to specifically list, in their
respective NEPA procedures, those projects that are likely to be considered
categorical exclusions (CEs).12 For example, DOT has identified the construction of
bicycle and pedestrian lanes, landscaping, and the installation of traffic signals as
actions that would generally be classified as categorical exclusions.13
Some agency NEPA procedures answer the question of whether or what types
of documentation may be required to demonstrate that a project is categorically
excluded, by focusing on whether the project involves “extraordinary circumstances”
that may cause a normally excluded action to have a significant environmental
effect.14 An individual agency’s NEPA requirements may also specify other criteria
under which otherwise excluded actions may require documentation to prove that the
CE determination is appropriate.
Determining When an EIS Is Required. Under NEPA, an EIS must be
prepared for “every recommendation or report on proposals for legislation and other
major federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment.”
Interpretation of each element of this phrase has been the subject of myriad court
decisions and guidance from CEQ. The CEQ regulations, at 40 C.F.R. § 1508.18,
specify that the term “major” in the phrase “major federal action” reinforces but does
not have meaning independent of “significantly.” Therefore, in determining whether
11 42 U.S.C. § 4332(2)(C).
12 40 C.F.R. § 1507.3. Sometimes such actions are referred to as being categorically
excluded or exempt from NEPA. However, NEPA does apply to such actions; they are
excluded only from the requirement to prepare an EA or EIS.
13 23 C.F.R. § 771.117.
14 40 C.F.R. § 1508.4.
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and how NEPA will apply to an action, it is necessary to determine whether an action
is in fact a federal one and, if so, if its environmental impacts will be significant.
“Federal” actions include those that are potentially subject to federal control and
responsibility. Such actions include “projects and programs entirely or partly funded,
assisted, conducted, regulated, or approved by federal agencies.”15 Specifically,
federal agency compliance with NEPA may be required for actions that require a
federal permit or other regulatory decision to proceed.16
CEQ regulations require agencies to determine the significance of a project’s
impacts on a case-by-case basis, based on its context and intensity.17 Because degrees
of impact must be evaluated, such an evaluation may be highly subjective. Although
court decisions have been rendered regarding most elements of NEPA
implementation, few federal courts have attempted to specifically define
“significance.” Most often, a court will determine whether the evidence for a given
project involved potentially significant environmental effects and then decide
whether the agency’s decision not to prepare an EIS was reasonable under
circumstances specific to that project.18
Elements of an EIS. An EIS is a full-disclosure document that must include
the following elements:
! Purpose and Need Statement. A brief statement, developed by the
agency responsible for the action, specifying the underlying purpose
of a project and the need to which the agency is responding.
! Alternatives. A description of all reasonable project alternatives to
meet the stated project purpose and need. CEQ has interpreted
“reasonable” alternatives to include those that are practical or
feasible from the technical and economic standpoint and that use
common sense, rather than simply desirable from the standpoint of
the agency or a potentially affected stakeholder.19 Consideration of
a “no action” alternative is also required.20
15 40 C.F.R. § 1508.18(a).
16 40 C.F.R. § 1508.18(b)(4). Further, the term federal agency is defined as all agencies of
the federal government, but does not mean the Congress, the Judiciary, or the President (40
C.F.R. § 1508.12).
17 40 C.F.R. § 1508.27.
18 Dinah Bear, “NEPA at 19: A Primer on an ‘Old’ Law with Solutions to New Problems,”
Environmental Law Review, Feb. 1989, available online on the “CEQ Guidance” Web page
at [http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/regs/guidance.html].
19 Council on Environmental Quality, Forty Most Asked Questions Concerning CEQ’s
NEPA Regulations, response to “Alternatives Outside the Capability of Applicant or
Jurisdiction of Agency,” available at [http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/regs/40/40P1.htm].
20 40 C.F.R. § 1508.25.
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! Affected Environment. A succinct description of the environment
affected by the alternatives under consideration (e.g., endangered
species habitat, wetlands, historic sites).
! Environmental Consequences. An analysis of the impacts of each
alternative on the affected environment, including a discussion of the
probable beneficial and adverse social, economic, and environmental
effects of each alternative. This section must also include, where
applicable, a discussion of the direct, indirect, and cumulative
effects of each alternative and the significance of those effects, a
description of the measures proposed to mitigate adverse impacts,
and methods of compliance with any applicable legal requirements.
Preparation of an EIS is done in two stages, resulting in a draft and final EIS. Once
the final EIS is approved and the agency decides to take action, the lead agency must
prepare a public record of decision (ROD). CEQ regulations specify that the ROD
must include a statement of the final decision, all alternatives considered by the
agency in reaching its decision, and whether all practicable means to avoid or
minimize environmental harm from the alternative selected have been adopted and,
if not, why they were not.21 Generally, a federal project cannot proceed (e.g., final
design activities, property acquisition, or project construction) until a ROD for the
final EIS is issued.22 (For more information about the required elements of an EIS,
see CRS Report RL33152, The National Environmental Policy Act: Background and
Implementation, by Linda Luther.)
Agency Participation. The agency responsible for preparing the necessary
NEPA documentation is the lead agency. In the appropriate NEPA documentation
(e.g., EIS or EA), the lead agency must demonstrate that comments were solicited
from relevant federal, state, and local agencies (referred to as “participating”
agencies), as well as from the public. Relevant agencies obligated to provide
comments are those with jurisdiction by law or special expertise with respect to any
environmental issue associated with the project. For example, if a project alternative
affects a historic site, the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation may be required
to participate in the NEPA process as a “cooperating agency.”23 If impacts to
wetlands are identified, the Corps may need to provide comments or issue a permit
before a project may proceed.
NEPA as an “Umbrella” Statute. To integrate the compliance process and
avoid duplication of effort, NEPA regulations specify that, to the fullest extent
possible, agencies must prepare the NEPA documentation concurrently with any
other environmental requirements.24 The appropriate NEPA documentation must
also indicate any federal permits, licenses, and other entitlements required to
21 40 C.F.R. § 1505.2.
22 For projects with less than significant environmental impacts, the project cannot proceed
until the action is classified as a CE or a FONSI is approved for an EA.
23 40 C.F.R. §§ 1501.6 and 1508.5.
24 40 C.F.R. § 1502.25.
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implement the proposed project. This means that compliance requirements of any
additional environmental laws, regulations, or executive orders must be determined
(but not necessarily completed) during the NEPA process. In this capacity, NEPA
functions as an umbrella statute, meaning it is a framework to coordinate or
demonstrate compliance with any studies, reviews, or consultations required by any
other environmental laws. The use of NEPA in this capacity has led to confusion.
The need to comply with another environmental law, such as the Clean Water Act or
Endangered Species Act, may be identified within the framework of the NEPA
process, but NEPA itself is not the source of the obligation. If, hypothetically, the
requirement to comply with NEPA were removed, compliance with each applicable
law would still be required.
For additional information about NEPA’s history and requirements, see CRS
Report RL33152, The National Environmental Policy Act: Background and
Implementation, by Linda Luther.
Issues in Attributing NEPA Implementation to Project Delays
Debate regarding the need for streamlining measures originates from assertions
that NEPA delays federal projects. The debate stems from disagreement among
stakeholders regarding the degree to which, if any, the NEPA process itself is to
blame for federal project delays. Delays attributed to the NEPA process generally
fall into two broad categories: those related to the time needed to complete required
documentation (primarily EISs) and delays resulting from NEPA-related litigation.
Determining Delays Related to NEPA Document Preparation. The
research, data collection, analyses, and public participation necessary to prepare
NEPA documentation takes time, in some cases years. The debate begins when
stakeholders attempt to determine the extent to which the preparation of NEPA
documentation alone adds to or delays the time to complete a federal project. Several
unique aspects of NEPA make it difficult to determine the degree to which the NEPA
process itself is the source of delays.
First, other than the Department of Energy (DOE), and very recently the
Department of Transportation (DOT), federal and state agencies do not routinely
maintain information on the time needed to complete the NEPA process. Therefore,
gathering accurate data specific to the time needed to prepare NEPA documents is
difficult. Also, for some classes of projects, document preparation under NEPA is
generally done concurrently with other stages of a project, such as preliminary project
design. If a project undergoes specification changes, those changes may necessitate
changes in NEPA analysis and documentation. Consequently, the time to complete
the NEPA process may be extended. However, determining if such delays are
directly attributed to the NEPA process itself may be problematic.
