Order Code RL32527
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Emergency Communications:
The Emergency Alert System (EAS) and
All-Hazard Warnings
Updated September 13, 2006
Linda K. Moore
Analyst in Telecommunications Policy
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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Emergency Communications:
The Emergency Alert System (EAS)
and All-Hazard Warnings
Summary
The Emergency Alert System (EAS) is built on a structure conceived in the
1950’s when over-the-air broadcasting was the best-available technology for widely
disseminating emergency alerts. It is one of several federally managed warning
systems. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) jointly administers
EAS with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), in cooperation with the
National Weather Service (NWS), an organization within the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The NOAA/NWS weather radio system has
been upgraded to an all-hazard warning capability. Measures to improve the NOAA
network and the broader-based EAS are underway or are being tested.
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L. 108-458)
addressed the possibility of using advanced telecommunications and Internet
technologies for emergency notification by requiring the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS) to implement pilot projects. On June 26, 2006, President George W.
Bush issued an executive order stating that U.S. policy is “to have an effective,
reliable, integrated, flexible, and comprehensive system to alert and warn the
American people.”
Bills in the 109th Congress that would improve emergency alert systems,
domestically and internationally, include S. 50 (Senator Inouye) and H.R. 396
(Representative Menendez); these bills were prompted by the tsunami disaster but
include measures that also apply to the need for a better all-hazard warning system
in the United States. A bill dealing more broadly with the development of emergency
alert networks and post-disaster communications has been introduced by Senator Jim
DeMint (S. 1753). Bills similar to S. 1753, but with some modifications and without
the text from S. 50, were introduced in the House by Representative John Shimkus
(H.R. 5556, amended as H.R. 5785). A version of S. 1753 has been added to the
SAFE Port Act (H.R. 4954) as S.Amdt. 4927. A bill to provide telephonic alerts as
part of a national alert system has been introduced (H.R. 2101, Representative
Meek). A bill to assist individuals with disabilities in emergency situations (S. 2124,
Senator Harkin) includes provisions for providing information in emergencies. A
companion bill to S. 2124 was introduced by Representative James R. Langevin
(H.R. 4704). H.R. 5351 (Representative Reichert), a bill which would transfer
FEMA and the Directorate of Preparedness to an Under Secretary for Emergency
Management within DHS, includes a section covering general provisions for an
“integrated national alert and warning system.” H.R. 5759 (Representative Harris)
has similar provisions regarding an integrated national alert system. S. 3721 (Senator
Collins) would replace FEMA with a U.S. Emergency Management Authority and
transfer to it DHS’s responsibilities for EAS and related programs.
This report summarizes the technology and administration of EAS and the
NOAA/NWS all-hazard network, new programs in DHS, and some of the key
proposals for change. It will be updated.

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Contents
EAS Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Broadcaster Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Digital Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Alerting Individuals with Disabilities and Others with Special Needs . 4
NOAA Weather Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
All-Hazard Warning Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Common Alerting Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Call Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Department of Homeland Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Digital Emergency Alert System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Other Technology Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Proposals and Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Executive Order: Public Alert and Warning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Recent Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Emergency Alerts and the 109th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Improving Emergency Alert Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Tsunami Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Telephonic Alerts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Alerting Individuals with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Other Federal Emergency Warning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
National Warning System (NAWAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Federal Emergency Management System (FEMIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Advanced Weather Information Processing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Emergency Managers Weather Information Network (EMWIN) . . . . 17
NOAA Weather Wire Service (NWWS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
List of Tables
Table 1. Federal Emergency Warning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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Emergency Communications:
The Emergency Alert System (EAS)
and All-Hazard Warnings
The two mainstays of the U.S. capacity to issue warnings are the Emergency
Alert System (EAS), which relies primarily on broadcasting media, and the NOAA
Weather Radio All-Hazards Network. The National Weather Service (NWS) of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)1 sends alerts through
NOAA Weather Radio (NWR), now expanded to include warnings for all hazards.
Several initiatives are underway within the federal government to improve, expand,
and integrate existing warning systems. The most important of these — in terms of
using, testing and developing leading-edge technology — is the Integrated Public
Alert and Warning System (IPAWS), a public-private partnership in which the
Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has a leadership role. Many communities,
meanwhile, are installing local alert systems that send voice, text messages, and e-
mail. Locally activated alert systems are widely used for Amber Alerts.2 Amber
Alert systems are in place nationwide to aid primarily in the recovery of abducted
children.3 Amber Alerts are currently supported by a number of different
technologies, including a quasi-national network based on the Internet. Amber Alert
messages also can be sent through the Emergency Alert System and the NOAA
Weather Radio All-Hazards Network. Many agree that the long-term goal for
emergency alerts is to converge federal warning systems into an integrated network
that can interface with localized warning systems and also call centers, such as those
used for 911 and 211 calls.4
The 9/11 Commission Report discusses the effectiveness of emergency alerts at
the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, with a focus on communications
1 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is an agency of the
Department of Commerce.
2 Named after Amber Hagerman, kidnaped and murdered in 1996; also referred to as the
AMBER Plan, for America’s Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response. Websites with
a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n c l u d e [ h t t p : / / w w w . a m b e r a l e r t n o w . o r g ] ,
[http://www.amberalert911.org] and the site of the National Center for Missing and
Exploited Children [http://www.ncmec.org]. All sites visited December 21, 2005.
3 See CRS Report RS21453, Amber Alert Program Technology, by Linda K. Moore. The
program and policy issues are discussed in CRS Report RL31655, Missing and Exploited
Children: Overview and Policy Concerns, by Edith Cooper.
4 911 calls go to Public Safety Answering Points (PSAPs). 211 calls typically go to
municipal call centers. The role of call centers in providing warnings and information in
emergencies is discussed in CRS Report RL32939, An Emergency Communications Safety
Net: Integrating 911 and Other Services, by Linda K. Moore.

