Order Code RS22262
September 15, 2005
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
“Price Gouging,” the Antitrust Laws, and
Vertical Integration: How They Are Related
Janice E. Rubin
Legislative Attorney
American Law Division
Summary
The antitrust laws and statutes to prohibit “price gouging” aim ultimately to serve
the same end — realization of lower or reasonable prices for consumers, but they do so
from different perspectives. The theoretical underpinning of antitrust law is the belief
that vigorous and unfettered marketplace competition will yield the most advantageous
result for consumers. Statutes concerning “price gouging,” on the other hand, are direct
consumer-protection provisions, generally making no reference to the competitive
effects of the practice (see, e.g., CRS Report RS22236, Price Increases in the Aftermath
of Hurricane Katrina: Authority to Limit “Price Gouging,” by Angie A. Welborn and
Aaron M. Flynn). Similarly, statutes to limit the extent of vertical integration (common
ownership of different stages of production, marketing, or retailing) in the petroleum
industry have been proposed at the federal level, and exist at the state level, although
there is not currently any overarching antitrust prohibition on such integration. The
potential for anticompetitive actions by vertically integrated entities has been noted by,
among others, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in its report, Gasoline Price
Changes: The Dynamic of Supply, Demand, and Competition (2005). But that report
also states that “the vast majority of the FTC’s investigations [into the petroleum
industry] have revealed market factors to be the primary drivers of both price increases
and price spikes”; and further notes that, contrary to certain expectations, the price of
gasoline in those states that prohibit refiners from operating retail gasoline stations is
generally higher than in states without similar prohibitions. Section 1809 of the “Energy
Policy Act of 2005” requires both current and annual FTC investigations “to determine
if the price of gasoline is being artificially manipulated by reducing refinery capacity or
by any other form of market manipulation or price-gouging practices.” This report,
which may be updated, sets out the federal antitrust “rules of the road” in an attempt to
provide the antitrust context for the FTC investigations, note prior congressional action
concerning vertical divestiture in the petroleum industry, and provide information on the
state “divorcement” statutes.
The primary purpose of the antitrust laws is to foster free and unfettered competition
on the assumption that such competition will produce the best result for consumers — the
lowest and most reasonable prices. To that end, section 1 of the Sherman Act (15 U.S.C.
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

---

CRS-2
§ 1) prohibits contracts or conspiracies in restraint of trade.1 That is, section 1 forbids
two or more persons or entities from agreeing to limit output or set prices. Section 2 of
the Sherman Act (15 U.S.C. § 2) prohibits monopolization or attempted monopolization;
either of those offenses can be accomplished by individual persons or entities, although
the provision also prohibits agreements to monopolize, and the section is frequently used
in conjunction with a charge pursuant to the so-called anti-merger provision of the
Clayton Act (section 7 of the Clayton Act, 15 U.S.C. § 18). That having been said, it is
important to emphasize that the prohibition against monopolization is not violated by the
mere possession of monopoly power or some predetermined share of the market. U.S.
antitrust law does not include a “no-fault” monopoly statute, and there is no “bright line”
that, once crossed, exposes an otherwise lawful monopolist to antitrust sanctions.2
In addition, the courts have acknowledged the right of an individual businessman
to do business, or not to do business, with whomever he likes, and on whatever
conditions he deems acceptable:
In the absence of any purpose to create or maintain a monopoly, the [Sherman] act
does not restrict the long recognized right of trader or manufacturer engaged in an
entirely private business, freely to exercise his own independent discretion as to
parties with whom he will deal; and, of course, he may announce in advance the
circumstances under which he will refuse to sell.3
Finally, the role of vertical integration — common ownership of different stages of
production, marketing, or retailing — is ambiguous; vertical integration, without more,
does not, at least at the federal level, automatically lead to a conclusion of antitrust law
violation, although, to be sure, there may be some anticompetitive effects. Just as there
may be lawful monopoly power that, if misused by the monopolist to extend or maintain
his monopoly, becomes unlawful as a violation of the antitrust law prohibition against
monopolization in restraint of trade, there is no general prohibition in U.S. law on the
ownership of all stages of production by a single firm,4 but lawful vertical integration may
give rise to anticompetitive practices that would be challengeable as violations of antitrust
prohibitions.5 In the petroleum industry, for example, any single entity may engage in
1 Section 3 of the Sherman Act (15 U.S.C. § 3) is virtually identical to section 1 except that it
specifically makes the prohibitions contained in section 1 applicable to the District of Columbia.
2 In U.S. v. Grinnell, 384 U.S. 563 (1966), the Court noted that “[t]he offense of monopoly under
s[ection] 2 of the Sherman Act has two elements: (1) the possession of monopoly power in the
relevant market and (2) the willful acquisition or maintenance of that power as distinguished from
growth or development as a consequence of a superior product, business acumen, or historic
accident.” At 570-71. See, also, CRS Report RS20241, Monopoly and Monopolization —
Fundamental But Separate Concepts in U.S. Antitrust Law, by Janice E. Rubin.
3 United States v. Colgate & Co., 250 U.S. 300, 307 (emphasis added).
4 “... combinations, such as mergers, joint ventures, and various vertical agreements, hold the
promise of increasing a firm’s efficiency and enabling it to compete more effectively.
Accordingly, such combinations are judged under a rule of reason, an inquiry into market power
and market structure designed to assess the combination’s actual effect.” Copperweld Corp. v.
Independence Tube Corp., 467 U.S. 752, 768 (1984) (emphasis added).
5 The FTC report, Gasoline Price Changes: The Dynamic of Supply, Demand, and Competition
(continued...)

