Order Code 97-868 STM
Updated November 25, 2005
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Internet Domain Names:
Background and Policy Issues
Lennard G. Kruger
Specialist in Science and Technology
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Summary
To navigate the Internet requires using addresses (and corresponding names) that
identify the location of individual computers. As the Internet grew, the method for
allocating and designating those domain names became controversial. The
Administration issued a White Paper in June 1998 endorsing the creation of a new not-
for-profit corporation of private sector Internet stakeholders to administer policy for the
Internet name and address system. On November 25, 1998, the Department of
Commerce (DOC) formally approved a new corporation, called the Internet Corporation
for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). A Memorandum of Understanding
(MOU) between ICANN and DOC has been extended through September 2006. The
109th Congress maintains oversight on how the Department of Commerce manages and
oversees ICANN’s activities and policies. In response to proposals at the World
Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) for international control of the domain name
system, the 109th Congress has expressed its support for maintaining U.S. control over
ICANN. This report will be updated as events warrant.
Background
The Internet is often described as a “network of networks” because it is not a single
physical entity but, in fact, hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks linking
millions of computers around the world. Computers connected to the Internet are
identified by a unique Internet Protocol (IP) number that designates their specific
location, thereby making it possible to send and receive messages and to access
information from computers anywhere on the Internet. Domain names were created to
provide users with a simple location name, rather than requiring them to use a long list
of numbers. For example, the IP number for the location of the THOMAS legislative
system at the Library of Congress is 140.147.248.9; the corresponding domain name is
“thomas.loc.gov”. Top Level Domains (TLDs) appear at the end of an address and are
either a given country code, such as .jp or .uk, or are generic designations (gTLDs), such
as .com, .org, .net, .edu, or .gov. The Domain Name System (DNS) is the distributed set
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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of databases residing in computers around the world that contain the address numbers,
mapped to corresponding domain names. Those computers, called root servers, must be
coordinated to ensure connectivity across the Internet.
The Internet originated with research funding provided by the Department of Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to establish a military network. As its use
expanded, a civilian segment evolved with support from the National Science Foundation
(NSF) and other science agencies. While there are no formal statutory authorities or
international agreements governing the management and operation of the Internet and the
DNS, several entities have played key roles in the DNS. The Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA) makes technical decisions concerning root servers, determines
qualifications for applicants to manage country code TLDs, assigns unique protocol
parameters, and manages the IP address space, including delegating blocks of addresses
to registries around the world to assign to users in their geographic area. IANA operates
out of the University of Southern California’s Information Sciences Institute and has been
funded primarily by the Department of Defense.
NSF was responsible for registration of nonmilitary domain names, and in 1992 put
out a solicitation for managing network services, including domain name registration. In
1993, NSF signed a five-year cooperative agreement with a consortium of companies
called InterNic. Under this agreement, Network Solutions Inc. (NSI), a Herndon, Virginia
engineering and management consulting firm, became the sole Internet domain name
registration service for registering the .com, .net., and .org. gTLDs.

Recent History
Since the imposition of registration fees in 1995, criticism of NSI’s sole control over
registration of the gTLDs grew. In addition, there was an increase in trademark disputes
arising out of the enormous growth of registrations in the .com domain. There also was
concern that the role played by IANA lacked a legal foundation and required more
permanence to ensure the stability of the Internet and the domain name system. These
concerns prompted actions both in the United States and internationally.
An International Ad Hoc Committee (IAHC), a coalition of individuals representing
various constituencies, released a proposal for the administration and management of
gTLDs on February 4, 1997. The proposal recommended that seven new gTLDs be
created and that additional registrars be selected to compete with each other in the
granting of registration services for all new second level domain names. To assess
whether the IAHC proposal should be supported by the U.S. government, the executive
branch created an interagency group to address the domain name issue and assigned lead
responsibility to the National Telecommunications and Information Administration
(NTIA) of the Department of Commerce (DOC). On June 5, 1998, DOC issued a final
statement of policy, “Management of Internet Names and Addresses.” Called the White
Paper, the statement indicated that the U.S. government was prepared to recognize and
enter into agreement with “a new not-for-profit corporation formed by private sector
Internet stakeholders to administer policy for the Internet name and address system.”1 In
1 Management of Internet Names and Addresses, National Telecommunications and Information
(continued...)

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deciding upon an entity with which to enter such an agreement, the U.S. government
would assess whether the new system ensured stability, competition, private and bottom-
up coordination, and fair representation of the Internet community as a whole.
In effect, the White Paper endorsed a process whereby the divergent interests of the
Internet community would come together and decide how Internet names and addresses
would be managed and administered. Accordingly, Internet constituencies from around
the world held a series of meetings during the summer of 1998 to discuss how the New
Corporation (NewCo) might be constituted and structured. Meanwhile, IANA, in
collaboration with NSI, released a proposed set of bylaws and articles of incorporation.
The proposed new corporation was called the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers (ICANN). After five iterations, the final version of ICANN’s bylaws and
articles of incorporation were submitted to the Department of Commerce on October 2,
1998. Additionally, nine members of ICANN’s interim board were chosen (four
Americans, three Europeans, one from Japan, and one from Australia). On November
25, 1998, DOC and ICANN signed an official Memorandum of Understanding (MOU),
whereby DOC and ICANN agreed to jointly design, develop, and test the mechanisms,
methods, and procedures necessary to transition management responsibility for DNS
functions to a private-sector not-for-profit entity.

