Order Code RL32982
CRS Report for Congress
.Received through the CRS Web
Immigration Issues in Trade Agreements
Updated July 11, 2005
Ruth Ellen Wasem
Specialist in Immigration Policy
Domestic Social Policy Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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Immigration Issues in Trade Agreements
Summary
The connections between trade and migration are as longstanding as the historic
movements of goods and people. The desire for commerce may often be the
principal motivation, but the need to send people to facilitate the transactions soon
follows. Recognition of this phenomenon is incorporated into the Immigration and
Nationality Act (INA), which includes provisions for aliens who are entering the
United States solely as “treaty traders” and “treaty investors.” Although the United
States has not created a common market for the movement of labor with our trading
partners, there are immigration provisions in existing free trade agreements (FTAs)
that spell out reciprocal terms regulating the “temporary entry of business persons.”
Immigration issues often raised in the context of the FTAs include whether
FTAs should contain provisions that expressly expand immigration between the
countries as well as whether FTAs should require that the immigrant-sending
countries restrain unwanted migration (typically expressed as illegal aliens). The
question of whether the movement of people — especially temporary workers — is
subsumed under the broader category of “provision of services” and thus an inherent
part of any free trade agreement also arises. Even in FTAs that do not have explicit
immigration provisions, such as the United States-Dominican Republic-Central
America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), there is a debate over the effects that
FTAs may have on future migration.
There are a variety of approaches to study the impact of trade agreements on
migration, and this report draws on several different perspectives. The volume of
trade that the United States has with its top trading partners correlates with the
number of times foreign nationals from these countries enter the United States,
regardless of whether there is an FTA. Research on the aftermath of the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) found upward trends in the temporary
migration of business and professional workers between the United States and
Canada during the years that followed the implementation of the Canada-United
States FTA (later NAFTA). Another set of analyses revealed that the number of
Mexican-born residents of the United States who report that they came in to the
country during the years after NAFTA came into force is substantial and resembles
the “migration hump” that economists predicted. Many factors other than NAFTA,
however, have been instrumental in shaping this trend in Mexican migration.
This report provides background and analysis on the complex nexus of
immigration and trade. It does not track legislation and will not be updated.

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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background on Immigration Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Context of Policy Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Temporary Admissions in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Treaty Traders and Treaty Investors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Other Business Personnel and Temporary Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Business Travelers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Multinational Executives and Intracompany Transferees . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Temporary Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Requirements for Employers of Temporary Foreign Workers . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Labor Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Labor Attestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Immigration Provisions in FTAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
North American Free Trade Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Chile and Singapore Free Trade Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Australian Free Trade Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Interaction of Trade and Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Trade Volume and Business-Based Temporary Admissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
NAFTA: A Canadian Illustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
NAFTA: A Mexican Illustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Migration Trends: Countries of Proposed DR-CAFTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Selected Policy Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Should FTAs Expressly Expand Immigration Avenues? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Should Immigration Control Be a Condition for FTAs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Should FTAs Be Considered a Policy Response to Reduce
Illegal Migration? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Appendix A. Selected Trade and Admissions Data for Top U.S.
Trading Partners, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Appendix B. Year of Arrival for Non-Mexican Foreign-Born Residents . . . . . 23
List of Figures
Figure 1. Issuances of E Visas to Treaty Traders and Investors from
Canada and Mexico, FY1989-FY2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 2. Temporary Migration of Business and Professional
Workers between United States and Canada, 1989-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 3. Theorized Model of Relationship Between NAFTA and
Immigration to the United States from Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

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Figure 4. Estimated Mexican-Born Residents of the United States
by Reported Year of Arrival, 1980-2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 5. Estimated Costa Rican, Nicaraguan, Honduran, Guatemalan,
Salvadoran, and Dominican-Born Residents of the United States
by Reported Year of Arrival, 1980-2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 6. Estimated Non-Mexican Foreign-Born Residents of the
United States by Reported Year of Arrival, 1980-2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
List of Tables
Table 1. Comparative 2004 Rankings of Top U.S. Trading Partners
and Entries of Persons with E, H, L and TN Visas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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Immigration Issues in Trade Agreements
Introduction
The connections between trade and migration are as longstanding as the historic
movements of goods and people. The desire for commerce may often be the
principal motivation, but the need to send people to facilitate the transactions soon
follows. Recognition of this phenomenon was incorporated into the Immigration Act
of 1924, which included a provision for aliens who were entering the United States
solely to carry on trade between the United States and the foreign state the alien was
coming from, pursuant to a treaty of commerce and navigation.1 Over 80 years later,
a comparable provision of immigration law continues to enable foreign nationals,
now known as “treaty traders” and “treaty investors,” to enter the United States.2
In addition to the specific treaty trader/investor provisions of immigration law,
there are often broader immigration issues raised in the context of the recent free
trade agreements (FTAs).3 These issues include whether FTAs should contain
provisions that expressly expand immigration between the countries as well as
whether FTAs should require that the immigrant-sending countries restrain unwanted
migration (typically expressed as illegal aliens). The question of whether the
movement of people — especially temporary workers — is subsumed under the
broader category of “provision of services” and thus an inherent part of any free trade
agreement also arises. Even in FTAs that do not have explicit immigration
provisions, such as the U.S.-Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade
Agreement (DR-CAFTA), there is a debate over the effects that FTAs may have on
future migration.
This report opens with an overview of the specific elements of immigration law
and policy that are germane to trade-related immigration and follows with a summary
of the recent FTAs that include changes to U.S. immigration law. An analysis of
research on the interaction between trade and migration is discussed, with caveats on
1 The Immigration Act of 1924 was comprehensive for its day. Among other things, it
authorized consular officers to issue visas to intending immigrants and nonimmigrants as
well as required aliens entering the United States to have the appropriate immigration
documents.
2 The specific legislative language of INA §101(a)(15)(E) is: “(i) solely to carry on
substantial trade, including trade in services or trade in technology, principally between the
United States and the foreign state of which he is a national; or (ii) solely to develop and
direct the operations of an enterprise in which he has invested, or of an enterprise in which
he is actively in the process of investing, a substantial amount of capital.” 8 U.S.C.
3 For a more on these trade agreements, see CRS Issue Brief IB10123, Trade Negotiations
in the 109th Congress, by Ian Fergusson and Lenore Sek.