---

CRS-3
any or all of the stages: exploration or production of crude oil, transportation of crude
oil to refineries, operation of crude oil refiner[ies], transportation or storage of refined
product, distribution and marketing at the local wholesale or retail level, or retail sales.
Vertical integration does not, without more, therefore, violate the prohibition against
monopolization. Nor does a price increase attributable to vertical integration constitute
a violation of the antitrust laws, unless it is shown that the increase is the result of
collusion between the vertically integrated firm and another firm or portion thereof.6
There were unsuccessful attempts in the mid-1970’s, precipitated by the oil embargo
of 1973, and the operation of OPEC, to mandate divestiture in the petroleum industry.
S. 2387 (94th Congress), for example, asserted that in order to facilitate “the creation and
maintenance of competition in the petroleum industry,” S. 2387 would “require the most
expeditious and equitable separation and divestment of assets and interests of vertically
integrated major petroleum companies.”7 The legislation would have prohibited major
producers from owning or controlling any interest in any refinery asset, major refiners or
major marketers from being involved in production or transportation, and petroleum
transporters from being involved in any other segment of the industry.8 Refiners would
have been able to continue to own retail marketing facilities, and to operate only those
which they operated prior to January 1, 1976.9 The accuracy of the bill’s premise was
viewed differently by its supporters and opponents. It was argued both that S. 2387
would increase competition at each level of the industry, increase refining capacity by
reducing barriers to entry into that sector, and “place restraints on the pricing power of
the OPEC cartel”;10 and that vertical integration was not the cause of “the spiraling cost
5 (...continued)
(2005), lists, among other potential anticompetitive effects of vertical integration in the petroleum
industry, the ability of an integrated entity to minimize the effectiveness of a competitor by, e.g.,
structuring its dealings so as to raise the competitor’s input costs, or by making it more difficult
for a competitor to enter its markets. At 121-124. (The full report is available at
[http://www.ftc.gov/reports/gasprices05/050705gaspricesrpt.pdf]).
6 “An increase in prices alone does not necessarily constitute ‘price gouging.’” CRS Report
RS22236, Price Increases in the Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina: Authority to Limit “Price
Gouging,” at 1. Further, the Supreme Court has ruled that the divisions of a single firm are not
legally capable of the kind of conspiracy prohibited by the antitrust laws: “Nothing in the literal
meaning of those terms [“unilateral,” “concerted”] excludes coordinated conduct among officers
or employees of the same company. But it is perfectly plain that an internal ‘agreement’ to
implement a single, unitary firm’s policies does not raise the antitrust dangers that § 1 was
designed to police. The officers of a single firm are not separate economic actors pursuing
separate economic interests, so agreements among them do not suddenly bring together economic
power that was previously pursuing divergent goals. Coordination within a firm is as likely to
result from an effort to compete as from an effort to stifle competition. In the marketplace, such
coordination may be necessary if a business enterprise is to compete effectively. Copperweld,
supra, note 4, at 769.
7 S. 2387 (94th Cong.), Sec. 2(b).
8 “Major producers,” “major refiners,” and “major marketers” were defined in section 101.
9 Section 103.
10 Petroleum Industry Competition Act of 1976, S.Rept. 94-1005, Part 1 at 67-70.