The White Paper also signaled DOC’s intention to ramp down the government’s
Cooperative Agreement with NSI, with the objective of introducing competition into the
domain name space while maintaining stability and ensuring an orderly transition. During
this transition period, government obligations were to be terminated as DNS
responsibilities transferred to ICANN. Specifically, NSI committed to the development
of a Shared Registration System that permits all accredited registrars to provide
registration services within the .com, .net., and .org gTLDs. NSI (now VeriSign)
continues to administer the root server system until receiving further instruction from the
government.
After a year of negotiations, on November 10, 1999, ICANN, NSI, and DOC
formally signed agreements which provided that NSI (now VeriSign) was required to sell
its registrar operation by May 10, 2001 in order to retain control of the dot-com registry
until 2007. In April 2001, arguing that the registrar business was by then highly
competitive, VeriSign reached a new agreement with ICANN whereby its registry and
registrar businesses would not have to be separated. With DOC approval, ICANN and
VeriSign signed the formal agreement on May 25, 2001. The agreement provided that
VeriSign would continue to operate the .org registry until 2002; the .net registry until
June 30, 2005, which prior to that time will be opened for recompetition unless market
measurements indicate that an earlier expiration date is necessary for competitive reasons;
and the .com registry until at least the expiration date of the current agreement in 2007,
and possibly beyond. As part of a legal settlement between ICANN and VeriSign, the
expiration date has subsequently been extended to 2012.
1 (...continued)
Administration, Department of Commerce, Federal Register, Vol. 63, No. 111, June 10, 1998,
31741.

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On September 17, 2003, ICANN and the Department of Commerce agreed to extend
their MOU until September 30, 2006. The MOU specifies transition tasks which ICANN
has agreed to address. ICANN will implement an objective process for selecting new Top
Level Domains; implement an effective strategy for multi-lingual communications and
international outreach; and develop a contingency plan, consistent with the international
nature of the Internet, to ensure continuity of operations in the event of a severe disruption
of operations.
On June 30, 2005, Michael Gallagher, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for
Communications and Information and Administrator of NTIA, stated the U.S.
Government’s principles on the Internet’s domain name system. Specifically, NTIA states
that the U.S. Government “intends to preserve the security and stability” of the DNS, and
that “the United States is committed to taking no action that would have the potential to
adversely impact the effective and efficient operation of the DNS and will therefore
maintain its historic role in authorizing changes or modifications to the authoritative root
zone file.” The NTIA statement also says that governments have legitimate interests in
the management of their country code top level domains, that ICANN is the appropriate
technical manager of the DNS, and that dialogue related to Internet governance should
continue in relevant multiple fora.2
Issues
Congressional Committees (primarily the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science
and Transportation and the House Committee on Energy and Commerce) maintain
oversight on how the Department of Commerce manages and oversees ICANN’s activities
and policies. In response to proposals at the World Summit on the Information Society
for international control of the domain name system, the 109th Congress has expressed its
support for maintaining U.S. control over ICANN. On November 16, 2005, the House
unanimously passed H.Con.Res. 268, which expresses the sense of the Congress that the
current system for management of the domain name system works, and that “the
authoritative root zone server should remain physically located in the United States and
the Secretary of Commerce should maintain oversight of ICANN so that ICANN can
continue to manage the day-to-day operation of the Internet's domain name and addressing
system well, remain responsive to all Internet stakeholders worldwide, and otherwise
fulfill its core technical mission.” A similar resolution, S.Res. 323, was passed by the
Senate on November 18, 2005 and calls on the President to “continue to oppose any effort
to transfer control of the Internet to the United Nations or any other international entity.”
Governance. The United Nations (UN), at the December 2003 World Summit
on the Information Society (WSIS), debated and agreed to study the issue of how to
achieve greater international involvement in the governance of the Internet and the
domain name system in particular. The study was conducted by the UN’s Working Group
on Internet Governance (WGIG). On July 14, 2005, the WGIG released its report, stating
that no single government should have a preeminent role in relation to international
Internet governance, calling for further internationalization of Internet governance, and
proposing the creation of a new global forum for Internet stakeholders. Four possible
models were put forth, including two involving the creation of new Internet governance
2 See [http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/domainname/USDNSprinciples_06302005.pdf]