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CRS-2
systems.5 Recent, major studies of warning systems have concluded that the United
States needs a more robust emergency alert system. Recommendations for
improvement include using all available means of communication, providing a
standardized alert protocol, and developing infrastructure for notification to
geographically specific locations and virtual communities.6 A virtual community in
the context of emergency communications refers to the technical ability to give
immediate, simultaneous alerts to the appropriate community of responders and
affected residents. Before its towers collapsed, the World Trade Center’s occupants
might have benefitted if virtual community or geo-targeted alert technology had been
in place and activated.
EAS Administration
EAS currently sends emergency messages with the cooperation of broadcast
radio and television and most cable television stations. It was created as
CONELRAD (Control of Electromagnetic Radiation) in 1951, as part of America’s
response to the threat of nuclear attack. In 1963, the system was opened to state and
local participation. Through most of its existence, the alert system was known as the
Emergency Broadcast System. The name was changed in the 1990’s when the
technology was upgraded and automated.
Congress has placed responsibility for civil defense measures that include the
present-day EAS with the Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA)7 now part of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) has been designated by FEMA to manage
broadcaster involvement in EAS. The FCC currently provides technical standards
and support for EAS, rules for its operation, and enforcement within the broadcasting
and cable industries. FEMA works with the emergency response officials who,
typically, initiate an EAS message for a state or local emergency. Non-federal EAS
operational plans are developed primarily at the state and local level, often with the
participation of FEMA and other federal agencies. The FCC provides rules and
guidelines for state EAS plans and many, but not all, states have filed FCC-compliant
EAS plans. FEMA advisors often help to integrate EAS usage into emergency alert
plans. The decentralized process contributes to uneven planning; for example,
procedures for initiating a message and activating EAS differ from state to state. In
comments filed with the FCC, DHS has proposed that FEMA and DHS “should be
the primary point of contact” and act as the “Executive Agent” in managing alerts
5 Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States,
Official Government Edition, 2004 pp. 286-287; 295; 306.
6 These recommendations, and others, were affirmed at a Senate Hearing,”All-Hazards Alert
Systems,” Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, Subcommittee on Disaster
Prevention and Prediction, July 27, 2005.
7 P.L. 103-337, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1995, Title XXXIV -
Civil Defense, Sec. 603 (42 U.S.C. § 5196), amending the Federal Civil Defense Act of
1950 (64 Stat 1245).

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CRS-3
and warning information. The FCC would continue its regulatory role for
broadcasting and wireless communications.8
Umbrella organizations that participate in EAS planning and administration
include the Media Security and Reliability Council (an FCC Advisory Committee),
the Primary Entry Point9 Advisory Committee, and associations such as the National
Association of Broadcasters and state broadcasting associations. States and localities
organize Emergency Communications Committees whose members often include
representatives from broadcasting companies or local TV and radio stations. These
committees agree on the chain-of-command and other procedures for activating an
emergency message through radio and television. The constraints of the EAS
technology, as specified by the FCC, limit an EAS message to no more than two
minutes. Emergency alert agreements with broadcasters, therefore, usually provide
for both EAS warning messages and follow-up broadcast programming.
Broadcaster Participation. The participation of broadcast and cable
stations in state and local emergency announcements is voluntary. The FCC has
designated over 30 radio stations as National Primary Stations that are required to
transmit Presidentially initiated alerts and messages. Their broadcasts are relayed
by Primary Entry Point stations to radio and television stations that rebroadcast the
message to other broadcast and cable stations until all stations have been alerted.
The FCC requires broadcast and cable stations to install FCC-certified EAS
equipment as a condition of licensing. Radio and television broadcast stations, cable
companies and wireless cable companies must participate. Cable companies serving
communities of less than 5,000 may be partially exempted from EAS requirements.
For the broadcast of non-federal emergency messages, the FCC has ruled that the
broadcasters, not a state or local authority, have the final authority to transmit a
message.10 Historically, the level of cooperation from the broadcasting industry has
been high. For example, because state and local governments are not required to
upgrade to EAS-compatible equipment — and therefore may lack direct access to the
technology — broadcasters often volunteer to manage the task of EAS message
initiation.

Digital Broadcasting. The FCC has promulgated new rules to include
digital media carriage of EAS messages. In a Report and Order released November
10, 2005, EAS requirements have been expanded to include digital communications
over direct-broadcast televison and radio, digital cable, and direct-to-home satellite
television and radio. Companies using these media will be required to install EAS
8 Letter dated November 5, 2004 from Michael D. Brown, Under Secretary, Emergency
Preparedness and Response, Department of Homeland Security, FCC, EB Docket 04-296.
9 The Primary Entry Point (PEP) system consists of a nationwide network of broadcast
stations connected with government activation points through designated National Primary
Stations.
10 FCC, Report and Order and Further Notice of Proposed Rule Making, Released
December 9, 1994, FO Docket Nos. 91-301 and 91-171, 10 FCC Record 1786.