Another challenge related to gathering data deals with how one measures the
time taken on a federal project that actually involves the NEPA process. When
measuring the length of the NEPA process for a given project, an agency generally
looks at the date of the notice of intent (NOI) to file an EIS and the date of the ROD.
However, these dates do not necessarily reflect the time it take to prepare NEPA
documentation for a given project. A federal project may stop and restart for any
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number of reasons that are unrelated to NEPA or any other environmental
requirement. This may be the case particularly for costly or controversial projects.
For example, filing an NOI in 1988 and subsequently issuing the ROD in 1998 does
not necessarily mean that it took 10 years to complete the EIS; the time it took to
complete the project may have been associated with funding issues, changes in
agency priorities, community opposition to the project, or engineering requirements,
to name a few.
Second, a project having significant impacts on the environment is likely to
require compliance with a number of environmental laws. The use of NEPA as an
umbrella statute blurs the distinction between the time to complete the NEPA process
and the time it takes to address other environmental requirements. The sometimes
extensive reviews required under other environmental laws by agencies such as the
Corps, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Coast Guard, or EPA, as well as various
state regulatory agencies, are often attributed to the NEPA process. In fact, the
NEPA process may be extended as a result of the need to complete a permitting
process or other analysis required under separate statutory authority (e.g., the Clean
Water Act or Endangered Species Act), over which the lead agency may have no
authority. One agency, FHWA, observed that many delayed projects or failed
processes can be traced back to a disintegrated and disconnected approach to meeting
NEPA and other requirements. FHWA stated that experience in administering NEPA
has shown that many practitioners do not fully understand or practice the approach
of using the NEPA process as an umbrella for integrating all required studies,
reviews, or consultations.25
Third, a project with significant impacts may be a large, high-profile, complex
project costing millions of dollars. Depending on the impacts, such projects may
generate local controversy and be opposed by certain stakeholders. Delays of such
projects are well-known among agency officials and interested stakeholders.
However, such projects make up a small percentage of all federal actions. Further,
although examples of NEPA-related delays associated with such projects exist, few
data suggest that delays associated with them are widely applicable to all federal
projects subject to NEPA.
Finally, it has been observed that it takes longer to complete necessary NEPA
documentation today than it did in the 1970s. The NEPA process as it is
implemented today is not comparable to the NEPA process soon after the law was
enacted. Until November 1978, there were no binding CEQ regulations outlining
EIS, EA, or CE requirements. While an EIS may have been completed relatively
quickly during the 1970s, compared with today, it may not have withstood judicial
review. Further, many agencies did not have their own NEPA procedures until well
into the 1980s. Such procedures may make the process take longer today, but they
may result in fewer overall project delays in situations where adherence to the
procedures results in a more legally sound EIS. Also, there were fewer
environmental laws and regulations in the 1970s (see reference to the use of NEPA
as an umbrella statute, above), and the public is more involved in the NEPA process
today than in the 1970s.
25 Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, 65 Fed. Reg. 33965 (May 25, 2000).
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The Role of Litigation in NEPA’s Implementation. Critics of NEPA
often cite litigation as a significant cause of NEPA-related project delays. Such
critics charge that individuals and groups who disapprove of a federal project will use
NEPA as the basis for litigation to delay or halt that project. Others argue that
litigation only results when an agency does not comply with its own NEPA
procedures.
Since 2001, plaintiffs have primarily cited two reasons for filing NEPA-related
lawsuits. The first is that the required NEPA documentation (e.g., an EIS, EA, or
FONSI) was inadequate. That may mean that they charge that, among other things,
an EIS or EA did not include sufficient analysis of all project alternatives, did not
consider all “reasonable” project alternatives, or did not adequately analyze the
cumulative or indirect impacts of an action. The second is that an EA was prepared
when an EIS should have been (i.e., a FONSI was issued when impacts were in fact
significant).26
NEPA litigation began to decline in the mid 1970s and has remained relatively
constant since the late 1980s. This may be due in part to improved agency
compliance after promulgation of CEQ and agency NEPA procedures and improved
agency expertise at preparing required documentation. For example, in 2004, a total
of 170 NEPA-related cases were filed. Of those, 11 resulted in an injunction.27 The
majority of suits were filed against two agencies — the USDA (80 cases filed,
primarily against the U.S. Forest Service) and the Department of the Interior (31
cases filed).28
Although litigation has decreased, agency concern regarding the threat of
litigation still has an affect on the NEPA process, particularly for complex or
controversial projects. A project sponsor may be mindful of previous judicial
interpretation when preparing NEPA documentation in an attempt to prepare a
“litigation-proof” EIS. Stakeholder opinions vary on this aspect of NEPA
implementation. Some look at it positively, asserting that the fear of a lawsuit makes
agencies more likely to adhere to NEPA’s requirements. Others counter that the
threat of litigation may lead to the generation of wasteful documentation and analysis
that does not add value to, but can slow, the decision-making process.
Like issues related to documentation, several unique elements to NEPA have led
to litigation playing a prominent role in the law’s implementation. For example,
unlike other environment-related statutes, NEPA’s requirements apply only to federal
agency actions and no individual agency has enforcement authority over those
requirements. The absence of government enforcement authority is sometimes cited
as the reason that litigation has been chosen as an avenue by individuals and groups
that disagree with how an agency meets NEPA’s mandate or EIS requirements for a
26 Council on Environmental Quality, 2004 Litigation Survey, available at
[http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm].
27 Ibid. Note: there may have been further developments since the publication of this
litigation survey.
28 Many of these suits relate to the finalization of land and resource management plans and
implementation projects on federal land.
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given project (e.g., they may charge that an EIS is inadequate or that the
environmental impacts of an action will in fact be significant when an agency claims
that they are not).
Another unique element of NEPA is the role that public participation is intended
to play in the process. In 1997, a CEQ study found that the extent to which the
public is involved in the decision-making process has a bearing on the potential for
litigation.29 The study found that some states, citizen groups, and businesses believe
that certain EAs are prepared to avoid public involvement (i.e., because public
participation requirements are not specified for EAs). As stated earlier, disagreement
regarding the decision to prepare an EA, rather than an EIS, is the most common
source of conflict and litigation under NEPA.
Common Streamlining Provisions
In recent years, numerous legislative and administrative proposals have been
proffered to streamline compliance with NEPA’s requirements. Those proposals
have generally been unique to the categories of projects they are intended to expedite.
However, most streamlining provisions, particularly legislative proposals, include
similar elements. For example, discussed below are elements common to legislative
streamlining provisions in laws enacted in the 108th and 109th Congresses (for a
discussion of selected laws in which these provisions are included, see the
“Legislation Enacted” section, below). Also discussed below are selected issues
associated with each element.
Establishing a Coordinated Compliance Process. Most legislative
streamlining provisions direct the lead agency to create some form of coordinated
environmental review or compliance process. This process often requires the lead
agency to establish specific administrative procedures for processing permits, license
applications, or environmental reviews under the NEPA process. Often, that
coordinated process must be delineated in a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
between the designated lead agency and participating agencies for certain classes of
projects (e.g., projects that require preparation of an EIS or EA). Legislation usually
delineates required elements of the coordinated process, the content of the MOU, or
both. For example, it may specify certain decision-making authorities of the lead and
participating agencies in the selection and analysis of project alternatives, and it may
specify methods to conduct the environmental review process under NEPA
concurrently with other environmental requirements.
Some legislative proposals have allowed the lead agency to establish such a
process only if requested by a project sponsor or applicant. Others specify that such
a process must be implemented for entire classes of projects undertaken by an agency
(e.g., all projects that require an EIS).
29 Council on Environmental Quality, The National Environmental Policy Act: A Study of
Its Effectiveness After Twenty-five Years, January 1997, p. 19, available at
[http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm].
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Proponents of a coordinated compliance process argue that it is crafted to
address the charge that the problem of delays with the NEPA process lies in its
implementation and that a better coordinated process could lead to better and faster
results. Critics are concerned with the details of such processes, such as limits on
participating agency input or the imposition of strict deadlines, especially if those
deadlines could limit public involvement.