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the limitations of such analysis. The report concludes with a set of immigration
policy questions that arise in the context of FTAs.
Background on Immigration Policy
Context of Policy Making
As a prologue to any discussion of the nexus of immigration and trade, it is
important to acknowledge two key points of departure in policy making on these
issues. Foremost is what branch of government — the legislative or executive —
takes the lead in setting the policy. Secondly, is whether policies are set unilaterally
and without special consideration of other countries or are developed bilaterally or
multilaterally.
Although Congress has the ultimate Constitutional authority to regulate
interstate and foreign commerce, it has shared the authority with the executive
branch. The executive branch takes the lead in negotiating trade agreements under
strictly defined conditions. Congress considers legislation implementing the trade
agreements, according to the Trade Act of 1974, as amended.4 Immigration policy,
on the other hand, is traditionally spelled out by the Congress, not the executive
branch. Congress has not shared its authority over immigration and naturalization
law with the executive branch to the extent it has done so with trade policy.5
Bilateral and multilateral agreements with specific countries, a staple of trade
negotiations, are quite rare in U.S. immigration policy. When the Immigration
Amendments of 1965 replaced the national origins quota system (enacted after World
War I) with per-country ceilings, U.S. immigration policy shifted to one that was
4 The statutory authority and requirements for the enactment and implementation of recently
completed or planned trade agreements are contained in the provisions of the Bipartisan
Trade Promotion Authority Act of 2002 (TPA Act) (Title XXI of the Trade Act of 2002, as
amended by Section 2004(a)(17) of the Miscellaneous Trade and Technical Corrections Act
of 2004; P.L. 108-429). The legislative procedure for their implementation is set out in
Section 151 of the Trade Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-618). For further information, see CRS
Report RL31974, Trade Agreements: Requirements for Presidential Consultation, Notices,
and Reports to Congress Regarding Negotiations; and CRS Report RL32011, Trade
Agreements: Procedure for Congressional Approval and Implementation, both by Vladimir
N. Pregelj.
5 This last point was made clear by House Committee on the Judiciary Chairman James
Sensenbrenner during the 2003 debate over the Chile and Singapore FTAs. Chairman
Sensenbrenner offered the following summation in his opening remarks: “Members of this
Committee spoke with a united bipartisan voice that immigration provisions in future free
trade agreements will not receive the support of this Committee.” He went on later in the
proceedings to state: “I am also concerned that there not be future changes in the basic
immigration law contained in future trade agreements. Article I, Section 8 of the
Constitution makes immigration and naturalization law an exclusive enumerated power of
the Congress, and we intend to follow the Constitution and not to delegate this authority to
the executive branch of Government.” H.Rept. 108-224, Part 2, United States-Chile Free
Trade Agreement Implementation Act, 2003.

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applied neutrally across the countries of origin.6 Not only did the admission of legal
permanent residents (LPRs) become country-neutral at that time, but formal bilateral
guest worker programs, such as the Bracero Program with Mexico, ended as well.7
Temporary Admissions in General
Foreign nationals seeking to come to the United States temporarily rather than
to live permanently are known as nonimmigrants.8 These aliens are admitted to the
United States for a temporary period of time and an expressed reason. Currently,
there are 24 major nonimmigrant visa categories, and 72 specific types of
nonimmigrant visas issued. These visa categories are commonly referred to by the
letter and numeral that denote their subsection in the Immigration and Nationality
Act (INA).9 Several visa categories that are designated for business and
employment-based temporary admission are discussed below, as they are the most
likely to correspond to trade-related temporary immigration.10
Treaty Traders and Treaty Investors
To qualify as an E-1 treaty trader or E-2 treaty investor, a foreign national first
must be a citizen or national of a country with which the United States maintains a
treaty of commerce and navigation.11 The foreign national then must demonstrate
that the purpose of coming to the United States is one of the following: to carry on
substantial trade, including trade in services or technology, principally between the
United States and the treaty country; or to develop and direct the operations of an
enterprise in which the national has invested, or is in the process of investing a
substantial amount of capital. Unlike most nonimmigrant visas, the E visa may be
renewed indefinitely.
The regulations describe substantial trade as follows:
Substantial trade is an amount of trade sufficient to ensure a continuous flow of
international trade items between the United States and the treaty country. This
6 Major exceptions to this tradition involve humanitarian migrants, refugees, and asylees
who are admitted to the United States on the basis of country conditions and the likelihood
that they would be persecuted if returned home. For more background, see CRS Report
RL31269, Refugee Admissions and Resettlement Policy, by Andorra Bruno; CRS Report
RL32621, U.S. Immigration Policy on Asylum Seekers, by Ruth Ellen Wasem; and CRS
Report RS20468, Cuban Migration Policy and Issues, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
7 For an explanation of immigration policy on permanent admissions, see CRS Report
RL32235, U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
8 For a full discussion and analysis of nonimmigrant visas, see CRS Report RL31381, U.S.
Immigration Policy on Temporary Admissions, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
9 Most of these nonimmigrant visa categories are defined in §101(a)(15) of the INA.
10 The term “guest worker” is not defined in law or policy and typically refers to foreign
workers employed in low-skilled or unskilled jobs that are seasonal.
11 The investor provision was added by P.L. 82-414 in 1952 when the INA was codified into
the body of law that exists today, amended.

