Order Code RS22285
Updated March 22, 2006
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Hurricane-Damaged Drinking Water and
Wastewater Facilities:
Impacts, Needs, and Response
Claudia Copeland
Specialist in Resources and Environmental Policy
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Summary
Throughout the Gulf Coast region, high winds and water from Hurricanes Katrina
and Rita damaged a wide range of public service facilities, including drinking water
supply and treatment and sewage treatment plants. Restoring those facilities is part of
the overall cleanup and restoration process. This report describes information that has
been gathered about impacts of the storms on drinking water and wastewater treatment
facilities and on ongoing efforts to assess damages and needs to repair and reconstruct
damaged systems. Full facility restorations may take many months, and costs of needed
repairs are unknown for now. To meet those needs, affected communities are likely to
rely heavily on federal assistance in emergency appropriations acts, as well as traditional
water infrastructure programs, principally those administered by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Senate has
passed a bill intended to streamline delivery of funds through existing EPA programs
to repair storm-damaged sewage treatment and drinking water plants (S. 1709). Also,
legislation has been introduced that would provide hurricane assistance to Louisiana,
including $5 billion for water infrastructure projects (S. 1765/S. 1766, H.R. 3958). This
report will be updated as events warrant.
Water Infrastructure Facilities Affected by the Hurricanes
Damages at many water infrastructure facilities as a result of Hurricanes Katrina and
Rita included loss of electric power to pump, process, and treat raw water supply and
wastewater. Initially following the storms, some plants were able to operate temporarily
on backup generators, so long as fuel was available. In addition, flooding and structural
damage disabled services in a number of locations, including New Orleans. Overall, a
large number of systems were affected by the two disasters. For example, within a few
days after Hurricane Katrina, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimated that
more than 1,220 drinking water systems (many of them very small, in terms of customers
served) and more than 200 wastewater treatment facilities in Louisiana, Mississippi, and
Alabama had been affected.
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

CRS-2
As electric power was restored, many of the affected systems were able to restore
needed services (especially facilities in Alabama, which was not in the center of the first
storm’s path). Two weeks after Hurricane Katrina, EPA reported that about 30% of the
affected drinking water and 40% of the affected wastewater facilities were again
operating. However, many of the inoperable drinking water and wastewater plants serve
large numbers of customers. In Biloxi, for example, officials were unable to re-pressurize
the drinking water system because of broken and inaccessible water mains and valves.
One-third of the sewage treatment facilities in Harrison County, Mississippi (serving
Biloxi, Gulfport, Long Beach, and Pass Christian) were destroyed or very severely
damaged. Similarly, drinking water and sewage service for more than a million customers
in New Orleans (discussed below) was severely disrupted.
EPA reported that by October 10 — and following the second hurricane, Hurricane
Rita, that hit Texas and parts of Louisiana on September 24 — more than 85% of drinking
water and 95% of wastewater treatment facilities in the region were operational.1 By
December, EPA reports indicated that all wastewater treatment plants in Mississippi,
Alabama, and Texas were considered to be operational. In Louisiana, a small number of
wastewater treatment plants were not yet operational, including three large facilities
serving about 150,000 customers. Nearly all drinking water treatment plants throughout
the region also had restored at least partial service, although about 5% remained under
boil water advisories. EPA staff are in the process of assessing all drinking water and
wastewater plants in the region, including more than 900 facilities in Louisiana and
Mississippi that are located in areas that were unaffected by the hurricanes.
For damaged facilities, steps involved in restoring service include drying out and
cleaning engines, pumps, and lift stations; testing and repairing waterlogged electrical
systems; testing for toxic chemicals and harmful bacteria that may have infiltrated pipes
and plants; restoring pressure (drinking water distribution systems); activating
disinfection units; restoring bacteria needed to treat wastes (wastewater plants); and
cleaning, repairing, and flushing distribution and sewer lines.