Codifying Existing Regulations in Law. CEQ’s regulations currently
include numerous provisions intended to reduce delays and paperwork.30 Following
are current requirements in CEQ regulations that are often found in streamlining
proposals (often as part of the coordinated environmental review process, referred to
above):
! Integrate requirements of NEPA with other planning and
environmental review procedures so that all procedures run
concurrently, rather than consecutively.
! Integrate the NEPA process at the earliest possible time to avoid
delays and potential conflicts.
! Establish appropriate time and page limits on EISs.
! Emphasize interagency cooperation before the EIS is prepared,
rather than adversary comments on a completed document.
Some streamlining proponents argue that these directives would be more
strongly emphasized if put in to law. Others counter that if similar regulatory
provisions are already required of agencies, there is no guarantee that such statutory
provisions would enable or cause agency staff to execute them more efficiently.
Further, they argue that the difficulty in integrating many of these existing
streamlining requirements has more to do with a lack of sufficient staff and resources
to perform those responsibilities than a lack of will to do so.
Delineating Lead Agency Authority. As discussed previously, the lead
agency is the agency responsible for preparing the NEPA analysis and
documentation. Most streamlining legislation establishes in law a specific agency
as the lead agency for certain categories of projects and delineates that agency’s
authority in the environmental compliance process (e.g., DOT is to be the lead
agency for surface transportation projects). Many legislative streamlining provisions
authorize the designated lead agency to set deadlines applicable to participating
agency actions and to implement dispute resolution procedures. Some proposals also
specify in law the existing requirement that the lead agency is authorized to
determine an EIS’s “purpose and need” statement and to define project alternatives,
as required under NEPA.31
30 40 C.F.R. §§ 1500.2 and 1500.4-1500.5.
31 See correspondence between Transportation Secretary Norman Mineta and CEQ
Chairman James Connaughton regarding existing parameters of lead agency authority.
Secretary Mineta asked for clarification of the roles of lead and cooperating agencies with
regard to developing a highway project’s purpose and need. While not addressed in the
correspondence, NEPA regulations also specify the selection of reasonable alternatives to
(continued...)
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Establishing a lead agency in legislation specific to individual agency actions
may serve to reassert lead agency authority to participating agencies. However, since
this right is already afforded to federal agencies under current law and regulatory
requirements, additional legislation may not significantly streamline the compliance
process.
Delegating Authority to States. One element of the NEPA process that has
been identified by some stakeholders as a potential cause for delay is the added step
of obtaining federal agency approval of less complex documentation, such as
categorical exclusion determinations. Some industry stakeholders argue that some
of these federal environmental responsibilities could be delegated to states, which
could speed up the environmental review process by eliminating a significant layer
of bureaucracy that federal approval entails.
This approach is not endorsed by environmental stakeholders who have
expressed concern that the delegation of authority to the states would be the “fox
guarding the hen house.” They argue that states often have vested interests in
moving projects forward, and thus their determinations may not have the level of
scrutiny that would be provided with federal oversight.
One potential challenge to state delegation of authority includes a possible lack
of staff qualified to process potentially complex documentation. In May 2003, the
General Accounting Office (GAO, now the Government Accountability Office)
reported that some transportation stakeholders identified state agency staff shortages
as a significant cause of project delays.32 If a state or local agency does not have
sufficient staff to accommodate its needs, the delegation of additional authority to
that agency may serve to slow the compliance process instead of streamline it. Staff
at the state or local level may have difficulty determining all environmental
requirements applicable to their project, which could further slow the process if it
takes longer to ensure that required documentation is complete. It may be a difficult
task for a project sponsor to review and approve the documentation that will
ultimately demonstrate that all environmental requirements have been met. For
example, a state may have had a consultant prepare NEPA documentation for an EIS,
but relied on the federal agency to provide oversight for a CE determination.
Specifying Categorically Excluded or Exempt Projects. As discussed
previously, individual agencies are required to specifically list types of projects that
can be categorically excluded from the requirement to prepare an EIS or EA.
31 (...continued)
the proposed action, which must also be analyzed, as within the authority of the lead agency.
Text of Secretary Mineta’s May 6, 2003 letter, and Chairman Connaughton’s May 12, 2003,
response are available at [http://www.dot.gov/execorder/13274/impsched/letters/
minetamay6.htm].
32 General Accounting Office, Highway Infrastructure: Stakeholders’ Views on Time to
Conduct Environmental Reviews of Highway Projects, GAO-03-534, (Washington, D.C.,
May 23, 2003).
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According to CEQ, most agency CEs were approved 10 or more years ago.33 One
method of expediting the NEPA process includes developing new or broadening
existing CEs. The updating process usually begins with a data request from an
agency’s headquarters to its field offices. The data gathered and submitted is used
to develop the proposal for new and revised CEs. In developing CEs, most agencies
use information from past actions to establish the basis for the “no significant effect”
determination.34 New agency CEs are proposed through the public rule-making
process; the proposed CEs are published in the Federal Register and open to public
comment before final approval.
Proponents of the legislative designation of CEs argue that the regulatory
process of adding CEs is cumbersome. They further argue that because such projects
have no significant environmental impact, their designation should be done more
quickly. Opponents to this approach argue that legislatively designating actions as
CEs circumvents the process and eliminates the potential for public comment.
Further, since CE determinations generally do not provide an opportunity for public
comment, public involvement in such projects will likely be eliminated. Also,
opponents argue that some actions in categories designated by law as CEs may in fact
have potentially significant environmental impacts.
Establishing Limits on Judicial Review. NEPA contains no express
provision for judicial review of agency action and hence, not surprisingly, no
deadline on when such petitions for review must be filed. In the large majority of
instances, cases that consider delay in the filing of NEPA litigation have applied
laches, an equitable defense under which a court may dismiss an action after
assessing the length and reasonableness of the filing delay and the resulting prejudice
to the defendant. Numerous courts have said that laches is to be sparingly applied,
however, out of concern that NEPA’s environmental objectives may be frustrated.
In other cases, courts have turned to the statute of limitations used for judicial review
under the Administrative Procedure Act. That statute (at 28 U.S.C. § 2401) mandates
broadly that civil actions against the United States must be filed within six years after
the right of action first accrues.
One streamlining method involves the establishment of a specific statute of
limitations on the judicial review of final agency actions related to NEPA (e.g.,
publication of a ROD). Proponents of such provisions argue that other
environmental statutes specify statutes of limitations on the filing of petitions for
review, often 60 to 120 days, and that the six years allowed under 28 U.S.C. § 2401
is too long. Opponents of such measures fear that if the statute of limitations is too
short, it will effectively eliminate the mechanism for citizen enforcement of NEPA’s
environmental review requirements.
33 “The NEPA Task Force Report to the Council on Environmental Quality: Modernizing
NEPA Implementation,” September 2003, available at [http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/ntf/report/
index.html].
34 For more information about the documentation required for CEs and the agency process
for developing and revising CEs, see CEQ’s The NEPA Task Force Report to the Council
on Environmental Quality: Modernizing NEPA Implementation, Chapter Five, “Categorical
Exclusions,” available at [http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/ntf/report/index.html].
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Overview of Existing Streamlining Activities
Recently, there have been numerous legislative and administrative streamlining
activities, including the following:
! The enactment of legislation that alters individual agency NEPA
procedures;
! administrative changes in individual agency NEPA procedures; and
! the creation of NEPA “task forces,” established by CEQ and
Congress, to study the NEPA process or expedite implementation of
certain types of projects.
Legislation Enacted
Most streamlining legislation involves actions undertaken by those agencies that
tend to file the most EISs. In 1999, of the 501 draft and final EISs filed with EPA,
only 6 agencies filed more than 20 draft or final EISs. Those agencies were USDA
(primarily the U.S. Forest Service), DOT (primarily FHWA and the Federal Aviation
Administration [FAA]), the Department of the Interior (DOI), the Corps, and the
Department of Energy (DOE). The following legislation, enacted in the 108th and
109th Congress,35 includes streamlining provisions for certain types of projects within
those agencies:
! Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-148): fuel
reduction projects undertaken by the USDA’s Forest Service or the
DOI’s Bureau of Land Management (BLM) on federal land.
! Vision 100-Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act (P.L. 108-176):
airport capacity enhancement projects at congested airports
undertaken by the FAA.
! The Safe, Accountable, Flexible, and Efficient Transportation Equity
Act of 2005: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU, P.L. 109-59):
construction of or modifications to surface transportation projects
undertaken by FHWA and the Federal Transit Administration
(FTA).