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continuous flow contemplates numerous transactions over time. Treaty trader
status may not be established or maintained on the basis of a single transaction,
regardless of how protracted or monetarily valuable the transaction.
The regulations define the related concept of principal trade as “when over 50 percent
of the volume of international trade of the treaty trader is conducted between the
United States and the treaty country of the treaty trader’s nationality.”12
For treaty investors, the investment must be sufficient to ensure the successful
operation of a bona fide enterprise, and the investor must have control of the funds.
Uncommitted funds in a bank account or similar security are not considered an
investment. The investor must be coming to the United States to develop and direct
the enterprise. If the applicant is not the principal investor, he or she must be
employed in a supervisory, executive, or highly specialized skill capacity.
Other Business Personnel and Temporary Workers
Business Travelers. B-1 nonimmigrants are visitors for business and are
required to be seeking admission for activities other than purely local employment
or hire. The difference between a business visitor and a temporary worker depends
also on the source of the alien’s salary. To be classified as a visitor for business, an
alien must receive his or her salary from abroad and must not receive any
remuneration from a U.S. source other than an expense allowance and reimbursement
for other expenses incidental to temporary stay.
Multinational Executives and Intracompany Transferees.
Intracompany transferees who are employed by an international firm or corporation
are admitted on the L visas.13 To obtain an L visa, the alien must be employed in an
executive capacity, a managerial capacity, or have specialized knowledge of the
firm’s product. To qualify as an executive, the regulations state that the alien must
direct the management of the organization or a major component or function of the
organization and receive only general supervision or direction from higher level
executives, the board of directors, or stockholders of the organization. Those
considered to be managerial staff supervise the work of other supervisory,
professional, or managerial employees, or manage an essential function within the
organization. The regulations define “specialized knowledge” as special knowledge
possessed by an individual of the petitioning organization’s product, service,
research, equipment, techniques, management, or other interests and its application
in international markets, or an advanced level of knowledge or expertise in the
organization’s processes and procedures.14
12 8 CFR §214.2(e).
13 See CRS Report RL32030, Immigration Policy for Intracompany Transfers (L Visa):
Issues and Legislation, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
14 8 CFR §214.2(l)(ii).

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Temporary Workers.15 The major nonimmigrant category for temporary
workers is the H visa.16 The current H-1 categories include professional specialty
workers (H-1B) and nurses (H-1C). There are two visa categories for temporarily
importing seasonal workers, i.e., guest workers: agricultural workers enter with H-
2A visas and other seasonal workers enter with H-2B visas. Temporary professional
workers from Canada and Mexico may enter according to terms set by the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on TN visas. The law sets numerical
restrictions on annual admissions of the H-1B (65,000), the H-2B (66,000) and the
H-1C (500) visas. There is no limit on TN visas.
Requirements for Employers of Temporary Foreign Workers
Labor Certification. The INA requires that employers of H-2 nonimmigrants
conduct an affirmative search for available U.S. workers and that the Department of
Labor (DOL) determine that admitting alien workers will not adversely affect the
wages and working conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers. Under this
process — known as labor certification — employers must apply to the DOL for
certification that unemployed domestic workers are not available and that there will
not be an adverse effect from the alien workers’ entry. The H-2A visa has additional
requirements aimed at protecting the alien H-2A workers from exploitive working
situations and preventing the domestic work force from being supplanted by alien
workers willing to work for sub-standard wages. Most notably, the employer must
offer the H-2A workers wages according to the “adverse effect wage rate.”17
Labor Attestation. The labor market test required for employers of H-1
workers, known as labor attestation, is less stringent than labor certification. Any
employer wishing to bring in an H-1B worker must attest in an application to the
DOL that the employer will pay the H-1B worker the greater of the actual wages paid
other employees in the same job or the prevailing wages for that occupation; the
employer will provide working conditions for the H-1B worker that do not cause the
working conditions of the other employees to be adversely affected; and there is no
strike or lockout. Employers recruiting the H-1C nurses must attest similarly to those
recruiting H-1B workers, with the additional requirement that the facility attest that
it is taking significant steps to recruit and retain U.S. registered nurses.
The INA does not require firms who wish to bring L intracompany transfers into
the United States to meet any labor market tests (e.g., demonstrate that U.S.
employees are not being displaced or that working conditions are not being lowered)
15 See CRS Report RL30498, Immigration: Legislative Issues on Nonimmigrant
Professional Specialty (H-1B) Workers, by Ruth Ellen Wasem; and CRS Report RL32044,
Immigration: Policy Considerations Related to Guest Worker Programs, by Andorra
Bruno.
16 In addition, persons with extraordinary ability in the sciences, arts, education, business,
or athletics are admitted on O visas, while internationally recognized athletes or members
of an internationally recognized entertainment group come on P visas. Aliens working in
religious vocations enter on R visas.
17 See CRS Report RL32861, Farm Labor: The Adverse Effect Wage Rate (AEWR), by
William Whittaker.