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CRS-4
equipment to handle digital formats. As part of the Report and Order, the FCC has
also asked for a new round of comments on ways to improve and expand the current
emergency alert system.11
EAS Technology. EAS technology uses coders and decoders to send data
signals recognized as emergency messages. Almost any communications device can
be programmed to receive and decode an EAS messages. In manual mode, an EAS
alert is sent to a broadcaster, either over an EAS encoder-decoder or by other means,
such as a telephone call. Where agreements have been put in place with
broadcasters, EAS messages can be created and activated by state or local officials
and transmitted automatically to the public without the intervention of broadcasting
staff. These messages use computer-generated voices. All EAS messages carry a
unique code which can be matched to codes embedded in transmitting equipment;
this authenticates the sender of the EAS message. To facilitate the transmittal of
emergency messages, messages are classified by types of events, which also are
coded. These event codes speed the recognition and re-transmittal process at
broadcast stations. For example, a tornado warning is TOR, evacuation immediate
is EVI, a civil emergency message is CEM. When a message is received at the
broadcast station, it can be relayed to the public either as a program interruption or,
for television, as a “crawl” at the bottom of the TV screen. The installed technology
limits messages to two minutes; emergency managers and station operators have pre-
scripted message templates that have been timed to fit this constraint; specific
information is added to the text at the time of the emergency. When new event codes
are added, broadcasters must upgrade their equipment to recognize the codes. To use
EAS in a more flexible manner, with messages longer than two minutes, for example,
also would require broadcasters to upgrade existing equipment.
Alerting Individuals with Disabilities and Others with Special
Needs. The FCC requires that EAS messages be delivered in both audio and visual
(captions, message boards, other) formats. Regular broadcasts about emergencies,
however, do not have to comply with this requirement. The community of disabled
individuals, therefore, is often under-served when emergency information is
disseminated outside the EAS network. Although a number of technologies exist to
provide accessible formats for people with special needs — such as those with
disabilities, the elderly, and those who do not understand English — many of these
solutions are not supported by the current EAS system or are so expensive as to be
inaccessible to most. Incorporating technologies that expand the reach of EAS, at a
reasonable cost, is one of the challenges of delivering an effective warning system
that is truly nationwide.12
11 FCC, First Report and Order and Further Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, EB Docket No.
04-296, released November 10, 2005.
12 For a discussion of the issue in the context of the Americans with Disabilities Act, see
CRS Report RS22254, The Americans with Disabilities Act and Emergency Preparedness
and Response, by Nancy Lee Jones.

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CRS-5
NOAA Weather Radio
Digitized signal technology for EAS is the same as that used for the NOAA
Weather Radio (NWR). Widely recognized as the backbone of public warning
systems, NWR broadcasts National Weather Service forecasts and all-hazard
warnings for natural and man-made events. The compatibility of the signals makes
it possible for EAS equipment used by the media to receive and decode NWR
messages automatically. Weather radios can be tuned directly to NWR channels.
Many can be programmed to receive only specific types of messages — for example,
civil emergency — and for specific locations, using Special Area Message Encoding
(SAME). Standardized SAME codes can be used in almost any device with a radio
receiver. These can sound an alarm or set off a flashing light. Similar technology is
available to provide NWR messages by satellite TV and over the Internet as
messages or as e-mail. Therefore, although EAS and NWR are broadcast
technologies set up to operate on a one-to-many basis, these broadcasts can be
screened and decoded to provide customized alerts.
The technologies available to the public to receive NWR alerts are equipped to
receive any EAS message. In reality, broadcast and cable stations rarely program
their EAS technology to transmit voluntary state or local messages over the NWR
channels. NOAA has improved, and continues to upgrade, its technology to support
an all-hazard warning system. It is encouraging public safety officials to notify them
as well as their EAS broadcast contacts regarding non-weather-related emergencies
so that they may be rebroadcast on NWR. The eventual inclusion of warnings and
alerts from the Department of Homeland Security will bolster these efforts.
All-Hazard Warning Technology
Given the advanced state of other communications technologies, especially the
Internet and wireless devices, the reliance on delivering EAS warnings by radio and
television broadcasting seems out-of-date. Some states and communities are
pioneering alert systems that utilize other infrastructures. In particular, many
communities participate in programs with e-mail or Internet alerts and some issue
mass alerts by telephone. Among the best developed of these warning programs are
those used for Amber Alerts, providing noteworthy examples of public-private
partnerships. Recently, for example, more than15 states reportedly have launched or
are preparing to launch Internet technology customized for Amber Alerts. It is hoped
by its developers that this system might become the backbone for an expanded all-
hazards warning system that would extend the reach of emergency alerts to all types
of communications media.13
13 “Signing of 9/11 Bill to Bring the Emergency Warning System into the Digital Age;
NASCIO will lead in developing a National All Alert System.” National Association of
Chief Information Officers Press Release, January 5, 2005 available at
[http://www.nascio.org/pressReleases/050104.cfm]. Viewed December 21, 2005.

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CRS-6
Common Alerting Protocol. A standardized format known as Common
Alerting Protocol (CAP)14 has been developed for use in all types of alert messages.
CAP has received widespread support from the public safety community and has
been accepted as a standard by the international Organization for the Advancement
of Structured Information Standards (OASIS). One of its key benefits is that it can
be used as a single input to activate multiple warning systems. It is being used as a
standard for several tests of new, digitized alert networks using multiple
technologies.
Call Centers. Some of the technological solutions for disseminating alerts and
providing information rely on call centers, including 911 emergency call centers (also
referred to as Public Safety Answering Points, or PSAPs). The 9/11 Commission
Report15 describes the often inadequate response of 911 call centers serving New
York City.16 The report’s analysis of the 911 response recommends: “In planning for
future disasters, it is important to integrate those taking 911 calls into the emergency
response team and to involve them in providing up-to-date information and
assistance to the public.”17 Such a solution would require a common infrastructure
that would support a number of communications and warning needs. Many
recommendations have encouraged the development of greater end-to-end
connectivity among all types of emergency services.
Department of Homeland Security. In June 2004, the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Department of Homeland
Security’s Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate signed an
agreement that allows DHS to send critical all-hazards alerts and warnings, including
those related to terrorism, directly through the NOAA Weather Radio All-Hazards
Network. Under the agreement, DHS will develop warning and alert messages that
will be sent to NWR for broadcast to radios and other communications devices
equipped with SAME technology.18
Digital Emergency Alert System. Working with the Association of Public
Television Stations, DHS completed two successful pilots to test the implementation
of digital technologies and networks, the Digital Emergency Alert System (DEAS).
It has been announced that DEAS capabilities will be installed in all Public
Television stations by year-end 2007. DEAS uses the additional capacity that digital
technology provides for broadcasting to send digitized alerts to almost any
14 CAP information at [http://www.incident.com/cookbook/index.php/CAP_Fact_Sheet] and
[http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/download.php/6334/oasis-200402-cap-core-1.0.pdf].
Both viewed December 21, 2005.
15 Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States,
Official Government Edition, 2004 (referred to as 9/11 Commission Report).
16 9/11 Commission Report pp. 286-287, 295, and 306.
17 Ibid., p. 318.
18 Department of Homeland Security, Press Room, “Homeland Security Leverages NOAA
All-Hazards Network for Alerts and Warnings,” June 17, 2004, at [http://www.dhs.gov/
dhspublic/display?content=3724]. Viewed December 21, 2005.