! The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58): various energy-
development projects, such as oil and gas leasing and permitting on
federal land, and the designation of energy facility rights-of-way and
corridors on federal lands. Streamlining provisions in this law apply
primarily to the actions of DOI, DOE, and FERC.
! FY2004, FY2005, and FY2006 appropriations laws for DOI and
related agencies (including the USDA’s Forest Service): grazing
permit applications.
35 This report addresses only enacted legislation. Numerous bills have been introduced that
include streamlining provisions. Also, for background information regarding legislative
modifications to NEPA, see CRS Report 98-417, Statutory Modifications of the Application
of NEPA, by Pamela Baldwin.
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Healthy Forests Restoration Act. The law (Title I) authorizes expedited
planning and review procedures for projects to reduce hazardous levels of biomass
fuels on federal lands. Priority is directed to reducing fuels near “at-risk
communities” and in municipal watersheds where forest fire risk from brush, trees,
and other organic “fuel” is deemed high. Title I authorizes a new, alternative NEPA
and public involvement process for actions aimed at reducing biomass fuels on up
to 20 million acres of national forests or BLM lands in the following areas: in or near
a wildland-urban interface and municipal water supply systems, certain endangered
species habitats, and areas affected by wind or ice storms or by insect or disease
epidemics that threaten ecological health or natural resources.
In preparing environmental analyses for authorized fuel reduction projects, the
law limits the number of project alternatives that the Forest Service or BLM is
required to analyze. Alternatives required for consideration depend on the type and
location of the project under consideration.
For its projects, the Forest Service is to develop a new “pre-decisional” review
process to supplant the existing administrative appeals process. Administrative
reviews must be exhausted before litigation is allowed. Lawsuits against agency
projects must be filed in the district court for the area in which the project is
proposed. Courts are encouraged to review cases expeditiously. Preliminary
injunctions are limited to 60 days, but can be renewed, and courts are directed to
balance short- and long-term impacts of action and of inaction.
These provisions have been controversial. Proponents assert that biomass fuels
are at unprecedented, unnatural levels that pose serious threats to ecosystems and to
humans and their structures in or near wildlands. They also argue that NEPA
analysis, public participation, and legal and administrative challenges to decisions are
delaying actions needed to protect people, homes, and ecosystems. Opponents argue
that short-circuiting the public involvement and review process can allow timber
sales and other environmentally harmful, socially undesirable activities in the guise
of fire protection.
For more information on issues related to the Healthy Forests Restoration Act
of 2003, see CRS Report RS22024, Wildfire Protection in the 108th Congress, by
Ross Gorte.
Vision 100-Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act. The act creates
an “expedited, coordinated environmental review process” applicable to the aviation
project review process for airport capacity enhancement projects at congested
airports, aviation safety projects, and aviation security projects. The coordinated
process provides that any environmental review, analysis, opinion, permit, license,
or approval issued or made by a federal agency or airport sponsor for such a project
must be completed within a time period established by the Secretary of
Transportation, in cooperation with the agencies that participate in the process. The
coordinated process may be delineated in an MOU between the Secretary and the
heads of other federal and state agencies who participate in the process.
The FAA is designated as the lead agency, pursuant to NEPA’s requirements,
for projects processed under the coordinated review process. The act authorizes FAA
CRS-17
to define the scope and content of a project’s EIS and requires all participating
agencies to be bound by the purpose and need and project alternatives analysis
determined by the Secretary of Transportation.
SAFETEA-LU. The Safe, Accountable, Flexible, and Efficient Transportation
Equity Act of 2005: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) authorizes federal surface
transportation programs (highway, highway safety, and transit programs) undertaken
by DOT for FY2005-FY2009. With regard to streamlining NEPA, many of the
provisions in SAFETEA-LU codify existing regulatory requirements, such as
designating DOT as the lead agency for surface transportation projects, specifying the
role of the lead and cooperating agencies, and allowing deadlines for decision making
to be set. Following are key provisions of SAFETEA-LU related to streamlining:
! Establishing procedures for “Efficient Environmental Reviews for
Project Decision-Making,” part of which includes the collaborative
development, by the lead and participating agencies, of a project’s
statement of purpose and need and project alternatives, including
deadlines on agency comments.
! Establishing a 180-day judicial limitation on claims challenging final
agency actions related to environmental requirements.
! Authorizing transportation funds to help agencies that are required
to expedite the environmental review process.
! Establishing a dispute resolution process that may be initiated by a
state governor or project sponsor when agencies disagree on
elements of the environmental review process.
! Authorizing states to determine whether certain classes of projects
may be processed as categorical exclusions.
! Authorizing state pilot programs to allow participating states to
assume certain federal responsibilities for compliance with
environmental laws.
For more information, see CRS Report RL33057, Surface Transportation
Reauthorization: Environmental Issues and Legislative Provisions in SAFETEA-LU
(H.R. 3), and CRS Report RL32024, Background on NEPA Implementation for
Highway Projects: Streamlining the Process, both by Linda Luther.
The Energy Policy Act of 2005. The environmental streamlining provisions
in the Energy Policy Act primarily specify procedures intended to expedite the
completion of federal authorizations for a variety of energy development projects.
Federal authorizations include permits, special use authorizations, and approvals that
may be required under a number of local, state, tribal, or federal requirements (e.g.,
permitting requirements under the Clean Air Act or the Clean Water Act). The act
also includes several provisions intended to streamline compliance with
environmental reviews under NEPA. Categories of projects or actions for which
NEPA streamlining provisions are provided include the following:
! Designation of right-of-way corridors. Under § 368, the act
requires the Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Energy,
and the Interior, in consultation with FERC, states, tribal or local
units, affected utility industries, and other interested persons, to
CRS-18
complete, within two years of enactment, any environmental reviews
required for the designation of right-of-way corridors for oil, gas,
and hydrogen pipelines and electricity transmission and distribution
facilities on federal land. The two-year environmental review
deadline applies to corridor designations in Arizona, California,
Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah,
Washington, and Wyoming. For other states, the identification of
such corridors is required within four years of enactment (there is no
reference to a deadline for environmental reviews in those states).
! Commercial leases for oil shale and tar sands. Under § 369, the
act requires the Secretary of the Interior to complete a programmatic
EIS for a commercial leasing program for oil shale and tar sands
resources on public lands, with an emphasis on the most
“geologically prospective” lands within each of the states of
Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. This section also establishes an
interagency coordination process that designates DOI as the lead
agency to coordinate all federal authorizations related to oil shale
and tar sands projects.
! Rights-of-way on public land for natural gas pipelines and
“utility facilities.” Under § 372, the act requires the Secretary of
Energy, in consultation with Secretaries of the Interior, Agriculture,
and Defense to enter into an MOU to coordinate all applicable
federal authorizations and environmental reviews relating to
processing a right-of-way application. Among other provisions, the
MOU must provide for an agreement among the affected federal
agencies to prepare a single environmental review document to be
used as the basis for all federal authorization decisions granting
rights-of-way on public land for natural gas pipelines and “utility
facilities” (e.g., facilities or systems for the transportation or storage
of oil, natural gas, synthetic liquid fuel, and gaseous fuel; or the
generation, transmission, and distribution of electric energy).
! Siting interstate electric transmission facilities. Under § 1221, the
act amends the Federal Power Act (16 U.S.C. 824 et seq.) to
establish, among other provisions, a process to coordinate federal
authorizations required to site a transmission or distribution facility
and designates the Department of Energy (DOE) as the lead agency
responsible for coordinating all applicable federal authorizations or
related environmental reviews. It also allows DOE to set deadlines
related to federal authorizations and environmental reviews.
Under § 390, the act designates specific actions undertaken by the Secretary of
the Interior in managing public lands or the Secretary of Agriculture in managing
National Forest System lands that will be presumed to be categorical exclusions
under NEPA. Those activities, if conducted pursuant to the Mineral Leasing Act for
the exploration or development of oil or gas, are as follows:
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! Individual surface disturbances of less than 5 acres, as long as the
total surface disturbance on the lease is not greater than 150 acres
and site-specific analysis in a document prepared pursuant to NEPA
has been completed previously.
! Drilling an oil or gas well at a location or well pad site at which
drilling has occurred previously within five years prior of the date of
starting (referred to as spudding) the well.