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in order to obtain a visa for the transferring employee.18 Foreign nationals obtaining
B-1 business visas are not held to any labor market tests, as they must receive their
salary from abroad.
Immigration Provisions in FTAs
The United States is not a signatory to any trade agreements that provide for
open borders or freedom of movement of individuals among the participating
countries. Although the United States has not created a common market for the
movement of labor with our trading partners, there are immigration provisions in
several existing FTAs19 that spell out reciprocal terms regulating the “temporary entry
of business persons.” These provisions are discussed below.
Negotiators for the Uruguay Round Agreements of the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT), completed in 1994 and known as the General Agreement
on Trade in Services (GATS), included specific language on temporary professional
workers. This language references §101(a)(15)(H(i)(b) of INA and commits the
United States to admitting 65,000 H-1B visa holders each year under the definition
of H-1B specified in GATS.20 In addition, GATS includes very specific language on
“intra-corporate transfers.”21 This language is similar but not identical to the
definitions of intracompany transferee found in the regulations governing the L
visa.22
North American Free Trade Agreement
The provisions of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) dealing
with migration among Canada, Mexico, and the United States closely tracked those
of the U.S.-Canadian Free Trade Agreement of 1988. The official summary of the
four categories of “business persons” who may enter the three countries temporarily
and on a reciprocal basis are as follows:
18 Intracompany transfers from Mexico or Canada may be denied in the case of certain labor
disputes. 8 CFR §214.2(l)(18).
19 The United States currently has FTAs with Israel, Jordan, Chile, Singapore, Australia,
Morocco, and (via NAFTA) with Canada and Mexico.
20 General Agreement on Trade in Services, Uruguay Round Trade Agreements, Schedule
of Specific Commitments. For legal analysis, see CRS Congressional Distribution
Memorandum, U.S. Immigration-Related Obligations Under the WTO General Agreement
on Trade in Services, by Jeanne J. Grimmett, May 12, 1998; and CRS Report RS21554,
Free Trade Agreements and the WTO Exceptions, by Jeanne J. Grimmett and Todd
Tatelman.
21 For example, the GATS Schedule of Specific Commitments defines the specialist type of
intra-corporate transferees as “persons within an organization who possess knowledge at an
advanced level of continued expertise and who possess proprietary knowledge of the
organization’s services, research equipment, techniques, or management. (Specialists may
include, but are not limited to, members of licensed professions.)”
22 8 CFR §214.2(l)(1)(ii)).

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! business visitors engaged in international business activities for the
purpose of conducting activities related to research and design,
growth, manufacture and production, marketing, sales, distribution,
after-sales service and other general services (B-1 visitors for
business);
! traders who carry on substantial trade in goods or services between
their own country and the country they wish to enter, as well as
investors seeking to commit a substantial amount of capital in that
country, provided that such persons are employed in a supervisory
or executive capacity or one that involves essential skills (E-1 treaty
traders and E-2 treaty investors);
! intracompany transferees employed by a company in a managerial
or executive capacity or one that involves specialized knowledge and
who are transferred within that company to another NAFTA country
(L intracompany transferees); and
! certain categories of professionals who meet minimum educational
requirements or who possess alternative credentials and who seek to
engage in business activities at a professional level in that country
(TN professionals under Section 214(e) of the INA).23
No party to NAFTA may impose numerical limits or labor market tests as a
condition of entry for intracompany transferees.24 The agreement, however, included
a 10-year limitation, which expired last year, of 5,500 annually on Mexican
professionals who could enter the United States under the TN category. To qualify
as a TN, an alien must possess certain credentials included in a list of approximately
60 professions. An employer must certify that the alien is so qualified and is coming
to a position which requires such a professional.
Chile and Singapore Free Trade Agreements
The legislation implementing the Chile and Singapore FTAs (P.L. 108-77 and
P.L. 108-78, respectively) amended several sections of the INA. Foremost, the laws
amended §101(a)(15)(H) of INA to carve out a portion of the H-1B visas —
designated as the H-1B-1 visa — for professional workers entering through the
FTAs. In many ways the FTA professional worker visa requirements parallel the H-
1B visa requirements, notably having similar educational requirements. The H-1B
visa, however, specifies that the occupation require highly specialized knowledge,
while the FTA professional worker visa specifies that the occupation require only
specialized knowledge.
The laws also amended §212 of INA to add a labor attestation requirement for
employers bringing in potential FTA professional worker nonimmigrants that is
23 The “TC” professional category was added to the INA by legislation implementing the
U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement and initially applied only to Canada. An amendment
to Section 214(e) of the INA extended the TC professional provision to Mexico, making it
“TN.”
24 Chapter 16, of the North American Free Trade Agreement, Annex 1603 Section C, signed
Dec. 17, 1992.

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similar to the H-1B labor attestation statutory requirements. The additional
attestation requirements for “H-1B dependent employers” currently specified in §212
are not included in the labor attestation requirements for employers of the FTA
professional worker nonimmigrants.
P.L. 108-77 contains numerical limits of 1,400 new entries under the FTA
professional worker visa from Chile, and P.L. 108-78 contains a limit of 5,400 from
Singapore. The laws do not limit the number of times that an alien may renew the
FTA professional worker visa on an annual basis, unlike H-1B workers, who are
limited to a total of six years. The laws count an FTA professional worker against
the H-1B cap the first year he/she enters and again after the fifth year he/she seeks
renewal. Although the foreign national holding the FTA professional worker visa
remains a temporary resident who is only permitted to work for employers who meet
the labor attestation requirements, the foreign national with an FTA professional
worker visa may legally remain in the United States indefinitely.
In addition to the immigration provisions in the implementing law, the U.S.-
Singapore Free Trade Agreement states that the United States shall not require labor
certification or other similar procedures as a condition of entry and shall not impose
any numerical limits on intracompany transfers from Singapore.25 Similar language
is also in the U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement.26
Australian Free Trade Agreement
The Australian FTA, signed on May 18, 2004, does not contain any explicit
immigration provisions. However, the FY2005 supplemental appropriations for
military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, reconstruction in Afghanistan and other
foreign aid (H.R. 1268, P.L. 109-16) includes a provision that touches on the nexus
of H-1B visas and FTAs. Specifically, §501 of the legislation as reported by the
conferees and enacted adds 10,500 visas for Australian nationals to perform services
in specialty occupations under a new E-3 temporary visa. The Senate had adopted
a provision during the floor debate on H.R. 1268 that created a new E-3 temporary
visa and capped the number at 5,000 per year.27
Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement
The U.S.-Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement
(DR-CAFTA) was signed on August 5, 2004, but must be approved by the
legislatures of all seven countries before it becomes effective. Implementing
legislation was sent to the U.S. Congress on June 23, 2005. Unlike NAFTA and the
Chile and Singapore FTAs, the DR-CAFTA does not contain any explicit
immigration provisions.
25 Chapter 11, §3 of the U.S.-Singapore Free Trade Agreement, Annex 11A, signed May 6,
2003.
26 Chapter 14, §3 of the U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement, Annex 14.3, signed June 6, 2003.
27 U.S. Congress, House, Conference Report on H.R. 1268, H.Rept. 109-72, May 3, 2005.