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CRS-7
communications device, including wireless.19 The rollout is part of the Integrated
Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS). It is a joint effort of FEMA, the
Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection directorate at DHS, and the
Association of Public Television Stations (APTS). It is testing digital media —
including digital TV — to send emergency alert data over telephone, cable, wireless
devices, broadcast media and other networks. If successful, the program will provide
the base for a national federal public safety alert and warning system using digital
technology.20 The first phase of the program successfully tested the use of common
standards for message formats and interfaces using CAP.
Another joint program under the IPAWS umbrella is a pilot with NOAA to test
a geo-targeted alert system using “reverse 911.” Reverse 911 is a term sometime
used to describe any calling system that places calls generated by a public safety call
center to a specific audience.
A program component of IPAWS is to improve the robustness of the
communications network to Primary Entry Point (PEP) radio stations by switching
from dial-up to satellite distribution. The number of PEP broadcast stations is to be
expanded to provide satellite communications capability to every state and territory.
These steps are meant to assure the survivability of radio broadcast communications
in the event of a catastrophic incident.21
Other Technology Initiatives. Among other methods being tested to
expand broadcast capabilities for emergency alerts are equipping cell phones with
NOAA Weather Radio receivers;22 developing datacasting for digital broadcasting;
and using cell phone broadcasting technology. Datacasting is a one-way broadcast
transmission using Internet Protocols.23 The broadcasts can carry voice and data,
including videos, graphics, and text messages. In the Digital Alert Emergency
System pilot, mentioned above, datacasting is being broadcast to digital televisions
and antennae linked to computer networks or directly to computers and laptops.
Reportedly, commercial wireless providers that participated in the pilots have not
committed to participating in DEAS because of questions about capabilities for
delivering alerts as text messages.24 Some advanced wireless phones and other
portable devices can receive digital TV broadcasts, however.
19 “Department of Homeland Security Partners with APTS on the National Deployment of
the Digital Emergency Alert System,” Association of Public Television Stations, press
release, July 12, 2006 at [http://www.apts.org/]. Viewed July 14, 2006.
20 Testimony of John M. Lawson, President and CEO, Association of Public Television
Stations, “ Senate Hearing, July 27, 2005.
21 Testimony of Reynold N. Hoover, Director, Office of National Security Coordination,
FEMA, Department of Homeland Security, Senate Hearing, July 27, 2005.
22 Testimony of Christopher Guttman-McCabe, Assistant Vice President, Homeland Security
& Regulatory Policy, CTIA-The Wireless Association, Senate Hearing, July 27, 2005.
23 Testimony of John M. Lawson, Senate Hearing, July 27, 2005.
24 “DHS Funds National Rollout of Public TV Digital EAS,” Communications Daily, July
13, 2006.

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CRS-8
Some countries are advocating the use of cell broadcasting to send alerts to cell
phones based on location. The Netherlands, for example, requires cell operators to
transmit government warnings with cell broadcasts of text messages. The national
weather service will use it to send alerts. The Dutch government paid three wireless
service operators a total of $3 million to equip their networks for cellular networks.25
In the United States, which has a variety of wireless phone technologies in use, cell
broadcasting has limited applications, as it works on two standards only: GSM and
CDMA, and their successor architectures. The GSM standard, and its successor
standards, is the authorized standard in the European Union.
Satellite radio could also become part of the new era of digital signal alert
systems. XM Satellite Radio will broadcast emergency alerts to the D.C. region
through a link with the alert system of Arlington County, Virginia.26 The Arlington
Alert network is operated by Roam Secure, Inc, a company that provides text
message alert systems to corporations and some governments, including Arlington
and Fairfax Counties in Virginia and the District of Columbia. XM Satellite Radio
is also a participant in the IPAWS Digital Emergency Alert System pilot.
Proposals and Progress
Advocates of all-hazard warning systems are seeking interoperability among
warning systems, standardized terminology, and operating procedures in order to
provide emergency alerts and information that reach the right people, in a timely
manner, in a way that is meaningful and understood by all. In 1999, FEMA and the
Departments of Commerce and Agriculture took the lead in a multi-agency working
group to explore ways to create an all-hazard warning network.27 Their
recommendations included using NWR as the backbone for a national all-hazard
warning system and the establishment of a permanent group to promote
improvements in warning systems. The following year, the National Science and
Technology Council at the White House sponsored a report that explored the types
of technologies and systems that are used or could be used for emergency alerts.28
Among its recommendations were: the creation of a public-private partnership that
would bring all stakeholders together; one or more working groups to address issues
such as terminology, technology, location-specific identifiers and cost-effective
warning systems; system standardization; and increasing the number of
25 “Mobile Providers Resisting SOS Alerts,” by Kevin J. O’Brien, International Herald
Tribune, January 11, 2006, page 1. For further information on cell broadcasting, one source
is the site of an association, the U.S. link is [http://www.ceasa-international.com/usa/].
Viewed January 12, 2006.
26 “Arlington and XM Satellite Radio Partner for Emergency Alert Broadcasts,” Government
Technology, August 3, 2005.
27 National Partnership for Reinventing Government, “Saving Lives with an All-Hazard
Warning Network,” 1999, at [http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/all-haz/all-haz1.htm]. Viewed
December 21, 2005.
28 National Science and Technology Council, Working Group on Natural Disaster
Information Systems, Subcommittee on Natural Disaster Reduction, “Effective Disaster
Warnings,” November 2000 [http://www.sdr.gov/NDIS_rev_Oct27.pdf]. Viewed December
21, 2005.