Impacts of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans’s water and sewer system were
particularly severe. In the central portion of the city, in addition to electric power
impairments, extensive damage occurred to the water infrastructure from flooding of
treatment plants, drinking water distribution lines, collector and interceptor sewers, and
the water system’s powerplant.2 Even after restoration of electricity, cleanup and recovery
at flooded water and sewage treatment plants is taking considerable time. The first task
was to remove excess stormwater, which required extensive repair of the city’s
stormwater system, including levees and drainage pumps. Once floodwaters were
1 For information, see EPA’s website at [http://www.epa.gov/katrina/activities.html], including
weekly activity reports provided through mid-November. Periodic updated information is now
available at [http://www.epa.gov/katrina/index.html].
2 Much of the New Orleans water infrastructure was built more than 75 years ago. Even before
the hurricane, the Sewerage and Water Board, which is responsible for providing drinking water,
sewage treatment, and drainage services to more than one million customers, had a $1 billion
capital improvement program to address long-term maintenance and repair needs, including
compliance with a 1998 court-ordered sewer system consent decree.

CRS-3
addressed, drinking water restoration became the next priority. The largest of the city’s
two drinking water plants, located where the worst flooding took place, was completely
underwater for nearly two weeks. It was repaired sufficiently to provide flow (i.e., for fire
fighting), but may not be capable of providing potable water for some time, officials say.
The issue with regard to drinking water in this area is large numbers of waterline breaks
resulting from house connections that were damaged when trees fell, fire hydrants that
were damaged by debris or debris cleanup efforts, and lines that were crushed or fractured
by the weight of floodwaters. (An ongoing problem across the Gulf Coast region is that,
as hurricane debris is cleared, fire hydrants and water meters are often torn out of the
ground, causing leaks that must be repaired, sometimes more than once, forcing water
lines to be shut down and flushed in order to allow the system to operate.)
For flooded areas, sewage treatment often is the last thing back on line, because
plants are at the lowest point of the city, to take advantage of gravity, and thus were under
the deepest water. New Orleans’s two wastewater treatment plants were damaged: the
larger facility, which serves 1.2 million customers, was flooded until the end of
September, and standing water significantly damaged pumps and electrical equipment.
This plant partially restored service in October and was able to provide secondary
treatment of wastes by mid-November, but numerous continuing operational problems
persist, including power disruptions, leaks, and equipment difficulties. The smaller
facility, located on the west bank of the Mississippi River, experienced extensive wind
damage, but was judged to be fully functional three weeks after Hurricane Katrina. The
city’s public works officials reportedly believe that much of the sewer system has
probably been damaged, and cracks, leaks, and breaks will need to be fixed by tearing up
roads (although road repairs already may be required, as part of the overall cleanup effort),
a potentially lengthy repair process.
Ironically, one problem facing New Orleans and other communities is a lack of
customers. Although the majority of water and sewer facilities have been able to resume
operations, some are not in use, because displaced citizens have been unable to return.
Some of the systems considered to be operational are serving only a small percentage of
their pre-storm customers. With little or no population present for utilities to serve, there
is insufficient demand for drinking water or waste flowing into wastewater treatment
plants for normal operations, and utilities are unable to collect revenues needed to pay
existing bills, repair or maintain their facilities, or make payments on bonds.
Damage and Needs Assessments
Under authority of the National Response Plan,3 EPA and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers staff are conducting assessments of water infrastructure systems, assisting state
and local government personnel to evaluate damages. Efforts continue throughout the
region to determine facilities’ operating status, including needs to repair or rebuild.
3 The National Response Plan (NRP) is the framework to coordinate emergency response
activities of the federal government with those of state, local, and tribal governments and the
private sector. It is organized by 15 Emergency Support Functions, such as public works and
engineering, each with a designated coordinator, primary agencies, and support agencies. The
text of the NRP is available at [http://www.dhs.gov/interweb/assetlibrary/NRPbaseplan.pdf].

CRS-4
EPA cautions that evaluations are ongoing, and the status of some facilities is still
unclear (especially small systems). In particular, facilities determined to be operational
may not be providing the required level of treatment. For example, some wastewater
treatment plants in Alabama and Mississippi are operating at limited capacity or are
providing only primary treatment of sewage, not full secondary or better, as required by
law and to meet water quality standards. Similarly, New Orleans’s wastewater treatment
plants, while considered to be operational and in compliance with permit limits as of
January, continue to face structural and other problems. Many may still require repair or
reconstruction. Facility restorations, full or partial, may take many months, and costs of
needed repairs are unknown or, where available, are considered preliminary.