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Interaction of Trade and Migration
Classical trade theory presents trade and migration as substitutes, that is, a
country where labor is abundant and inexpensive is assumed to have the option of
exporting either labor-intensive goods or its workers. Another construct — the
multinational corporation — emphasizes the value of relocating managers and
technical experts to facilitate production, which has led to the theory that trade
liberalization increases the migration of knowledge-based workers. Obviously, the
similarities of the economies of the trading partners (e.g., relative level of
development and size of the economy) are factors that would affect the assumptions
underlying any theory of the nexus between trade and migration. One analyst
summed up the research on these relationships as follows:
The question of whether trade and migration are complements or substitutes has
been the focus of numerous studies, the results of which differ markedly
according to the hypotheses selected. According to some authors free trade
could lead to a reduction in migration flows. For others, it could have no visible
effect on migration or it could bring about an increase of these flows (disruptive
effect) by having a negative effect on small and medium-sized industries and by
accelerating the drift from rural to urban areas.28
There are a variety of approaches to study the impact of trade agreements on
migration, and this report draws on three of several different possible perspectives.
The first explores the relationship between trade and temporary workers and business
personnel among the United States’ top trading partners. The second synthesizes the
research on how NAFTA may have affected temporary migration of knowledge-
based workers between the United States and Canada. The third analyzes possible
effects of NAFTA on permanent migration from Mexico.
Trade Volume and Business-Based Temporary Admissions
The volume of trade that the United States has with its top trading partners
correlates with the number of times foreign nationals from these countries enter the
United States.29 This positive relationship holds whether analyzing total
nonimmigrant admissions or only those foreign nationals entering with the business-
based visas discussed above (E, H, L and TN visas).30 As Table 1 details, the
rankings of the top trading partners by total trade and by the number of their nationals
entering with the business-based visas, while not identical, are similar. The
relationship also appears when analyzing the alien admissions data with the balance
of trade data.
28 Lawrence Assous, “Regional Integration and Migration Flows: A Critical Review of
Recent Literature,” Globalisation, Migration and Development, OECD, 2000.
29 The author analyzed 2004 data on trade and nonimmigrant admissions for the 34 countries
listed in Table 1. The findings presented in this portion of the report are statistically
significant (based on Pearson correlation coefficients ranging from 0.95 to 0.98).
30 For more detailed data, see Appendix A at the end of this report.

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CRS-10
Table 1. Comparative 2004 Rankings of Top U.S. Trading
Partners and Entries of Persons with E, H, L and TN Visas
Total trade in U.S. dollars
Entries with E, H, L or TN visas
Rank
Country
Dollars (millions)
Rank
Country
Entries
1
Canada
446,091 1
Mexico
133,427
2
Mexico
266,618 2
Canada
126,295
3
China
231,420 3
Japan
118,441
4
Japan
183,995 4
United Kingdom
117,303
5
Germany
108,617 5
India
111,355
6
United Kingdom
82,362 6
Thailand
104,642
7
Korea (South)
72,496 7
Germany
62,193
8
Taiwan
56,348 8
France
46,817
9
France
53,054 9
Korea (South)
28,940
10
Malaysia
39,082 10
China
26,477
11
Italy
38,800 11
Venezuela
24,028
12
Netherlands
36,891 12
Australia
23,434
13
Ireland
35,608 13
Brazil
22,954
14
Brazil
35,020 14
Colombia
21,507
15
Singapore
34,907 15
Italy
19,636
16
Venezuela
29,744 16
Netherlands
16,059
17
Belgium
29,325 17
Israel
15,593
18
Saudi Arabia
26,169 18
Spain
15,124
19
Hong Kong
25,123 19
Ireland
11,821
20
Thailand
23,940 20
Sweden
10,067
21
Israel
23,725 21
Philippines
9,751
22
Australia
21,815 22
South Africa
9,613
23
India
21,657 23
Russia
8,369
24
Switzerland
20,911 24
Switzerland
8,229
25
Nigeria
17,798 25
Belgium
6,795
26
Philippines
16,216 26
Malaysia
4,039
27
Sweden
15,952 27
Singapore
3,715
28
Russia
14,806 28
Hong Kong
2,588
29
Spain
14,116 29
Nigeria
1,873
30
Indonesia
13,480 30
Indonesia
1,621
31
Colombia
11,794 31
Saudi Arabia
256
32
Iraq
9,371 32
Iraq
6
33
South Africa
9,116 33
Taiwan
(in China)
World
2,289,573
World
1,181,799
Source: Table 6 in CRS Issue Brief IB96038, U.S. International Trade: Data and Forecasts, by Dick
K. Nanto and Thomas Lum; and temporary admissions data from DHS Office of Immigration
Statistics, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2004.
Note: Trade data presented as millions of U.S. dollars, customs basis.