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CRS-9
communications channels for warnings. The report concluded that substantial
improvements in early warning systems could be achieved through coordination and
better use of existing technologies.
Also in 2000, a public-private, multi-disciplinary group was organized as the
Partnership for Public Warning (PPW). In 2002, the group received funding29 to
convene meetings and prepare comments regarding the Homeland Security Advisory
System (HSAS). Workshop findings were later expanded into recommendations
in “A National Strategy for Integrated Public Warning Policy and Capability.” The
purpose of the document was to “develop a national vision and goals” for improving
all-hazard warning systems at the federal, state and local levels. PPW suggested that
DHS take the lead in developing a national public warning capability. The PPW
discussed the role of an alert system in public safety and homeland security and
concluded that current procedures are “ineffective.” PPW’s recommendations
centered on developing multiple, redundant systems using various technologies with
common standards that would be “backward compatible” with EAS (including
Amber Alert codes) and National Weather Service technologies. In June 2004, PPW
published an overview of emergency alert and warning systems.30 It subsequently
scaled back its activities for lack of funding.31
Executive Order: Public Alert and Warning System
On June 26, 2006, President George W. Bush issued an executive order stating
that U.S. policy is “to have an effective, reliable, integrated, flexible, and
comprehensive system to alert and warn the American people. . . .” To achieve this
policy, the President sets out a list of functional requirements for the Secretary of
Homeland Security to meet, that respond to the recommendations of experts in this
field. In summary, these requirements cover
! evaluating existing resources;
! adopting common protocols, standards and other procedures to
enable interoperability;
! delivering alerts on criteria such as location or risk;
! accommodating disabilities and language needs;
! supporting necessary communications facilities;
! conducting training, test, and exercises;
! ensuring public education about emergency warnings;
! coordinating and cooperating with the private sector and government
at all levels;
! administering the existing Emergency Alert System as a component
of the broader system;
! ensuring that the President can alert and warn the American people.
29 Funding came from FEMA, the National Science Foundation, the National Weather
Service, the U.S. Geological Survey, and private sources.
30 PPW, “Protecting America’s Communities: An Introduction to Public Alert and Warning,”
June 2004.
31 Memorandum to PPW Members, June 30, 2004.

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The order also specifies the level of support expected from other departments
and agencies in meeting the requirements for a better warning system. The Secretary
of Homeland Security is further ordered to “ensure an orderly and effective
transition” from current capabilities to the system described by executive order.32
Recent Legislation
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L. 108-458) has
requirements for a study about the use of telecommunications networks as part of an
all-hazards warning system. The study is to be led by the Secretary of Homeland
Security, in consultation with other Federal agencies, as appropriate, and participants
in the telecommunications industry. Its goals are to consider the practicality of
establishing a telecommunications-based warning system that would also provide
information to individuals on safety measures that might be taken in response to the
warning. The legislation specifies that technologies to consider would be “telephone,
wireless communications, and other existing communications networks . . .”.33 The
act also requires a pilot study using technology now being used for an Amber Alert
network, to improve public warning systems regarding threats to homeland security.
This is to be conducted by the Secretary of Homeland Security in consultation with
the Attorney General, other federal agencies, the National Association of State Chief
Information Officers, and other stakeholders in public safety systems.34 These pilots
are being coordinated through FEMA’s Office of National Security Coordination as
part of the IPAWS program.35 An interim report was provided to Congressional
committees in March 2006.36
Emergency Alerts and the 109th Congress
There are several parts to a warning system: detection of a problem;
communication of the danger to a warning system; dissemination of the warning
through communications networks; and information about actions to take in response
to the warning, or in the aftermath of disaster. In a natural disaster where there is
good predictive capability, such as a hurricane, emergency alerts work fairly well.
In a man-made disaster, such as a terrorist attack or a chemical spill, the current
32 “Executive Order: Public Alert and Warning System,” released June 26, 2006, available
at [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/06/20060626.html].
33 Study Regarding Nationwide Emergency Notification System, Intelligence Reform and
Terrorism Prevention Act, Title VII, Sec. 7403.
34 Pilot Study to Move Warning Systems Into the Modern Digital Age, Intelligence Reform
and Terrorism Prevention Act, Title VII, Sec. 7404.
35 Testimony of Reynold N. Hoover, Director, Office of National Security Coordination,
FEMA, Department of Homeland Security for the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science
and Transportation, Subcommittee on Disaster Prevention and Prediction,”All-Hazards Alert
Systems,” July 27, 2005.
36 Department of Homeland Security, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Interim
Study for Congress on an Emergency Telephonic Alert Notification System. Provided by
Ray Miller, Congressional Liaison, FEMA Office of Legislative Affairs, March 10, 2006.

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CRS-11
warning systems in the United States are vulnerable to failure. Too often, the warning
is not communicated to any alert system. Communication with people most in need
of information and assistance after a disaster is constrained by inadequate systems
and often complicated by damage to communications infrastructure. Due to
insufficient planning and preparation, there is often confusion about responsibility,
priorities, and needed actions. Some observers have noted that the most effective
emergency alerts would be able to empower the “first” first responders, those on the
site of the disaster when it occurs. Many have emphasized the need for better
oversight and planning for an all-hazard warning system. Experts in public safety and
communications have observed that it is both possible and desirable to coordinate
the development of information networking technology for various types of
emergency responses, maximizing the reach of any warning or alert.
Improving Emergency Alert Systems. A minimally revised version of
the WARN Act (S. 1753), which would expand the technological reach of emergency
alerts, among other provisions, has been added as amendment S.Amdt. 4927 to the
Security and Accountability for Every Port Act (SAFE Port Act, H.R. 4964,
Representative Lungren).37 Amendments to the bill are reported to be scheduled for
vote by the Senate on September 12; the bill was approved by the House of
Representatives on May 4, 2006.38
Versions of the WARN Act (Warnings, Alerts, and Response Network) have
been introduced in the Senate (S. 1753, Senator DeMint) and the House (H.R. 5556,
amended as H.R. 5785, Representative Shimkus). All would support the efforts of
the Department of Homeland Security, NOAA, and others, as described in this report.
Some provisions in both bills would change the existing lines of authority in the
planning and administration of emergency alerts. Today, responsibility for the
Emergency Alert System is shared between FEMA, the lead authority, and the FCC,
responsible for regulating emergency alert compliance among broadcasters and others
under its jurisdiction. The Senate Amendment would confirm the role of the FCC
as a regulatory body, with limitations. The main responsibility for developing and
administering a nationwide alert system would be placed with a National Alert Office
established within the Department of Homeland. The amendment would also
establish a National Alert System and a National Alert System Working Group. The
chief purpose of the working group — to be comprised of representatives from
federal, state and local agencies, emergency services, individuals with special needs
and industry — would be to develop a plan for a national system, with technical and
other guidelines. The director of the Office would form the Working Group and act
as its chair. Other responsibilities of the Director include implementing the Working
Group’s recommendations, setting up and conducting a program of research and
development, and managing the credentialing of public officials who would be
authorized to initiate alerts. This step would federalize the procedures for
designating those public officials that would be authorized to request an emergency
alert in the new National Alert System. Credentialing would not be required for
37 “Communications Bill to Modernize Emergency Alerts To Be Added to Port Security
Measure,” Dail Report for Executives, BNA, September 11, 2006.
38 “Senators Agree to Add Rail Protection Measures to House’s Port Security Bill,” by
Patrick Yoest, CQ Today, September 2, 2006.

