Order Code RS22505
September 18, 2006
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Voter Identification and Citizenship
Requirements: Legislation in the 109th
Congress
Kevin J. Coleman
Analyst in American National Government
Government and Finance Division
Eric A. Fischer
Senior Specialist in Science and Technology
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Summary
The Help America Vote Act of 2002 (HAVA, P.L. 107-252) requires that certain
voters who had registered by mail present a form of identification from a list specified
in the act. States vary greatly in what identification they require voters to present,
ranging from nothing beyond the federal requirement to photographic identification for
all voters. The adequacy of the current federal requirement has been controversial, and
several bills have been introduced in the 109th and previous Congresses both to broaden
and to restrict that requirement. H.R. 4844 (Hyde) would require voters to present photo
identification with proof of citizenship when voting in federal elections.
Proponents for implementing such additional federal requirements assert that they
are necessary to prevent vote fraud, although statistics on the occurrence or impact of
such fraud have not been compiled at either the state or federal level. There are,
however, reported instances of non-citizens voting in elections regularly.1 Objections
to such requirements focus on the problems they might create for some classes of
otherwise eligible voters, particularly in the absence of strong evidence linking non-
citizen voting to vote fraud, and on the longstanding practice of limiting federal
involvement in the administration of elections by states. This report, which will be
updated, presents background information on identification requirements for voting and
discusses potential benefits and disadvantages of the provisions in H.R. 4844.
The identification requirement in HAVA applies only to first-time registrants who
register by mail, if the voter has not previously voted in a federal election in the state, or
1 See, for example, Chris Ramirez, “Prop. 200 Focus of House Hearing,” Arizona Republic, Aug.
4, 2006.
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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in a local election jurisdiction in cases where the state does not have a computerized,
statewide voter registration system.2 Such voters must present one of the following forms
of identification: “a current and valid photo identification [or a copy if voting by mail];
or a copy of a current utility bill, bank statement, government check, paycheck, or other
government document that shows the name and address of the voter.” HAVA also
requires that mail-in voter registration forms contain a check box for the registrant to
certify that he or she is a U.S. citizen. The act does not prevent states from establishing
more-stringent identification requirements.
Following the passage of HAVA, states enacted laws to implement the HAVA
identification requirements, and in some cases, more-stringent requirements. Some states
have no additional requirements for voters to present a form of identification beyond
those in HAVA.3 Other states also require voters to present a form of identification from
the list in HAVA, or from a more extended list. Still others require all voters to present
photo identification. In all cases, voters who cannot present identification are permitted
to cast a provisional ballot.
Several bills introduced in the 109th Congress take opposite approaches to the
question of voter identification. H.Con.Res. 247 (Lewis-GA) and S.Con.Res. 53 (Obama)
would express the sense of Congress that national photo identification requirements for
voters should be rejected and that the U.S. Department of Justice should challenge any
state law that has what the resolution refers to as discriminatory photo-identification
requirements. H.R. 533 (Conyers), H.R. 939 (Jones-OH), S. 17 (Dodd), and S. 450
(Clinton) would modify HAVA to permit use of affidavits to establish identity for
first-time voters who register by mail and would require the Election Assistance
Commission (EAC) to establish standards for verification of identity of voters. H.R. 4989
(Holt) would require states to provide durable registration cards free of charge to
registered voters. The cards could be used to verify identity at the polling place.
In contrast, H.R. 2250 (Green-WI) would require voters and applicants for voter
registration to present government-issued photo identification when appearing in person,
or a copy for mailed applications or ballots, but would provide an exception for persons
with disabilities. H.R. 3910 (Feeney) would require all voters, beginning in 2008, to
present state-issued photo identification when voting, and would establish required
specifications for those identification documents. H.R. 4462 (Gingrey) and H.R. 5913
(Tancredo) would require voters to provide proof of citizenship when voting or to have
such proof on file with the state election office. H.R. 5913 would further require all
voters to present a photo identification card (or copy if voting by mail) issued without
charge by the state. S. 414 (McConnell) would require voters to present
government-issued photo identification if voting in person; if voting absentee, a voter
with a valid driver’s license would be required to include the license number. Other
absentee voters would be required to include a copy of a government-issued photo
2 See § 303 (b). HAVA also requires that, effective January 2006, all states have such a
computerized, statewide voter registration system (see § 303(a)).
3 States that do not require voters to present identification may use other means of verification,
such as asking voters to state their home address and date of birth, or requiring a signature that
would be compared with one on file.