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CRS-11
This strong positive relationship between trade and temporary admissions
appears to exist regardless of whether the United States has an FTA with the country.
The specific relationship that one would expect between FTAs and the issuance of
E visas for treaty traders and investors, however, is clearly illustrated in the growing
use of E visas by foreign nationals from the United States’ top trading partners and
NAFTA signators — Canada and Mexico. As Figure 1 illustrates, issuances of the
E visas by the State Department to nationals of both countries accelerated as soon as
the FTAs were implemented in 1989 and 1994, respectively. In 2004, U.S. issuances
of E visas to Mexicans exceeded Canadian issuances for the first time.
Figure 1. Issuances of E Visas to Treaty Traders and Investors from
Canada and Mexico, FY1989-FY2004
1800
1600
1400
Canadians
1200
1000
Mexicans
800
600
400
200
0
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Source: CRS analysis of data from the Visa Office, Bureau of Consular Affairs,
U.S. Department of State.
NAFTA: A Canadian Illustration
When Canada and the United States implemented an FTA in 1989, some
Canadian policy makers expressed concern that the trade liberalization between the
two nations would trigger a “brain drain” of knowledge-based workers from Canada.
Others argued that the migration of professional and managerial workers is
fundamental to economic integration, and that U.S. professional and managerial
workers would likewise migrate to Canada. While some feared that labor flows
would be economically damaging to Canada, others speculated that it would benefit
Canada in the long run when these temporary workers returned to Canada with
additional professional and technical skills acquired in the United States. The core
migration questions were whether the FTA would stimulate the flow of professional
workers to the United States and whether these workers returned or became
permanent residents of the United States.

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CRS-12
Ten years after the implementation of the Canada-United States FTA, the
Canadian government asked a group of experts to assess its effects, and one of these
research studies found that the migration of skilled workers increased during this
time. In particular, Professor Steven Globerman, currently the Director of the Center
for International Business at Western Washington University, reported that the
number of Canadian professionals coming to the United States on TC/TN visas
increased by approximately 3,000 to 4,000 visas each year over the period studied.
Globerman noted that professional workers from the United States were emigrating
to Canada in higher numbers, though at a slower rate than their Canadian
counterparts. Globerman also found an increase in bilateral flows of L intracompany
transfers.31
Figure 2 illustrates the upward trends in the temporary migration of all business
and professional workers that Globerman observed between the United States and
Canada during the years that followed the entry into force of the Canada-United
States FTA. The data depicted in Figure 2 include intracompany transferees, traders
and investors as well as professional workers.32
When Globerman analyzed permanent migration flows between the two
countries, he found that the patterns of permanent migration had been fairly
consistent during the 1980s and 1990s. Globerman concluded that the trade
liberalization per se had little impact on permanent migration between the United
States and Canada. Although the magnitude of the permanent flow did not
meaningfully change, the composition of the immigration did appear to change
somewhat. Specifically, Globerman found some evidence that professional and
managerial workers comprised a larger share of the immigration to the United States
and a smaller share of the emigration from the United States over the period studied
compared with the previous period.33
31 Steven Globerman, Trade Liberalism and the Migration of Skilled Workers, Perspectives
on North American Free Trade Series No. 3, Industry Canada Research Publications, Apr.
1999. (Hereafter cited as Globerman, Trade Liberalism and the Migration of Skilled
Workers).
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid.

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CRS-13
Figure 2. Temporary Migration of Business and Professional
Workers between United States and Canada, 1989-1996
Thousands
50
40
Canada to United States
30
20
United States to Canada
10
0
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Source: CRS presentation of data from Steven Globerman (1999).
NAFTA: A Mexican Illustration
During the debate over NAFTA, some asserted that the agreement would reduce
unwanted migration (typically expressed as illegal aliens) from Mexico. They based
this argument on the assumption that the NAFTA would bolster the Mexican
economy, thereby improving employment opportunities. The result, some theorized,
was that NAFTA would reduce the “push-pull” forces that draw workers from less
developed countries to more developed countries because of better economic
prospects. This view was presented by the U.S. International Trade Commission in
its 1991 report to the House Ways and Means and the Senate Finance Committees:
An FTA is likely to decrease slightly the gap between real United States wages
and Mexican wages of both skilled and unskilled workers combined, but a
greater share of the wage adjustment would occur in Mexico than in the United
States. As wage differentials between the United States and Mexico narrow, the
incentive for migration from Mexico to the United States will decline.34
Others asserted that NAFTA would stimulate unwanted migration from Mexico.
This argument stemmed from the view that the NAFTA would destablize the
Mexican economy as it tries to compete in a free market, dislocating many workers
34 United States International Trade Commission, The Likely Impact on the United States of
a Free Trade Agreement with Mexico, USITC Publication 2353, Feb. 1991, p. viii.

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CRS-14
and farmers. The result, some theorized, was that — once these workers and farmers
were uprooted — they would be forced to seek new employment opportunities and
ultimately many would migrate to the United States.
These issues were weighed by the Commission for the Study of International
Migration and Cooperative Economic Development (International Migration
Commission) that Congress established in 1986 to examine the “push” factors in the
major source countries for illegal migration. Although the International Migration
Commission specifically recommended a U.S.-Mexican free trade agreement in its
1990 report, it stated that expanded trade and development was a long-term solution
to the problem of unauthorized migration. It noted a major paradox: “[T]he
development process itself tends to stimulate migration in the short to medium term
by raising expectations and enhancing people’s ability to migrate. Thus, the
development solution to unauthorized migration is measured in decades — even
generations.”35
Figure 3. Theorized Model of Relationship Between NAFTA and
Immigration to the United States from Mexico
Status quo
Economic Restructuring
Additional Migration
Migration avoided
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Year of Economic Restructuring
Source: CRS depiction of migration model developed by Phillip Martin (1993, 2002)
35 Commission for the Study of International Migration and Cooperative Economic
Development, Unauthorized Migration: An Economic Development Response, July 1990,
p. xxxvi.