! Drilling an oil or gas well within a developed field for which an
approved land use plan or any environmental document prepared
pursuant to NEPA analyzed such drilling as a reasonably foreseeable
activity (if that plan or document was approved within the previous
five years).
! Placement of a pipeline in an approved right-of-way corridor (as
long as the corridor was approved within the previous five years).
! Maintenance of a minor activity, other than any construction or
major renovation of a building or facility.
For more information, see CRS Report RL32873, Key Environmental Issues in
the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58, H.R. 6), by Brent D. Yacobucci,
coordinator.
Appropriations for the Department of the Interior and Related
Agencies. Other legislation with provisions that may be considered streamlining
include various Interior appropriations bills. The streamlining provisions apply to
requirements to prepare a NEPA analysis for grazing permits administered by the
USDA’s Forest Service or the Department of the Interior’s BLM. The appropriate
environmental analysis, conducted either by the Forest Service or BLM, must be
completed before the agency can issue or reissue a grazing permit. A significant
backlog of permit applications and renewals currently exists at both agencies. Since
1999, to respond to that backlog, a provision has been included each year in the
Interior appropriations bill that gives the agencies the authority to extend grazing
permits and leases under their same terms and conditions until completion of NEPA
compliance.36
The 2003 Consolidated Appropriations Resolution (P.L. 108-7, Division F, Title
III, § 328) directed the Secretary of Agriculture to renew grazing permits for those
36 For more information about NEPA and livestock grazing permits administered by the
Forest Service and BLM, see the statement of Fred Norbury, Associate Deputy Chief,
National Forest System, Forest Service, before the Senate Subcommittee on Public Lands
and Forests, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Sept. 28, 2005, available at
[http://energy.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Hearings.Hearing&Hearing_ID=
1500]; and the statement of Jim Hughes, Deputy Director Bureau of Land Management,
before the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee, Subcommittee on Public Lands
and Forests, Oversight of Grazing on Public Lands, June 23, 2004, available at
[http://energy.senate.gov/hearings/testimony.cfm?id=1237&wit_id=1635].
CRS-20
permittees whose permits expired prior to or during FY2003. The NEPA analyses
were still required to be completed on those allotments, and the terms and conditions
of the renewed grazing permit were required to remain in effect until the NEPA
analyses were completed. The FY2004 Interior Appropriations Act (P.L. 108-108,
§ 325) further directed the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture to renew
grazing permits that expired or were transferred or waived between FY2004 and
FY2008. The act also directed the Secretaries to report to Congress beginning in
November 2004, and every two years thereafter, the extent to which analysis required
under applicable laws is being completed prior to the expiration of grazing permits.
The 2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L.108-447, Division E, Title III, §
339) specified that for FY2005 through FY2007, certain decisions made by the
Secretary of Agriculture to authorize grazing would be categorically excluded under
NEPA, if the following conditions apply:
! the decision continues current grazing management of the allotment;
! monitoring indicates that current grazing management is meeting, or
satisfactorily moving toward, objectives in the land management
plan; and
! the decision is consistent with agency policy concerning
extraordinary circumstances.
The total number of allotments that may be categorically excluded under this
authority may not exceed 900.
Administrative Actions
Like legislative streamlining efforts, administrative streamlining procedures are
specific to the programs undertaken by each agency. Selected examples of agency
actions that may be categorized as streamlining NEPA are discussed below.
Forest Service and BLM Timber-Related Activities. The Forest Service
and BLM issued regulations to expand their list of categorical exclusions under
NEPA. Added to the list of projects deemed to have no significant environmental
impact have been forest fuels reduction activities (up to 1,000 acres treated
mechanically or 4,500 acres burned by prescription), rehabilitation activities for lands
(up to 4,200 acres) and infrastructure affected by fires or fire suppression,37 and
“small” timber harvesting projects (up to 70 acres of live trees or up to 250 acres of
dead or dying trees or to control insects of disease).38 (These regulations were
subsequently found to violate the Forest Service Appeals Reform Act [§322 of P.L.
102-381; 16 U.S.C. §1612 note] by excluding decisions from the public comment
37 68 Fed. Reg. 33813 (June 5, 2003).
38 68 Fed. Reg. 44598 (July 29, 2003).
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and appeals process and for other reasons.39) The Forest Service also added land
management plans, plan amendments, and plan revisions to its list of CEs.40
In addition to expanding its list of CEs, the Forest Service modified its
application of “extraordinary circumstances” when determining whether a project
qualifies as a CE.41 Previously, the rule appeared to automatically preclude an action
from being categorically excluded if extraordinary circumstances were present; the
new rule gives the responsible official discretion to determine whether extraordinary
circumstances warrant NEPA analysis and public involvement in otherwise exempt
projects.
For more information, see CRS Report RL33792, Federal Lands Managed by
the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the Forest Service: Issues for the 110th
Congress, coordinated by Ross W. Gorte and Carol Hardy-Vincent.
FERC Liquified Natural Gas Facility Operations. On February 11, 2004,
DOT, FERC, and the U.S. Coast Guard announced an interagency agreement to
provide for the comprehensive and coordinated review of land and marine safety and
security issues at the nation’s liquefied natural gas (LNG) import terminals. With a
goal of reducing duplication of agency effort and maximizing the “exchange of
relevant information related to the safety and security aspects of LNG facilities and
the related marine concerns,” the agreement
! designated FERC as the lead agency for environmental reviews
under the NEPA and, as such, specified that it would coordinate its
reviews with DOT’s Research and Special Programs Administration
(RSPA) and the Coast Guard;
! delineated the roles and responsibilities of each agency relative to
LNG terminals and LNG tanker operations;
! stipulated that the agencies identify issues early and resolve them
quickly;
! specified that the agencies share information and cooperate in the
inspection and operational review of LNG facilities; and
! specified that required NEPA reviews will meet the needs of the
participating agencies, as well as any other cooperating agencies, so
that any necessary permits could be issued concurrently with the
FERC authorizations.
The agreement also specified that FERC would notify the other participating
agencies as early as possible of the start of the NEPA review of LNG facilities,
including meetings with potential applicants. FERC would then establish a schedule
39 Earth Island Institute v. Pengilly, 376 F. Supp. 2d 994 (E.D. Cal. 2005), now under the
name Earth Island Institute v. Ruthenbeck.
40 71 Fed. Reg. 75481 (Dec. 15, 2006). For more information, see the USDA Forest Service
website “Categorical Exclusion for Developing, Revising, or Amending Land Management
Plans,” available at [http://www.fs.fed.us/emc/plan_ce/index.html].
41 67 Fed. Reg. 54622 (Aug. 23, 2002).
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for the project review process and coordinate meetings with the participating
agencies.
NEPA Task Forces
In addition to legislative and administrative activities, four NEPA task forces
have been established to either conduct broad reviews of NEPA’s effectiveness or
address NEPA implementation at individual agencies. Three of the task forces are
administrative — established within CEQ or by executive order to improve the
NEPA implementation process within the context of the existing regulations. One
task force was created by congressional committee with the intent of reviewing
NEPA’s implementation and determining if amendments to the law are needed.
CEQ NEPA Task Force. In 2002, CEQ formed a task force to review NEPA
implementation practices and procedures and to determine opportunities to improve
and modernize the process. The CEQ Task Force interviewed federal agencies;
reviewed public comments, literature, and case studies; and spoke with individuals
and representatives from state and local governments, tribes, and interest groups. In
compiling its research, the CEQ Task Force received more than 739 stakeholder
comments.
In September 2003, the CEQ Task Force released an in-depth report of its
findings and recommendations.42 Actions to implement the Task Force’s
recommendations include developing guidance and several handbooks on the
following:
! Integrating the NEPA process with environmental management
systems.
! Coordinating NEPA with one or more major environmental
consultation and coordination requirements (e.g., § 404 of the Clean
Water Act, § 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act).
! Establishing CEs and applying them to a proposed action.
! Developing concise and focused EAs with adequate alternatives and
mitigation.
! Collaboratively monitoring proposals that rely on the use of CEs and
EAs.
! Identifying components of successful collaborative agreements.
! Using programmatic analyses and their appropriate scope, range of
issues, and depth of analysis.
! Training for interested and affected parties (e.g. decision makers,
tribes, nongovernment organizations, permit applicants, state and
local governments, and the public).