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identification, the last 4 digits of the social security number, or the voter-identification
number specified in HAVA.
Several bills would authorize funding for photo identification. S. 414 would
authorize $25 million for FY2006 and sums necessary thereafter for EAC payments to
states to provide free photo identification cards to registered voters who did not already
have them. H.R. 939 and S. 450, which would not require such identification,
nevertheless would authorize $10 million for FY2006 and sums necessary thereafter to
promote the issuance of such cards. H.R. 2250 would authorize sums necessary for the
EAC to make payments to states to reduce costs to low-income persons of obtaining the
identification required by the bill. H.R. 4989 would authorize the funds necessary to assist
states in issuing voter registration cards. H.R. 5913 would authorize funds necessary for
the photo identification cards required by the act and would withhold federal highway
funds from states that failed to comply.
On September 14, 2006, the House Administration Committee ordered to be reported
H.R. 4844 (Hyde), the Federal Election Integrity Act of 2006, with an amendment in the
nature of a substitute. The bill as amended would require proof of citizenship (beginning
in 2010) and photo identification issued by the federal government or a state government
(beginning in 2008) for voting in federal elections. It would require that voters who cast
a provisional ballot because they did not have the required identification provide such
within 48 hours for the ballot to be counted. It includes an exception for military overseas
voters. The bill would require states to provide photo identification documents to
qualified voters who did not have such documents, and to provide them to indigent voters
at no cost. It would authorize appropriation of such sums as may be necessary to cover
the costs of providing such identification to indigent voters.
Also on September 14, Cole County Circuit Judge Richard Callahan in Missouri
struck down a state law requiring photo identification to vote, and U.S. District Judge
Harold Murphy in Georgia blocked the state from enforcing its photo ID law, although
he did not block its use in the upcoming November election.4 Voters in Arizona approved
Proposition 200 in November 2004 to require photo identification and proof of citizenship
for voting.5 Until the 20th century, not all states required voters to be citizens, and a small
number of localities permit non-citizen voting in local elections.6
Potential Arguments in Favor
Among the potential arguments in favor of requiring photo identification and proof
of citizenship for voting are the following:
4 Kelly Wiese, “Judge strikes down Mo. voter ID law,” Associated Press, Sept. 14, 2006, at
[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20060914/ap_on_re_us/voter_id].
5 The text of Proposition 200 may be found at [http://www.azsos.gov/election/2004/info/
PubPamphlet/english/prop200.htm].
6 A discussion of the history of non-citizen voting may be found at
[http://www.gothamgazette.com/article/feature-commentary/20030825/202/503].

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! It would establish a uniform, national standard for voting eligibility with
respect to photo identification and proof of citizenship, eliminating the
potential for confusion from the current state-by-state approach.7
! It would prevent non-citizens from being able to register to vote
unintentionally, thereby preventing any non-citizen from casting a ballot,
a right reserved for citizens only.
! It would prevent intentional registration by non-citizens and eliminate
that form of vote fraud, either on the part of individuals or on a larger
scale.
! It would implement a major recommendation of the National
Commission on Federal Election Reform — commonly known as the
Carter-Baker Commission — that called for states to require voters to
provide photo identification in order to vote.8
! It would bring voting in line with other transactions that require photo
identification, such as cashing a check or boarding a plane, or as proof of
age or identity for certain types of purchases.
Potential Arguments Against
Among the potential arguments against photo identification and proof of citizenship
requirements for voting are the following:
! It is arguably unnecessary, because federal law already prohibits non-
citizens from voting in national elections (18 U.S.C. § 611) or from
providing false information about citizenship when registering (18 U.S.C.
§ 911) and carries penalties of a fine, imprisonment for a year, or both.
! H.R. 4844 goes well beyond the identification requirement in the Help
America Vote Act, which established minimum election administration
requirements and specifically noted that “nothing in this title shall be
construed to prevent a State from establishing election technology and
administration requirements that are more strict than the requirements
established under this title....”9 With respect to photo identification and
citizenship, many states have done exactly that: 24 established stricter
identification requirements than HAVA and the remaining 26
implemented the basic HAVA requirements for identification.10
7 Nearly half the states already have an identification requirement, and all the states require that
a voter must be a citizen.
8 The report can be found at [http://www.american.edu/ia/cfer/].
9 § 304.
10 A state-by-state summary of Identification laws may be found at [http://www.electionline.org/
Default.aspx?tabid=364].

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! The bill does not indicate what types of proof of citizenship would be
acceptable, so it is hard to determine precisely what its impact would be
on voters.
! The bill would place an additional burden on potential voters who must
provide documentation at the time both of registration and of voting. In
the U.S., the burden of registration falls to the individual to begin with,
in contrast to other democracies where the government compiles the list
of eligible voters and where turnout tends to be considerably higher than
in the United States.
! For some voters — particularly the elderly, the poor, and some minorities
— obtaining the proper government documentation to prove citizenship
could be difficult and time-consuming if the person did not have such
documents in hand.
! Requiring proof of citizenship would mean that newly registered voters
would have to meet an additional requirement to be eligible to vote
compared with those who were already registered, raising the question of
different standards for different classes of voters (the newly registered vs.
the already registered).
! The registration process would be delayed until a potential voter could
obtain the necessary proof of citizenship and photo identification,
presumably from different government entities, before registering to vote
with a third entity, and could create additional burdens for voters.
! The bill would not require that photo identification cards should be
provided, free of charge, to all voters, as recommended by the Carter-
Baker Commission and as a number of states have done.
Latest Action
The House Administration Committee ordered to be reported H.R. 4844, with an
amendment in the nature of a substitute, on September 14, 2006. The House is expected
to take up the bill during the week of September 18.

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