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CRS-12
initiating alerts through EAS and other pre-existing alert systems. The national
Office would process requests for credentialing at the federal, state, and local level.
These agents would be required to undergo periodic training in programs established
by the office. Overall, the National Alert System would be required to take
advantage of all available technologies, both in providing access points to issue
warnings and in sending and receiving alerts and information. The bills would
require mobile service operators to either provide emergency alert messages or
specifically opt out of providing such a service. The amendment would set up a grant
program to provide alert systems in remote communities that are “effectively
unserved” by broadcast and wireless technology. Funding for the title is to come
from the Digital Transition and Public Safety Fund established in the Deficit
Reduction Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-171). The Congressional Budget Office has
estimated that $10 million will be paid from the fund in 2009, followed by payments
of $73 million in both FY2010 and FY2011.39
S. 1753, which generally carries provisions similar to those outlined above, was
amended in committee to incorporate S. 50 (see below).
H.R. 5785 specifies that the National Alert System would be voluntary. The bill
specifies that funding for the act would come from the Digital Transition and Public
Safety Fund and authorizes the NTIA to borrow up to $106 million against future
proceeds of the Fund. A section in H.R. 5556 (June 8, 2006) that deals with
limitations on liability40 is omitted in H.R. 5785 (July 13, 2006).
The National Emergency Reform and Enhancement Act (H.R. 5351,
Representative Reichert) is one of several bills in Congress that would change the
management structure for the Federal Emergency Management Agency. It would
create a Directorate of Emergency Management with responsibilities that include
providing “an integrated national public alert and warning system that incorporates
legacy systems.”41 Among the requirements for the alert system are interoperability
with existing alert and warning systems at all levels of government, improved
education for the public, use of technology to overcome barriers caused by
disabilities or language barriers, development of public-private partnerships, and the
use of new technologies, including satellite.
Representative Katherine Harris has introduced H.R. 5759, the Foundations for
Emergency Management (FEMA) Act, which includes sections on interoperability
and emergency alerts similar to provisions in H.R. 5351.42
39 Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate, S. 1932, Deficit Reduction Act of 2005,
January 27, 2006, page 21, [http://www.cbo.gov/showdoc.cfm?index=7028&sequence=0].
40 H.R. 5556, Sec. 3 (g).
41 H.R. 5351, Title V, ‘Sec. 568.
42 H.R. 5759, Sec. 101, ‘Sec. 561, ‘(c) ‘(12).

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CRS-13

S. 3721 (Senator Collins) would replace FEMA with a U.S. Emergency
Management Authority and transfer to it DHS’s responsibilities and authorities for
EAS and IPAWS.43
Tsunami Warnings. The horrific devastation across the Indian Ocean from
the tsunami of December 26, 2004 raised the level of awareness to the need for better
systems for detection and warning, as well as the associated steps for preparedness
and response. The Administration has announced plans to expand the U.S. tsunami
detection and warning capabilities as a contribution of the Global Earth Observation
System of Systems, or GEOSS — the international effort to develop a
comprehensive, sustained and integrated Earth observation system. The plan commits
a total of $37.5 million over the next two years.44 Congressional bills that have
measures to improve all-hazard warning systems in the United States include S. 50
(Senator Inouye) and H.R. 396 (Representative Menendez). These two bills provide
different perspectives on emergency alert planning, activation, and response but they
both recognize the need for aggressively advancing the development and deployment
of warning systems. S. 34 (Senator Lieberman) would strengthen tsunami detection
and warning systems worldwide but focuses on detection and communications
among authorities and does not include provisions specifically for improving
emergency alerts to the general populace.
S. 50. The Tsunami Preparedness Act (Senator Inouye) builds on the
Administration’s plan for an improved tsunami monitoring system. Additionally, the
bill would improve federal coordination and would establish a task force of
representatives of federal agencies, coastal states and territories.45 The bill directs the
Administrator of NOAA to maximize the effectiveness of detection and warning
systems for U.S. coastal communities and to take actions to assist other countries in
achieving similar goals. The main purposes of the bill are
! Improve tsunami detection, forecast, warnings, notification,
preparedness, and mitigation.
! Extend coverage of existing Pacific Tsunami Warning System to
include other vulnerable areas such as the Caribbean, Atlantic Coast
and the Gulf of Mexico.
! Increase efforts to improve forecasting, preparedness, mitigation,
response and recovery, including education and outreach.
! Provide technical and other assistance to international efforts.
! Improve federal, state, and international coordination for tsunami
and other coastal hazard warnings and preparedness.
System components covered in the bill include a number of provisions for
detection and information sharing and require a communications infrastructure to
43 S. 3721, Sec. 101, Title B, ‘Sec. 552.
44 Plans for An Improved Tsunami Detection and Warning Systems, Fact Sheet,
[http://www.ostp.gov/html/TsunamiFactSheet.pdf], located on NOAA’s Tsunami Page at
[http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/]. Both sites viewed December 21, 2005.
45 From Remarks by Senator Ted Stevens on the introduction of S. 50, Congressional
Record for January 24, 2005, published January 25, 2005.