42 Both the CEQ Task Force report “Modernizing NEPA Implementation” and public
comments are available on the CEQ Task Force website at [http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/
ntf/index.html].
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Interagency workgroups have been established to develop the handbooks and
guidance. Their work is ongoing.43
Energy Task Force. On May 18, 2001, the President issued Executive Order
13212, Actions To Expedite Energy-Related Projects. Specifically, agencies were
directed to expedite their review of permits or “take other actions as necessary to
accelerate the completion of projects, while maintaining safety, public health, and
environmental protections.” The agencies were directed to take necessary actions to
the extent permitted by law and regulation.
To help expedite energy-related projects, the executive order established an
Interagency Task Force, housed within the Department of Energy (for administrative
purposes) and chaired by the chairman of CEQ.44 The task force includes the
following members: the Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Education,
Energy, Housing and Urban Development, Health and Human Services, the Interior,
Labor, State, the Treasury, Transportation, and Veterans Affairs; the Attorney
General; the EPA Administrator; the Director of Central Intelligence; the
Administrator of General Services; the Director of the Office of Management and
Budget; the Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers; the Assistant to the
President for Domestic Policy; the Assistant to the President for Economic Policy;
and such other heads of agencies as the CEQ Chairman may designate.
The task force was directed to monitor and assist federal agencies’ efforts to
expedite their permit review process or take other necessary actions to accelerate
completion of energy-related projects. It was also charged with helping agencies
create mechanisms to coordinate federal, state, tribal, and local permitting in
geographic areas where increased permitting activity is expected.
The task force developed several MOUs for certain types of energy-related
projects that incorporate common streamlining elements. For example, in May 2004,
an MOU for the Coordination of Environmental Reviews for Pipeline Repair Projects
was agreed to by CEQ, DOT, EPA, FERC, the DOE, DOI, the Department of
Commerce, the Department of Defense, USDA, and the Advisory Council on
Historic Preservation.
Transportation Task Force. In September 2002, Executive Order 13274,
Environmental Stewardship and Transportation Infrastructure Project Reviews,
directed federal agencies to expedite environmental reviews for transportation
projects that DOT deemed a “high-priority.” Among the criteria for project selection
are whether the projects are of national or regional significance and whether they
may be delayed by lack of federal interagency coordination. As required by the
order, an Interagency Transportation Infrastructure Streamlining Task Force, chaired
by the Secretary of Transportation, is to monitor work on expedited projects, review
the list of suggested projects, and identify and promote policies that aid in
43 For details on the workgroups as well as other activities to-date and ongoing to implement
the CEQ Task Force recommendations, see [http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/ntf/implementation.html].
44 See the Energy Task Force website at [http://www.etf.energy.gov/]. The Energy Task
Force was chartered through Jan. 20, 2005.
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streamlining.45 The task force also includes members from federal agencies likely
to be involved in environmental project reviews. The task force has chosen a total
of 19 highway, transit, and airport projects for expedited review. A FONSI or ROD
has been issued for 12 of those projects. On August 23, 2006, DOT sent letters to the
Task Force Member Agencies announcing its intention to designate up to seven new
priority projects under Executive Order 13274.
House Resources Committee NEPA Task Force. In April 2005, House
Resources Committee Chair Richard Pombo announced the formation of a Task
Force on Improving the National Environmental Policy Act. The Task Force, chaired
by Representative Cathy McMorris, was charged with reviewing and making
recommendations on potential changes to NEPA. It held six hearings in various
regions of the United States and two in Washington, DC, to hear interested
stakeholders’ experiences with the NEPA process.
On December 21, 2005, the Task Force released a draft report with its findings
and recommendations for “improving and updating” NEPA. Those
recommendations include amending NEPA itself, directing CEQ to promulgate
certain regulations, and directing CEQ to conduct studies into certain elements of
NEPA’s implementation. The final report was issued on July 31, 2006. Table 1 (in
the Appendix, below) summarizes the individual recommendations within each
group and provides comments on how those recommendations compare to existing
requirements and on selected issues associated with those recommendations.
The Task Force’s charter ended at the beginning of the 110th Congress.
Conclusion
The process of complying with and documenting compliance with all
environmental statutes, regulations, executive orders, and court decisions potentially
applicable to a federal project is complicated. Even those projects with no or minor
environmental impacts must demonstrate that potential impacts to certain types of
resources (i.e., public parkland, historic sites, wetlands, threatened or endangered
species and their habitat, or property in minority neighborhoods) have been
considered and that compliance with applicable requirements is documented. The
perception that compliance with environmental requirements results in extensive
delays and additional costs to the successful delivery of federal projects can be
magnified when compliance with multiple environmental laws and regulations is
required (as would likely be the case with large, complex federal projects).
CEQ provides oversight and guidance to federal agencies, but it does not
enforce its regulations. The CEQ regulations were meant to be generic in nature,
with individual agencies formulating procedures applicable to their own projects.
This approach was taken due to the very different nature of projects and
environmental impacts of the various federal agencies. Due to the nature of NEPA
45 Information about Executive Order 13274 and the transportation streamlining task force
is available at [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/stewardshipeo/index.htm].
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implementation, determining the time it takes to prepare NEPA documentation,46
assessing the nature of delays related to NEPA, and finding remedies to those delays
may be more appropriately accomplished agency by agency.
Streamlining proposals have generated a great deal of controversy among
interested stakeholders (agency representatives, industry groups, environmental
organizations, and others). Most stakeholders agree that the process for complying
with environmental requirements applicable to complex federal projects could be
implemented more efficiently. However, there is disagreement on exactly how
streamlining best can be or should be accomplished. Stakeholders, such as industry
representatives who would like to see their projects implemented more quickly, often
feel that the authority of lead agencies must be strengthened to reduce delays caused
by potential disagreements among agencies and that hard deadlines must be set and
enforced. Environmental groups are concerned that by speeding up the compliance
process and reducing emphasis on concerns of “non-lead” agencies, streamlining will
have the result of weakening environmental protections. This debate is likely to
continue if additional streamlining methods are proposed by agencies implementing
their own NEPA procedures. The degree to which additional streamlining provisions
will be included in legislation enacted by the 110th Congress is unclear.
46 Including conducting necessary research, data collection, analyses, and other activities.
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For Additional Information
Listed by federal agency, the following websites and CRS products provide
additional information (available as of August 24, 2006) regarding environmental
compliance issues and agency streamlining activities.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture
! USDA Forest Service NEPA Web page [http://www.fs.fed.us/
emc/nepa/].
! CRS Report RL33792, Federal Lands Managed by the Bureau of
Land Management (BLM) and the Forest Service: Issues for the
110th Congress, coordinated by Ross W. Gorte and Carol Hardy
Vincent.
The Department of Energy
! Department of Energy’s Office of NEPA Compliance and Policy
Web page [http://www.eh.doe.gov/nepa/].
! CRS Report RL32873, Key Environmental Issues in the Energy
Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58, H.R. 6), by Brent D. Yacobucci,
coordinator.
The Department of the Interior
! Department of the Interior, Office of Environmental Policy and
Compliance, Natural Resources Management Team (NEPA
Information), Web page [http://www.doi.gov/oepc/nrm.html].
! CRS Report RL33792, Federal Lands Managed by the Bureau of
Land Management (BLM) and the Forest Service: Issues for the
110th Congress, coordinated by Ross W. Gorte and Carol Hardy
Vincent.
! CRS Report RL32244, Grazing Regulations and Policies: Changes
by the Bureau of Land Management, by Carol Hardy Vincent.
! CRS Report RL32315, Oil and Gas Exploration and Development
on Public Lands, by Marc Humphries.
The Department of Transportation
! FHWA’s “NEPA Project Development” Web page
[http://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov/projdev/index.asp].
! FHWA’s “Relevant SAFETEA-LU Provisions” Web page
[http://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov/integ/related.asp].
! CRS Report RL33057, Surface Transportation Reauthorization:
Environmental Issues and Legislative Provisions in SAFETEA-LU
(H.R. 3), by Linda Luther.