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bodies linked to the UN. Under three of the four models, ICANN would either be
supplanted or made accountable to a higher intergovernmental body. The report’s
conclusions were scheduled to be considered during the second phase of the WSIS to be
held in Tunis in November 2005. U.S. officials stated their opposition to transferring
control and administration of the domain name system from ICANN to any international
body.
The European Union (EU) initially supported the U.S. position. However, during
September 2005 preparatory meetings, the EU seemingly shifted its support towards an
approach which favored an enhanced international role in governing the Internet. Conflict
at the WSIS Tunis Summit over control of the domain name system was averted by the
announcement, on November 15, 2005, of an Internet governance agreement between the
U.S., the EU, and over 100 other nations. Under this agreement, ICANN and the U.S.
will remain in control of the domain name system. A new international group under the
auspices of the UN will be formed – the Internet Governance Forum – which will provide
an ongoing forum for all stakeholders (both governments and nongovernmental groups)
to discuss and debate Internet policy issues. The Internet Governance Forum is slated to
run for five years and will not have binding authority. The group is expected to hold its
first meeting in Athens in mid-2006.
Protecting Children on the Internet.
In the 107th Congress, legislation sought
to create a “kids-friendly top level domain name” that would contain only age-appropriate
content. The Dot Kids Implementation and Efficiency Act of 2002 was signed into law
on December 4, 2002 (P.L. 107-317) and authorizes the National Telecommunications
and Information Administration (NTIA) to require the .us registry operator (currently
NeuStar) to establish, operate, and maintain a second level domain within the .us TLD
that is restricted to material suitable for minors.
In the 108th Congress, P.L. 108-21/S. 151 (PROTECT Act), contains a provision
(Sec. 108: Misleading Domain Names on the Internet) which would make it a punishable
crime to knowingly use a misleading domain name with the intent to deceive a person into
viewing obscenity on the Internet. Increased penalties are provided for deceiving minors
into viewing harmful material.
Meanwhile, on June 1, 2005, ICANN announced that it had entered into commercial
and technical negotiations with a registry company to operate a new “.xxx” domain,
which would be designated for use by adult websites. Registration by adult websites into
the .xxx domain would be purely voluntary, and those sites would not be required to give
up their existing (for the most part, .com) sites. Announcement of a .xxx domain has
proven controversial. With the ICANN Board scheduled to consider final approval of the
.xxx domain on August 16, 2005, the Department of Commerce sent a letter to ICANN
requesting that “adequate additional time” be provided to allow ICANN to address the
objections of “individuals expressing concerns about the impact of pornography on
families and children and opposing the creation of a new top level domain devoted to
adult content.”3 ICANN’s Government Advisory Committee has also requested more
3 Letter from Michael Gallagher, Assistant Secretary for Communications and Information,
Department of Commerce, to Vinton Cerf, ICANN Board Chairman, August 11, 2005. Available
(continued...)

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time before a final decision is made. ICANN has agreed to the delay and will possibly
make a final decision on the issue in October 2005.
Trademark Disputes. The increase in conflicts over property rights to certain
trademarked names has resulted in a number of lawsuits. The White Paper called upon
the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) to develop a set of
recommendations for trademark/domain name dispute resolutions, and to submit those
recommendations to ICANN. At ICANN’s August 1999 meeting in Santiago, the board
of directors adopted a dispute resolution policy to be applied uniformly by all ICANN-
accredited registrars. Under this policy, registrars receiving complaints will take no action
until receiving instructions from the domain-name holder or an order of a court or
arbitrator. An exception is made for “abusive registrations” (i.e. cybersquatting and
cyberpiracy), whereby a special administrative procedure (conducted largely online by a
neutral panel, lasting 45 days or less, and costing about $1000) will resolve the dispute.
Implementation of ICANN’s Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy commenced on
December 9, 1999. Meanwhile, the 106th Congress passed the Anticybersquatting
Consumer Protection Act (incorporated into P.L. 106-113, the FY2000 Consolidated
Appropriations Act). The act gives courts the authority to order the forfeiture,
cancellation, and/or transfer of domain names registered in “bad faith” that are identical
or similar to trademarks, and provides for statutory civil damages of at least $1,000, but
not more than $100,000, per domain name identifier.
Privacy. Any entity who registers a domain name is required to provide contact
information (phone number, address, email) which is entered into a public online database
(the “WHOIS” database). Over the past several years, registrants who wish to maintain
their privacy have been able to register anonymously using a proxy service offered by
some registrars. In February 2005, the National Telecommunications and Information
Administration (NTIA) – which has authority over the .us domain name – notified
Neustar (the company that administers .us) that proxy or private domain registrations will
no longer be allowed for .us domain name registrations, and that registrars must provide
correct WHOIS information for all existing customers by January 26, 2006. According
to NTIA, this action will provide an assurance of accuracy to the American public and to
law enforcement officials. The NTIA policy is opposed by privacy groups and registrars
(such as Go Daddy) who argue that the privacy, anonymity, and safety of people
registering .us domain names will be needlessly compromised.
In a related development, during the 108th Congress, the Fraudulent Online Identity
Sanctions Act was incorporated as Title II of H.R. 3632, the Intellectual Property
Protection and Courts Amendments Act of 2004, signed by the President on December
23, 2004 (P.L. 108-482). The act increases criminal penalties for those who submit false
contact information when registering a domain name that is subsequently used to commit
a crime or engage in copyright or trademark infringement.
3 (...continued)
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at [http://www.icann.org/correspondence/gallagher-to-cerf-15aug05.pdf]

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