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CRS-14
alert communities vulnerable to the occurrence of a tsunami. Program components
include outreach, education, preparedness and risk management. The bill authorizes
a tsunami research program that includes communications technology. The NOAA
Administrator, in consultation with the Assistant Secretary of Commerce for
Communications and Information46 and the Federal Communications Commission,
is to investigate the potential for improved communications systems for hazard
warning networks. Technologies mentioned include telephones, cell phones and
other wireless devices, satellite communications, the Internet, automated alerts on
television and radio, and technologies that might be suitable for reaching remote
areas at a low cost. Provisions for assistance on a global level include technical
assistance to international organizations in developing a global tsunami warning
system. Also, the NOAA Administrator is to give priority in assisting vulnerable
areas with needs such as planning, obtaining detection and reporting equipment, and
establishing communications and warning units. This bill has been incorporated in
S. 1753.
H.R. 396. The Early Warning and Rapid Notification Act (Representative
Menendez) provides for the establishment of U.S. programs lead primarily by the
Department of State and the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID),47 to give technological and financial support to foreign countries for the
development of all-hazard warning systems, and to strengthen existing lines of
communication for the dissemination of information on disasters. The bill centers
on early warning systems, the work of organizations such as the International Early
Warning Program,48and the contributions of USAID to international detection and
warning programs. The Secretary of State is to lead a study that would evaluate the
effectiveness of existing communications links and ways to improve them. The bill
provides for assistance, through the Department of State and USAID, for
international programs that enhance effective public warning systems. The bill
would also expand the scope of American research on public warning systems by
providing for sharing results, where appropriate, with the international community.
Specifically, it would broaden the scope of the Study Regarding Nationwide
Emergency Notification System and the Pilot Study to Move Warning Systems Into
the Modern Digital Age — required by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act — to include a component for evaluating the applicability of various
alert technologies to other countries. The Secretary of State, cooperating with the
Department of Homeland Security, the Federal Communications Commission and
the Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Communications and Information
(Administrator of the National Telecommunications and Information
Administration), among others, is to lead these research activities. Other
responsibilities involve the study of evolving technologies that could be used in
46 Administrator of National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA).
47 USAID is an independent federal government agency that receives overall foreign policy
guidance from the Secretary of State. It provides economic and humanitarian assistance in
over 100 countries [http://www.usaid.gov/].
48 The International Early Warning Program, which has been planned for two years, is to be
created by the United Nations to increase international cooperation in the development of
warning systems and related programs.

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CRS-15
providing all-hazard warnings in the United States and abroad.49 The named agencies
are also to study the role of satellites, wireless technology and radio frequency
assignments in providing emergency alerts, working with the World Radio
Conference50 and other international forums.
Tsunami Detection. The Global Tsunami Detection and Warning System
Act (S. 34, Senator Lieberman) deals almost exclusively with provisions for
improving detection of tsunamis and the earthquakes that generate them. Programs
that would include identifying deficiencies in existing systems worldwide, increasing
the number of sensors for detecting tsunamis, and improving predictive capabilities
and communications infrastructure would be the responsibility of the Secretary of
Commerce, working with the Secretaries of State and of the Interior, where
appropriate. The bill provides the sense of Congress that the President of the United
States should convene an international conference on global tsunami detection and
warning. The Secretary of State, working with the Secretary of Commerce, is to
prepare and implement a strategy that would provide for a global network for
detection and warning for tsunamis. This strategy is to include a “warning
communications system involving telephone, Internet, radio, fax, and other
appropriate means to convey warnings as rapidly as possible to all potentially
affected nations.”
Other Bills. A bill comparable to S. 34 has been submitted in the House (H.R.
499, Representative Shays). Other bills include S. 361 (Senator Snowe); S. 452
(Senator Corzine); H.R. 882 (Representative Boehlert);H.R. 890 (Representative
Pallone); H.R. 1584 (Representative Weldon); and H.R. 1674 (Representative
Boehlert) — are concerned with tsunami detection and the initial stages of
notification.
Telephonic Alerts. Representative Kendrick B. Meek has introduced a bill
(H.R. 2101) that would require the deployment of a national alert system using “to
the maximum extent possible . . . national private sector networks, technology,
personnel, and infrastructure to develop and implement the system.” The network,
referred to as the READICall emergency alert system, would provide a federal
network of notification by telephone, based on geographic location, to alert telephone
subscribers of disasters and inform them of steps to be taken in response.
Alerting Individuals with Disabilities. The Emergency Preparedness and
Response for Individuals with Disabilities Act (S. 2124, Senator Harkin) and its
companion bill (H.R. 4704, Representative Langevin) would amend the Homeland
Security Act (36 USC 316) to require the Secretary of Homeland Security to appoint
a Disability Coordinator “to ensure that the needs of individuals with disabilities are
being properly addressed in emergency preparedness and disaster relief.” Among the
duties specified for the coordinator to assist individuals with disabilities are: ensuring
49 Specific technologies mentioned are “broadcast media, wireline and wireless telephones,
other wireless devices, instant messaging via computer , and electronic bulletin boards.”
50 The World Radio Conference is the forum for the negotiation of international agreements
that coordinate and enable global telecommunications. It is held under the aegis of the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the United Nations.