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CRS-15
One widely discussed model, referred to as the “migration hump,” incorporated
these perspectives. Professor Philip Martin, chair of the Comparative Immigration
and Integration Program at the University of California-Davis, proposed this
migration model, depicted in Figure 3, during the debate on NAFTA in the early
1990s. Martin theorized that migration would initially increase in the years
immediately following the implementation of NAFTA and subsequently it would
diminish. Martin predicted that migration levels would be at the point they would
have been without NAFTA after about 15 years, and that over the course of 30 years
migration would be at much lower levels.36 In 2002, Philip Martin concluded “that
NAFTA will reduce unwanted Mexico-US migration in the medium to long term, as
trade becomes a substitute for migration.”37
While there are no data that accurately measure the annual flow of all migrants
from Mexico to the United States, the March Supplement of the Current Population
Survey offers limited data on migration by year of arrival. The CPS is a sample of
all persons living in the United States and, thus, includes unauthorized aliens, long-
term nonimmigrants, and legal permanent residents, as well as U.S. citizens.
Specifically, the CPS asks foreign-born residents: “When did you come to the U.S.
to stay?” The CPS data represent a sample of those foreign born who remain in the
United States. The data understate the earlier (pre-1996) migration trend because of
the emigration and death of earlier migrants. As a result, the slope of the trend line
depicted in Figure 4 is biased upward.
36 Philip Martin, Trade and Migration: NAFTA and Agriculture, Institute for International
Economics, 1993.
37 Philip Martin, Economic Integration and Migration: The Mexico-US Case, prepared for
the United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research
Conference, Sept. 2002. (Hereafter cited as Martin, Economic Integration and Migration.)

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CRS-16
Figure 4. Estimated Mexican-Born Residents of the United States by
Reported Year of Arrival, 1980-2004
Thousands
1400
Actual Arrival
Pre-1996 trend
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1980-1981
1982-1983
1984-1985
1986-1987
1988-1989
1990-1991
1992-1993
1994-1995
1996-1997
1998-1999
2000-2001
2002-2004
Source: CRS analysis of the March 2004 Supplement of the Current Population Survey.
As Figure 4 illustrates, the number of Mexican-born residents of the United
States who report that they came after 1995 (NAFTA went into force in October
1994) is substantial and resembles the “migration hump” that Philip Martin
predicted. It would be naive, however, to not acknowledge the importance of other
factors in shaping this surge. The dramatic drop in the value of the peso in 1995, for
example, is often cited as a major “push” determinant in out-migration from Mexico.
The growth of jobs in the U.S. economy during the mid- and late-1990s was an
obvious “pull” variable.
Another factor that may have contributed to the increase in Mexican residents
is a change in the INA provisions on legal permanent admission that now allows 75%
of Mexicans coming as spouses and children of legal permanent residents (LPRs) to
exceed the per-country ceiling set by law.38 Immediate relatives39 of U.S. citizens,
moreover, are exempt from direct numerical limits. As a result, Mexico consistently
38 Section 202(a)(2) of the INA (8 U.S.C. 1151) establishes per-country levels at 7% of the
worldwide level. In FY2003, the per-country ceiling was set at 27,827 and in FY2002 was
25,804.
39 “Immediate relatives” are defined by the INA to include the spouses and unmarried minor
children of U.S. citizens, and the parents of adult U.S. citizens.

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CRS-17
ranks as the top LPR sending country, with 206,426 (19.4%) in 2001, 219,380
(20.6%) in 2002 and 115,864 (16.4%) in 2003.40
In terms of illegal migration, the research points to a constellation of factors that
has contributed to the increase in unauthorized resident aliens, many of whom (an
estimated 57%) are from Mexico. Historically, unauthorized migration is generally
attributed to the “push-pull” of prosperity-fueled job opportunities in the United
States in contrast to limited or nonexistent job opportunities in the sending
countries.41 Some observers maintain that lax enforcement of employer sanctions for
hiring unauthorized aliens has facilitated this “push-pull,” but it is difficult to
empirically demonstrate this element. Although most policy makers have assumed
that tighter border enforcement would reduce unauthorized migration, some
researchers are now suggesting that the strengthening of the immigration enforcement
provisions, most notably by the enactment of the Illegal Immigration Reform and
Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA), may have inadvertently increased
the population of unauthorized resident aliens. This perspective argues that IIRIRA’s
increased penalties for illegal entry coupled with increased resources for border
enforcement have raised the stakes in crossing the border illegally and created an
incentive for those who succeed in entering the United States to stay.42
Another caveat to consider before embracing the “migration hump” model is
that all migration to the United States dropped sharply immediately after the
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks (see Appendix B for trends in non-Mexican
foreign-born residents). Post-September 11 revisions of immigration law and
procedures have slowed down the processing of immigrant petitions and visas. The
United States’ economic recession in 2001 and initially slow rebound, moreover, may
have also slowed down migration.
40 For analysis of immigration admissions categories and numerical limits, see CRS Report
RL32235, U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
41 For a discussion on estimates of how many unauthorized aliens are currently in the U.S.
workforce, see CRS Report RL32044, Immigration: Policy Considerations Related to Guest
Worker Programs, by Andorra Bruno, pp. 6-7. For trends in apprehensions of unauthorized
aliens, see CRS Report RL32562, Border Security: The Role of the U.S. Border Patrol, by
Blas Nuñez-Neto.
42 For trends in unauthorized alien migration, see CRS Report RS21938, Unauthorized
Aliens in the United States: Estimates Since 1986, by Ruth Ellen Wasem. For analysis of
the IIRIRA’s effect on unauthorized alien residents, see Wayne Cornelius, “Death at the
Border: Efficacy and Unintended Consequences of U.S. Immigration Control Policy,”
Population and Development Review, vol. 27, no. 4, Dec. 2001.