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Appendix
Table 1. The House Resources Committee NEPA Task Force Recommendations
To Update NEPA
Summary
Comments
Recommendation Group 1 — Addressing delays in the process
1.1: Amend NEPA to change “major
The Task Force asserts that the undefined term “major” leads to inconsistent application of the requirement to prepare
federal action” to “significant federal
an EIS. As it is currently written, NEPA requires the preparation of a detailed statement of environmental impacts for
action”; amend 40 C.F.R. 1508.8 to
all “major federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment.” CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R.
reflect this change (this regulatory citation
§ 1508.18) define a “major federal action,” in part, as “actions with effects that may be major and which are potentially
is likely listed incorrectly in the report;
subject to Federal control and responsibility. Major reinforces but does not have a meaning independent of
“major federal action” is defined under 40
significantly.” Under current regulations, the word “major” does not refer to the size or scope of the action, but the
C.F.R. 1508.18).
significance of the action’s impacts. In the 1970s, the term “major federal action” was litigated extensively and is now
fairly well-settled to be a one-step process. It is likely that new terminology would also be litigated.
CEQ has recommended that detail regarding what constitutes a major federal action significantly affecting the
environment should be specified in individual agency NEPA procedures. However, most agencies have not done so.
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Summary
Comments
1.2: Require CEQ to promulgate
There is currently no specific time frame for the completion of NEPA documentation. CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. §
regulations that would require EISs be
1501.8) specify both requirements and recommendations with regard to time limits. In part, those regulations state that
completed within 18 months and EAs
CEQ has “decided that prescribed universal time limits for the entire NEPA process are too inflexible, Federal agencies
within nine months; any analyses not
are encouraged to set time limits appropriate to individual actions.” The regulations further specify that time limits
concluded within that time frame will be
shall be set if requested by an applicant, provided that the limits are consistent with the purposes of NEPA and other
considered completed. Exceptions may be
essential considerations of national policy. Further, the regulations specify that when setting time limits, the agency
made by CEQ for not more than six
may consider such factors as the potential harm for the environment; the size of the proposed action; the degree of
months for EISs or three months for EAs.
public need for the action, including consequences of delay; the degree to which relevant information is known and if
not known the time required for obtaining it; and other time limits imposed on the agency by law, regulations, or
Amend NEPA to add a policy expressing
executive order.
the need for timely completion of NEPA
documents.
One of the factors that influence the timing of an EIS or EA is the time it takes to prepare analyses required under
separate statutory authority. For example, to complete an EIS, a lead agency may be required have analyses by the
Department of the Interior’s U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) under certain provisions of the Endangered Species
Act, or from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under certain provisions of the Clean Water Act. The report does not
address whether additional funding will be provided to support agencies required to provide expedited analysis for
given federal actions.
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Summary
Comments
1.3: Require CEQ to promulgate
Currently, individual agencies are responsible for developing criteria to determine whether a proposed action will
regulations that would “create
require a CE, EA, or EIS. Criteria that would be applicable to all types of federal actions, undertaken by all federal
unambiguous criteria” to differentiate
agencies, may be difficult. For example, the Department of the Interior would likely need to use different criteria to
between CEs, EAs, and EISs. The criteria
determine whether an oil and gas exploration project has significant environmental impacts, compared with the criteria
should focus on the “significance” of an
used by the Department of Housing and Urban Development in determining the environmental impacts of a federal
action, consistent with existing regulation
housing project.
and case law.
Amend NEPA to include a policy
statement that the type of NEPA
documentation prepared for a given
federal action will be based on the
environmental impacts of that action, not
on an agency’s effort to reduce the
potential for litigation (e.g., producing an
EIS when an EA is appropriate).
1.4: Amend NEPA to codify CEQ
The cited regulations state that a supplemental EIS shall be prepared if the agency makes substantial changes in the
regulations (40 C.F.R. § 1502.9(c)(1)(i)
proposed action that are relevant to environmental concerns, or if there are significant new circumstances or
and (ii)) regarding requirements for
information relevant to environmental concerns and bearing on the proposed action or its impacts. The Task Force
preparing supplemental EISs.
recommendations appear to require that both, instead of either, criteria be met to require preparation of a supplemental
EIS.
Specifically excluded from the recommended statutory amendment is 40 C.F.R. § 1502.9(c)(2), which states that
agencies “may also prepare supplements when the agency determines that the purposes of the Act will be furthered by
doing so.” The recommendations do not appear to remove this regulatory requirement.
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Summary
Comments
Recommendation Group 2 — Enhancing public participation
2.1: Require CEQ to promulgate
There are currently no provisions in NEPA or the CEQ regulations to put more weight on comments received by one
regulations that would require agencies to
group or agency over another. CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. § 1503) specify requirements for inviting and responding
evaluate comments based on “the impact
to comments on the draft EIS. Any federal agency that has jurisdiction by law or special expertise with respect to any
of the entity submitting them.” Agencies
environmental impact involved in the action or which is authorized to develop and enforce environmental standards
would be directed to develop a scoring
must comment. The lead agency is also required to request comments from appropriate state, local, and tribal agencies;
mechanism “consistent with their
the public, particularly those persons or organizations who may be interested in or affected by the action; any agency
mission.”
that has requested that it receive EISs on similar actions; and the applicant (if there is one). The regulations specify that
the lead agency has a duty to assess and consider comments and respond to them. However, the agency is not
necessarily required to change its decision based on comments received.
In the narrative portion of the Task Force report, it is explained that the intent of this recommendation is to assign a
value to comments from stakeholders most directly affected by a particular action. If enacted, any mechanism used
to “score” comments or determine which stakeholder are most directly affected by an action would likely be the subject
of litigation. For example, it may be difficult to assign a value to the following parties affected by a highway
construction project: property owners whose land must be bought to begin construction, nearby residents affected by
increased noise, or highway users expected to benefit from improved traffic flow.
2.2: Amend NEPA to codify CEQ’s
This proposed amendment is currently in the CEQ regulations at 40 C.F.R. § 1502.7, as noted in the task force
provision that EISs normally be 150 pages
recommendation.
and no more than 300 pages for complex
projects.
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Summary
Comments
Recommendation Group 3 — Better involvement for state, local, and tribal stakeholders
3.1: Require CEQ to promulgate
CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. § 1506.2) specify procedures to eliminate duplication with state and local procedures.
regulations that would allow state
Among other requirements, the regulations specify that “Where State laws or local ordinances have [EIS] requirements
environmental review requirements,
in addition to but not in conflict with those in NEPA, federal agencies shall cooperate in fulfilling these requirements
which are functionally equivalent to
as well as those of federal laws so that one document will comply with all applicable laws.” The CEQ regulations are
NEPA’s, to satisfy NEPA requirements.
silent on tribal NEPA procedures. The recommendations also do not address them.
Recommendation Group 4 — Addressing litigation issues
4.1: Amend NEPA to create a policy
What constitutes best available information and science for a given action would likely differ from project to project.
statement regarding litigation that would
There are currently no definitions for such terms in CEQ regulations or from existing case law, and thus they would
recognize the role of litigation as an
likely be litigated if implemented.
enforcement tool, but point out that it
should be used only in limited cases
CEQ regulations also specify public involvement criteria for actions requiring an EIS (40 C.F.R. § 1506.6) and require
where there has been a clear
agencies to involve environmental agencies, applicants, and the public, to the extent practicable, in the preparation of
demonstration that an agency made a
an EA (40 C.F.R. § 1501.4(b)). There are no public involvement criteria specified for CEs. If a party to a citizen suit
decision without using the best available
must demonstrate that it was involved throughout the NEPA process, agencies may be required to develop specific
information and science; an aggrieved
public involvement criteria for EAs and CEs.
party was involved throughout the NEPA
process in order to have standing to sue;
Neither NEPA nor the CEQ regulations specify criteria regarding standing or specify a statute of limitation on citizen
and that a 180-day statute of limitations
suits. Decisions regarding standing are generally made by the courts based on constitutional or judicial grounds; with
be established.
regard to a time limits on legal actions, courts have turned to the statute of limitations used for judicial review under
the Administrative Procedure Act (28 U.S.C. § 2401), which mandates broadly that civil actions against the United
Require CEQ to promulgate regulations
States must be filed within six years after the right of action first accrues.
that would clarify how the policy
declaration would be implemented.
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Summary
Comments
4.2: Amend NEPA to require CEQ to
CEQ historically performed this function and does so currently, as resources allow.
provide litigation guidance to agencies;
require CEQ to become a clearinghouse
for monitoring and analyzing the effects
of court decisions.