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the accessibility of telephone hotlines and websites with information on emergencies;
and working with the FCC to assure that distribution channels for video
programming (TV broadcasters and others) make emergency information accessible
to those with hearing or vision disabilities.
Other Federal Emergency Warning Systems51
Federal agencies administer numerous emergency notification systems. Briefly
noted below are other warning systems that are used to warn the public and
authorities.52
National Warning System (NAWAS). In 1957, the National Warning
System (NAWAS) was established.53 NAWAS, still in use as an operational warning
system, is a dedicated telephone network that FEMA administers and uses to
coordinate with national, regional, state, and local emergency management officials.54
Today the system connects over 22,000 national, regional, state and local emergency
management offices. NAWAS disseminates emergency information and
instructions.55
Federal Emergency Management System (FEMIS).56FEMIS is an
independent network of different communication devices that operate over various
media (microwave, fiber optics, and wireline). The U.S. Army installs and operates
the system and notifies state and local emergency management officials in the
vicinity of chemical and biological weapon stockpiles designated for destruction of
accidental, terrorist, or criminal release of the chemical and biological weapon
stockpiles. The system provides digital image files of the contaminated geographical
area.57
Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS). HSAS, the system most
recently established in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001,
provides a color coded terrorist attack warning system to federal, state, and local
51 This section prepared by Shawn Reese, Analyst in American National Government,
Government and Finance Division.
52 The systems are described in detail in Effective Disaster Warnings, Report by the
Working Group on Natural Disaster Information Systems, Subcommittee on Natural
Disaster Reduction, National Science and Technology Council, Committee on Environment
and Natural Resources, November 2002 [http://www.fema.gov/pdf/rrr/ndis_rev_oct27.pdf].
Viewed August 8, 2005.
53 Harry B. Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield: The U.S. Civil Defense Program in Historical
Perspective (Washington: Federal Emergency Management Agency, 1981), p. 537.
54 Effective Disaster Warnings, p. 52.
55 Federation of American Scientists [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/c3i/nawas.htm].
Viewed August 8, 2005.
56 Federal Emergency Management System [http://www.pnl.gov/femis]. Viewed August 8,
2005.
57 National Science and Technology Council, Effective Disaster Warnings, p. 51.

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authorities, as well as the public. At this date, Office of Homeland Security (OHS)
manages HSAS, with guidance from the U.S. Attorney General. Daily advisories are
posted on the Internet, and the Attorney General notifies the federal, state and local
authorities of any change to the advisory color code. Public warnings, resulting in
a change to the color code, are issued through statements made by the OHS through
the media.58
Advanced Weather Information Processing System.59 AWIPS is a
telephone network administered by the Weather Forecast Office (WFO), which is
part of NWS. This network is a dial-up telecommunications link, also accessible by
an Intranet server, that provides for two-way exchange of severe weather information
between the weather tracking and news industry and NWS.60 This system is used
primarily by the NWS to inform the weather tracking and news industry of severe
weather, which is then reported to the public through the news media.61
Emergency Managers Weather Information Network (EMWIN).62
EMWIN is a satellite communications network operated by NWS. EMWIN
broadcasts severe weather information to a commercially marketed1610mHz radio
that provides weather warnings to the public and emergency management officials.63
NOAA Weather Wire Service (NWWS).64 NWWS is operated by NWS and
transmits severe weather information to mass news disseminators and emergency
management officials. The severe weather information is transmitted by weather
satellites and then broadcasted to the public via NWR or EAS.65
The systems briefly described in Table 1, below, are intended to warn the
public, federal officials, state and local authorities, or the weather tracking and news
industry, of imminent danger to public health and safety.66
58 “Homeland Security Advisory System,” Department of Homeland Security Press Room
[http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/interapp/press_release/press_release_0046.xml]. Viewed
August 8, 2005.
59 Field Systems Operation Center [http://www.nws.noaa.gov/ops2/]. Viewed August 8,
2005.
60 National Science and Technology Council, Effective Disaster Warnings, p. 33.
61 Tim Putprush, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Mt. Weather Emergency
Operations Center, telephone conversation with Shawn Reese, December 16, 2002.
62 EMWIN Implementation Report, Computer Sciences Corporation, September 28, 2001
[http://iwin.nws.noaa.gov/emwin/Report.htm]. Viewed August 8, 2005.
63 National Science and Technology Council, Effective Disaster Warnings, p. 50.
64 NOAA Weather Wire Service [http://www.weather.gov/nwws/].Viewed August 8, 2005.
65 National Science and Technology Council, Effective Disaster Warnings, p. 32.
66 Tim Putprush, Federal Emergency Management Agency.

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Table 1. Federal Emergency Warning Systems
Primary
Warning
Required receiving
Type of threat
administering
Warning recipients
Information issued
system
equipment
agency
AWIPSa
Severe weather
NWS
Weather tracking and news
Satellite weather imagery
Satellite antenna
industry
receiver
EASb
Any emergency
Operated by FCC,
Public, news media
Voice message detailing
AM or FM radio,
administered by
information and instructions
television, or NWR
FEMA
EMWINc
Severe weather
NWS
Emergency managers, public
Digital message detailing
1610mHz radio receiver
severe weather
FEMISd
Chemical and biological
U.S. Army
State and local emergency
Digital image files of
Dedicated computer
weapons designated for
managers
contaminated geographic area
network
destruction contamination
HSASe
Terrorist attack
DHS
Public, media, and federal, state Color code characterizing
Internet, news media
and local authorities
terrorist attack risk and needed
protective measures
NAWASf
Any emergency
FEMA
National, regional, state and
Voice message detailing
Dedicated telephone
local emergency managers
information and instructions
network
NWRg
Severe weather or any
NWS
Public, emergency managers
Voice warnings, watches,
NOAA weather radio
emergency broadcast by EAS
forecasts, and advisories
NWWSh
Severe weather
NWS
Media, emergency managers
Digital images of severe
Satellite antenna
weather
receiver
Source: National Science and Technology Council, Effective Disaster Warnings, and Department of Homeland Security.
a. Advanced Weather Information Processing System
e. Homeland Security Advisory System
b. Emergency Alert System
f. National Warning System
c. Emergency Managers Weather Information Network
g. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Weather Radio
d. Federal Emergency Managers Information System
h. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Weather Wire Service

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