---

CRS-4
of petroleum products to the American consumers,”11 would lead to reduced efficiencies
in the petroleum industry, would have no effect on the pricing policies of OPEC, and
would lead to “higher-priced petroleum products.”12 The bill was reported favorably by
the Senate Antitrust Subcommittee and the full Judiciary Committee, but not voted on by
the Senate.
Divorcement statutes, however, do exist at the state level. There are several states
that currently prohibit oil refiners from operating retail service stations; they mandate
operation of such stations only by independent operators, i.e., persons neither employed
by or under contract to the refiner.13 Statutes in those states are more correctly
characterized as consumer-protection measures than antitrust statutes, as they (1) may be
placed in a state’s unfair trade practices provisions or similar location, (2) do not recognize
any justification for exceptions,14 and (3) unlike the federal antitrust monopolization
prohibition, are “no fault” provisions that require no competitive injury as a prerequisite
to violation.
The FTC report (supra, note 5) sets out both the potential competitive advantages and
the possible misuses of vertical integration, but also notes that at least nine studies have
concluded that “retail [gasoline] prices tend to be lower if one company owns both
refining and retailing operations than if they are owned separately.”15 At the same time,
11 Id. at 179 (additional view of Senator Robert C. Byrd).
12 S.Rept. 94-1005, Part 2 at 195-206; speech by Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for
International Affairs Gerald Parsky to the National Economists Club, reported in 757 ANTITRUST
& TRADE REGULATION REPORT A-23 (3-30-1976).
13 States which, according to our research, mandate varying sorts of “divorcement” between
petroleum refining and retail gasoline sales, include Connecticut (Conn. Gen. Stat. §§ 14-344a,
344b); Delaware (6 Del. C. § 2905); District of Columbia (D.C. Code § 36-302.02); Hawaii
(H.R.S. § 486H-10.4); Maryland (Md. (Business Regulation) Code Ann. § 10-311); Nevada
(N.R.S. § 597.440); Virginia (Va. Code Ann. § 59.1-21.16:2); and Puerto Rico (23 L.P.R.A. §
1102). In addition, “[s]ince 1974, divorcement bills have come before forty-one state
legislatures” (Michael C. Vita, Deputy Assistant Director, Bureau of Economics, FTC,
Regulatory Restrictions on Vertical Integration and Control: The Competitive Impact of Gasoline
Divorcement Policies (July 21, 1999), at 1).
14 Except that the statutes generally recognize existing refiner-run stations and “grandfather” them
if they existed prior to a specific date. The simplest of the state “divorcement” statutes appears
to be Delaware’s, which states: “No manufacturer of petroleum products shall open a major
brand, secondary brand or unbranded retail gasoline outlet or service station in the State, that
would be operated by company personnel, a subsidiary company, or a commissioned agent. That
statute also recognizes the possibility that it may be necessary or desirable for manufacturers to
operate retail service stations “in times of emergency or similar special circumstances.” 6 Del.
C. §§ 2905(a),(b). Virginia and Puerto Rico also make provision for temporary refiner operation
of retail service stations previously operated by independent dealers, although with no specific
reference to “emergency” situations. Va. Code Ann. § 59.1-21.16:2D; 23 L.P.R.A. § 1102(c).
15 At 120, citing John Gewecke, Empirical Evidence on the Competitive Effects of Mergers in the
Gasoline Industry (2003), available at The concurring statement of Commissioner Leibowitz
notes that “[t]he Report ... clearly describes to consumers and policymakers the factors that affect
gas prices and contribute to price increases ... and it places these price changes into context.” (No
page number available, but the complete statement is available at the FTC website,
(continued...)

---

CRS-5
the report acknowledges studies that have come to a different conclusion. One study
found, on the basis of its examination of the long-term lease of several independent
stations by a branded refiner-wholesaler (with an accompanying name change on the
stations from the independent to the brand name), that retail gasoline prices in the area
where the leasing/name change occurred did rise slightly.16 Another found increased
wholesale prices following the merger between a refiner and a refiner-marketer;17 that
study did not, however, as did a subsequent one, look at the effect on retail gasoline prices
to consumers of mergers.18
Just as existing state divorcement statutes are not found in the states’ antimonopoly
or antitrust provisions, state “price-gouging” provisions are generally considered to be
consumer-protection legislation crafted as either stand-alone measures or as part of a more
comprehensive consumer-protection code. We emphasize, therefore, that while they and
the antitrust laws were each enacted with the goal of creating and preserving consumer
benefits in the form of reasonable prices, the direct “regulation” of prices that characterizes
“price-gouging” laws is, in effect, the flip side of the antitrust-law encouragement of
marketplace competition.

15 (...continued)
[http://www.ftc.gov]). The full Gewecke survey is available at [http://www.ftc.gov/bc/
gasconf/comments2/gewecke1.pdf].
16 Justine Hastings, Vertical Relationships and Competition in Gasoline Markets: Empirical
Guidance from Contact Changes in Southern California, 94 AM. ECON. REV.317 (2004).
17 Richard Gilbert and Justine Hastings, MARKET POWER, VERTICAL INTEGRATION, AND THE
WHOLESALE PRICE OF GASOLINE, Univ. of Cal. Energy Inst., Working Paper No. PWP-084, 2001,
rev. 2002, available at [http://aida.econ.yale.edu/~jh529/RRC_Revision0604.pdf].
18 Christopher T. Taylor and Daniel S. Hosken, THE ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE MARATHON-
ASHLAND JOINT VENTURE: THE IMPORTANCE OF INDUSTRY SUPPLY SHOCKS AND VERTICAL
MARKET STRUCTURE, FTC, Bureau of Economic, Working Paper No. 270, 2004, available at
[http://www.ftc.gov/be/workpapers/wp270.pdf]. The authors note that although the joint venture
they studied did, in fact, increase wholesale gasoline prices, those increases were not passed on
by retailers to gasoline consumers.

---