Recommendation Group 5 — Clarifying alternatives analysis
5.1: Amend NEPA to require analysis of
Current CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. § 1502.14) specify that all “reasonable alternatives” to a proposed action be
only “reasonable alternatives.”
considered. CEQ guidance interprets reasonable alternatives to include “those that are practical or feasible from the
technical and economic standpoint and using common sense, rather than simply desirable from the standpoint of the
Require CEQ to promulgate regulations
applicant.”a
that would specify that “reasonable
alternatives” required to be analyzed
With regard to the proposed regulatory requirement regarding feasibility and engineering studies, it is unclear whether
should include only those that are
the preparation of such studies would be an additional requirement under NEPA.
economically and technically feasible (as
supported by feasibility and engineering
In evaluating and selecting its final alternative, NEPA does not require the agency to select the least environmentally
studies).
harmful alternative (e.g., NEPA would not require an agency to select a more costly project alternative even though
it has less significant environmental impacts compared to another).
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Summary
Comments
5.2: Amend NEPA to specify that
The task force report appears to interpret the existing regulations as requiring agencies to only “list” the no action
alternative analysis must include a
alternative in an EIS, with no corresponding analysis. However, CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. § 1502.14) and CEQ
consideration of the environmental
guidance do require analysis of a “no action” or “no change” alternative. CEQ guidance specifies that such analysis
impacts of the “no action alternative” and
is required to demonstrate the environmental impacts of continuing with the present course of action or taking no action.
require an agency to reject this alternative
Currently, agencies may use the no action alternative analysis as a baseline against which they can measure the impacts
“if, on balance, the impacts of not
of other alternatives under consideration.
undertaking a project or decision would
outweigh the impacts of executing the
This recommendation appears to add a substantive element to NEPA implementation — it species criteria under which
project or decision.”
an alternative must be rejected. As NEPA has been interpreted, it is a tool to assist an agency in the decision-making
process, but it does not dictate the outcome of that process. For example, NEPA does not require an agency to elevate
environmental concerns above others. If the adverse environmental effects of the proposed action are adequately
identified and evaluated, the agency is not constrained by NEPA from deciding that other benefits outweigh the
environmental costs and moving forward with the action. That is, an agency is not currently required by NEPA to
choose or reject a project alternative based on its environmental impacts.
5.3: Require CEQ to promulgate guidance
CEQ regulations require an EIS or ROD to include a discussion or analysis of measures that may be taken to mitigate
to make environmental mitigation
the environmental impact of a proposed alternative (40 C.F.R. §§ 1502.14(f) and 1502.16(h)). However, it is not
proposals binding on the agency
required that mitigation measures discussed in the NEPA documentation actually be implemented, only that the
recommending the action.
environmental impacts of an action be considered if such measures were implemented.
Amend NEPA to “recognize that
CEQ guidance is not enforceable. It is unclear whether CEQ guidance directing agencies to require a “mitigation
mitigation proposals that a [sic] utilized
guarantee” would be enforceable.
as part of the decision-making process
must be implemented.”
CRS-34
Summary
Comments
Recommendation Group 6 — Better federal agency coordination
6.1: Require CEQ to promulgate
Agency and public participation requirements are currently specified in CEQ regulations for projects requiring an EIS.
regulations that would encourage more
When determining the scope of issues to be addressed and identifying the significant issues related to a proposed
consultation with interested stakeholders.
actions, CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. § 1501.7) require agencies to “invite the participation of affected Federal, State,
Those regulations “will focus on creating
and local agencies, any affected Indian tribe, the proponent of the action, and other interested persons (including those
a mechanism that includes all appropriate
who might not be in accord with the action on environmental grounds).” CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. § 1506.6) also
stakeholders with particular emphasis on
specify that agencies must “make diligent efforts to involve the public in preparing and implementing their NEPA
not including ‘fringe’ elements that would
procedures” and how such efforts should be made.
only seek to delay the decision-making
process.”
The CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. 1501.4(b)) specify that if an action does not require an EIS, the agency shall involve
environmental agencies, applicants, and the public, to the extent practicable, in preparing EAs. Otherwise, public
participation requirements for projects requiring an EA or CE are left largely to the discretion of the lead agency. It is
unclear from the task force report whether the recommendation would apply to EAs and CEs.
It is likely that attempts to define “fringe elements” in the NEPA process or to identify a stakeholder as one that is
seeking to delay the decision-making process would be litigated.
6.2: Amend NEPA to clarify the
With regard to EIS development, current CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. § 1508.16) define “lead agency” as the agency
responsibility of lead agencies to charge
or agencies preparing or having taken primary responsibility for preparing an EIS.
that agency with “the responsibility to
develop a consolidated record for the
The task force report does not include details regarding what constitutes “other NEPA decisions” for which a lead
NEPA reviews, EIS development, and
agency would have responsibility.
other NEPA decisions.”
CRS-35
Summary
Comments
Recommendation Group 7 — Additional authority for CEQ
7.1: Amend NEPA to direct CEQ to
There are currently few data on NEPA-related costs. They may be difficult to determine because it is difficult to isolate
“control NEPA related costs” and provide
costs or project expenses associated only with NEPA. For example, environmental analyses may be required pursuant
CEQ with statutory authority to do so.
to separate statutory requirements (e.g., the Clean Water Act, Clean Air Act, Endangered Species Act).
Direct CEQ to bring recommendation to
Congress for cost ceiling policies.
Recommendation Group 8 — Clarify the meaning of “cumulative impacts”
8.1: Amend NEPA to clarify how
CEQ regulations (40 C.F.R. 1508.7) define cumulative impacts as those that “can result from individually minor but
agencies would evaluate the effect of past
collectively significant actions taking place over a period of time.” Such impacts include those which result from the
actions for assessing cumulative impacts.
incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions.
Add a provision to establish that an
agency’s “assessment of existing
In looking at the impact of past actions, CEQ guidanceb specifies that a review of such actions is required to the extent
environmental conditions is the
that the review informs agency decision making. The analysis of past actions may identify trends that could influence
appropriate methodology to account for
the effects of current actions. CEQ’s interpretation is based, in part, on previous court decisions. Changes to that
past actions.”
interpretation would likely be litigated as well.
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Summary
Comments
8.2: Require CEQ to promulgate
CEQ’s interpretation of what constitutes “reasonably foreseeable” future actions is based, in part, on previous case law.
regulations that would modify existing
Changes to the regulatory definition would likely be litigated. Further, new terminology such as “speculative actions”
regulations (40 C.F.R. 1508.7) to clarify
would likely be litigated.
which types of future actions would be
considered “reasonably foreseeable” when
conducting cumulative impact analysis.
The regulations should “make certain that
speculative actions are not ‘reasonable’
within the context of cumulative
impacts.”
Amend NEPA to instruct federal agencies
to employ “practical considerations to
assesses the practicality of a future
action’s impacts on the environment.”
Recommendation Group 9 — Studies
9.1: Require CEQ to conduct studies to
The Task Force recommendations do not discuss how much funding, if any, CEQ would receive to conduct these
determine or evaluate: how NEPA
studies.
interacts with other federal environmental
laws; the amount, if any, of duplication
and overlap in the environmental
evaluation process; and potential methods
to address overlaps among federal laws.
CRS-37
Summary
Comments
9.2: Require CEQ to conduct a study of
The Task Force recommendations do not discuss how much funding, if any, CEQ would receive to conduct these
federal agency NEPA staffing issues.
studies.
9.3: Require CEQ to conduct a study of
The Task Force recommendations do not discuss how much funding, if any, CEQ would receive to conduct these
NEPA’s interaction with state “mini-
studies.
NEPAs.”
Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) review of recommendations in the House Resource Committee’s Task Force on Improving the National Environmental Policy Act,
Initial Findings and Draft Recommendations, Dec. 21, 2005.
a. Council on Environmental Quality, “Forty Most Asked Questions Concerning CEQ’s National Environmental Policy Act Regulations,” 46 Fed. Reg. 18,026 (Mar. 23, 1981),
available at [http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/regs/40/40P1.htm], as of Aug. 24, 2006.
b. Council on Environmental Quality, “Guidance on the Consideration of Past Actions in Cumulative Effects Analysis,” June 24, 2005 available at
[http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/regs/guidance.html], as of Aug. 24, 2006.