On September 23, the American Water Works Association (AWWA) issued a very
preliminary estimate that $2.25 billion will be needed to repair or replace drinking water
infrastructure at public water systems that were damaged by Hurricane Katrina. The
estimate is comprised of $650 million for 885 systems serving fewer than 10,000 persons
and mostly using groundwater for their supply, plus $1.6 billion for 47 systems serving
more than 10,000 persons. The estimates were presented with significant caveats,
however, because of the limited information available on the extent of actual damage.4
In 2006, the EPA Inspector General issued two reports on the status of restoring public
water supplies in Louisiana and Mississippi, noting that officials estimate that about $615
million will be needed in those two states for public water system replacements and
repairs due to Hurricane Katrina.5
Estimates of needs for reconstructing sewage treatment facilities throughout the
region are being developed by EPA and states. Early in September, Louisiana officials
reportedly developed some very preliminary assessments of funding needs and said in a
draft report that the state will need $35 billion to restore the wastewater treatment
infrastructure, based on a broad assumption that 50% of the existing treatment plants and
20% of the existing sewage collection systems will need to be rebuilt.6 As of February,
Louisiana and Mississippi officials estimated that costs to repair those states’ damaged
wastewater infrastructure exceed $1.3 billion, with about $1.2 billion needed just in New
Orleans.7 As with estimates for drinking water facilities, however, all such estimates are
considered preliminary and very rough.
4 American Water Works Association. “Restoring Public Water Supply Systems in the Aftermath
of Hurricane Katrina: A Preliminary Cost Estimate.” Sept. 23, 2005.
5 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Inspector General. “Evaluation Report:
EPA’s and Mississippi’s Efforts to Assess and Restore Public Drinking Water Supplies after
Hurricane Katrina.” Report No. 2006-P-00011. Feb. 14, 2006. “Evaluation Report: EPA’s and
Louisiana’s Efforts to Assess and Restore Public Drinking Water Systems after Hurricane
Katrina.” Report No. 2006-P-00014. Mar. 7, 2006.
6 Daily Environment Report. “Louisiana Estimates Environmental Cleanup for Katrina Damage
Could Cost $61.5 Billion.” No. 178, Sept. 15, 2005, p. A-13.
7 Scott Stine, U.S. EPA Region 6, and Chris Thomas, U.S. EPA Region 4. Personal
communications, March 16, March 20, 2006.

CRS-5
Meeting Needs for Repair and Reconstruction
As previously noted, assessments of needed water infrastructure repairs and
associated cost estimates are incomplete for now, but could be substantial for systems that
were directly affected. How those communities will pay for repairs represents a challenge
to public officials at all levels of government. The 109th Congress has begun to consider
how to assist their activities.
At the same time, repairing storm-damaged facilities is the most recent, but not the
only, funding needed by water infrastructure systems in the Gulf Coast and elsewhere.
Throughout the United States, wastewater and drinking water utilities face significant
investment needs to meet the treatment and performance requirements of the Clean Water
Act (CWA) and the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). According to the most recent
estimates by EPA and states, the nation’s public water and wastewater treatment systems
need more than $460 billion over the next 20 years to construct and upgrade facilities in
order to comply with those laws and to provide safe and healthy water.8 The federal
government is unlikely to provide 100% of that amount, and policymakers already have
been debating how to meet those existing needs, which of course do not reflect additional
costs to reconstruct hurricane-damaged structures.
Over the years, Congress has authorized a number of programs to assist local
communities in addressing water supply, drinking water, and wastewater treatment
problems. These programs generally are intended to aid communities in constructing
facilities to comply with federal drinking water regulations and clean water rules in order
to prevent the discharge of harmful levels of sewage wastes into surface waters. They
have different types of financing mechanisms (some provide grants, others authorize
loans), various administering agencies, and other differences, such as eligible community
size.9 These programs comprise the traditional sources of federal assistance that
communities use to meet their water infrastructure needs.
Congress also has authorized a number of programs that can provide emergency
assistance to repair and restore drinking water, wastewater, and related water
infrastructure systems and facilities. These include programs administered by the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), EPA, the Corps of Engineers, and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture.10 Responding to the 2005 hurricane disasters, the 109th
Congress has already provided more than $62 billion in emergency assistance in P.L. 109-
61 and P.L. 109-62. Most of this funding has gone to the Disaster Relief Fund,
administered by FEMA. Approximately $7.8 billion is targeted for infrastructure repair,
8 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Clean Watersheds Needs Survey 2000 Report to
Congress.
August 2003. EPA 832-03-001; Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey and
Assessment, Third Report to Congress.
June 2005. EPA 816-R-04-001. For additional
information, see CRS Report RL31116, Water Infrastructure Needs and Investment: Review and
Analysis of Key Issues
, by Claudia Copeland and Mary Tiemann.
9 For additional information, see CRS Report RL30478, Federally Supported Water Supply and
Wastewater Treatment Programs
.
10 For a review of federal emergency assistance programs, see CRS Report RS22248, Federal
Disaster and Emergency Assistance for Water Infrastructure Facilities and Supplies
, by Claudia
Copeland, Mary Tiemann, and Nicole T. Carter.

CRS-6
but is not limited to drinking water and wastewater facilities.11 Eligible work is either
classified as emergency work (e.g., debris removal) or permanent work intended to restore
a damaged facility to its pre-disaster design.
The affected communities are likely to rely primarily on FEMA’s federal disaster
grant assistance to aid in repairing and rebuilding storm-damaged structures. Where
emergency funds are insufficient (for example, if FEMA denies a request to pay for
reconstruction beyond that needed to return to pre-disaster status), communities may turn
to funding under the traditional water infrastructure aid programs, especially those
administered nationally by the Department of Agriculture (loan and grant programs for
water and waste disposal projects in communities of less than 10,000 persons) and by
EPA. Under EPA’s programs, authorized in the CWA and the SDWA, federal grants of
appropriated funds are used to capitalize state revolving fund (SRF) programs. States, in
turn, make loans from the SRFs to local communities for needed wastewater and drinking
water projects.12
Congress additionally may consider other legislation. For example, the Louisiana
Katrina Reconstruction Act (S. 1765/S. 1766, H.R. 3958) seeks $1.035 billion in
appropriations for EPA to provide infrastructure assistance in Louisiana, plus $4 billion
directly to the state of Louisiana for repair, reconstruction, and improvement of storm-
affected wastewater and drinking water infrastructure systems. Other legislation includes
changes to EPA-administered funding programs, but not additional appropriations. On
September 27, the Senate passed S. 1709, the Gulf Coast Emergency Water Infrastructure
Assistance Act. It would modify the revolving loan provisions of the Clean Water Act
to provide favorable treatment (such as forgiveness of loan principal and extended
repayment) for sewage treatment repair or rebuilding projects in Alabama, Mississippi
and Louisiana. The Safe Drinking Water Act already includes similar provisions that are
not restricted to emergency conditions. S. 1709 would permit those states to provide
assistance for two years for wastewater and drinking water projects not included on a
state’s Intended Use Plan, since many of the systems affected by Hurricane Katrina are
believed to not be included in the plans which generally are required before a project can
be funded under either the CWA or SDWA. It also would authorize EPA to test private
drinking water wells affected by Hurricane Katrina for contamination.
In the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, and subsequently after Hurricane
Rita, much attention has been focused on assistance for individual victims and
management of the overall response effort. As that effort proceeds and assessments of
impacts and needs are refined, Congress may consider other policy options and issues,
including with regard to water infrastructure systems.
11 U.S. Congress. Senate Budget Committee. “Informed Budgeteer, No. 5.” Sept. 12, 2005.
12 For information on these and other non-emergency sources of federal funding for water and
wastewater infrastructure recovery, see U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Summary of
Federal Funding for Water and Wastewater Infrastructure Damaged by Hurricanes Katrina and
Rita in Louisiana.” Feb. 13, 2006. While this document focuses on Louisiana, much of the
information in it would be appropriate outside of that state.
[http://www.epa.gov/region6/katrina/pdfs/fed%20_funding_handbk.pdf], visited March 22, 2006.