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CRS-18
Migration Trends: Countries of Proposed DR-CAFTA
As Congress considers the DR-CAFTA implementing legislation, migration
trends from these nations arise as an issue.43 There are several important differences
between the migration patterns of the DR-CAFTA countries and Mexico that would
bear on any predictions or models.
Figure 5. Estimated Costa Rican, Nicaraguan, Honduran,
Guatemalan, Salvadoran, and Dominican-Born Residents of the
United States by Reported Year of Arrival, 1980-2004
Thousands
300
250
Costa Rica
Nicaragua
200
Honduras
150
Guatemala
100
El Salvador
50
Dominican Republic
0
1980-1981
1982-1983
1984-1985
1986-1987
1988-1989
1990-1991
1992-1993
1994-1995
1996-1997
1998-1999
2000-2001
2002-2004
Source: CRS analysis of the March 2004 Supplement of the Current Population Survey.
Foremost, even when viewed as the total of all six countries, as Figure 5
depicts, migration from the DR-CAFTA countries is historically much smaller than
that from Mexico. In 2004, the number of foreign-born U.S. residents from the DR-
CAFTA countries was 2.7 million compared to 10.7 million foreign-born U.S.
residents from Mexico. Migration from Costa Rica has been so small that there was
an estimate of only 53,000 Costa Rican-born residents in 2004.
Secondly, migration from the DR-CAFTA countries has fluctuated over the past
several decades. These fluctuations are largely due to a variety of factors, including
43 For complete discussion and analysis of DR-CAFTA, see CRS Report RL31870, The
Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA),
by J. F. Hornbeck; and CRS Report RL32322, Central America and the Dominican Republic
in the Context of the Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) with the United States,
coordinated by K. Larry Storrs.

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CRS-19
political instability, civil violence, and natural disasters that have affected several of
these countries.
Selected Policy Questions
The issues of trade and immigration generate a considerable number of policy
questions and legislative issues, most of which have no direct bearing on the other,44
yet there are policy questions that arise at the nexus of immigration and trade. This
report concludes with three common policy questions and summaries of the
competing answers.
Should FTAs Expressly Expand Immigration Avenues?
Some have expressed concern that FTAs, most recently the Chile and Singapore
FTAs, included language that liberalized immigration law on temporary professional
workers and bars the United States from future statutory changes to H-1B visas as
well as other temporary business and worker nonimmigrant categories.45 Some
asserted that the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) overstepped its
authority by negotiating immigration provisions in FTAs and voiced opposition to
trade agreements that purportedly prevent Congress from revising immigration law
on temporary professional nonimmigrants. Some expressed concern that professional
workers from Chile and Singapore are held to a less stringent standard than existing
H-1B law as a result of the recent FTAs.46
Proponents of these trade agreements argue that they are merely reflecting
current immigration law and policy, and that the movement of people is subsumed
under the broader category of “provision of services” and thus an inherent part of any
free trade agreement. Such agreements on the flow of business people and workers,
they maintain, are essential to U.S. economic growth and business vitality. The
USTR states that the labor attestations, education and training fees, and numerical
limits provisions have been added to the FTAs in response to congressional concerns.
The USTR further argues that the temporary business personnel provisions in the
FTAs are not immigration policy because they only affect temporary entry.47
44 For full discussions of the range of these issues, go to the CRS Current Legislative Issues
web pages on the CRS website at [http://beta.crs.gov/cli/level_2.aspx?PRDS_CLI_ITEM_
ID=69] and [http://beta.crs.gov/cli/level_2.aspx?PRDS_CLI_ITEM_ID=23].
45 For example, if amendments to the INA altered the professional qualifications for an H-1B
visa, they might be ruled in violation of trade agreements if the changes raised the standards.
46 For examples of these perspectives, see H.Rept. 108-224, Part 2, United States-Chile Free
Trade Agreement Implementation Act, 2003.
47 For examples of these views, see U.S. Congress, Senate Judiciary, Proposed United
States-Chile and United States-Singapore Free Trade Agreements with Chile and
Singapore, July 14, 2003.

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CRS-20
Should Immigration Control Be a Condition for FTAs?
Arising initially in the context of NAFTA and Mexico, some have advocated
hinging FTAs on bilateral agreements on stronger immigration enforcement.48 Some
proponents of this view argue the immigrant-sending countries that are parties to the
agreement should agree to measures that curb the flow of migrants to the United
States, while others maintain that the agreements should include strict numerical
limits on the numbers of migrants who can enter the United States. More recently,
some opine that FTAs should include immigration enforcement measures aimed at
human trafficking and smuggling as well as terrorist tracking.49
Others argue that negotiating bilateral and multilateral immigration enforcement
measures is not the appropriate role of the USTR and is best done by other federal
departments and agencies, such as the Departments of Homeland Security and State.
Some refer to Congress’ primary role in setting U.S. immigration policy and a
longstanding preference to have country-neutral immigration policies as further
grounds to oppose inclusion of immigration enforcement provisions in FTAs.50
Should FTAs Be Considered a Policy Response
to Reduce Illegal Migration?
Some express the view that FTAs are an important policy option to reduce
unauthorized migration. In the current debate over DR-CAFTA, some are calling the
agreement “good immigration policy.” Proponents argue that trade liberalization will
improve the economies in the migrant-sending countries and reduce the “push”
factors that foster unwanted migration. As the workers’ employment opportunities
improve at home, they maintain, the workers will be less motivated to migrate.51
48 The Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR), an organization which favors
increased restrictions on immigration, criticized “the lack of any mention of illegal
immigration” as the most significant omission in NAFTA. Quoting further, “NAFTA is
about business and labor; illegal immigration is the focal point of our labor relationship with
Mexico.” FAIR argued that “explicit bilateral cooperation on immigration must be part of
any trade agreement with Mexico,” stating without further explanation that “the agreement
will lure immigrants to the border, increasing the potential number of illegal immigrants to
the U.S.,” Free Trade Agreement Ignores Key Immigration Link, FAIR Immigration Report,
Sept./Oct. 1992.
49 For an additional example of these arguments, see Jessica Vaughan, “Trade Agreements
and Immigration,” In the National Interest, Apr. 13, 2004, available online at
[http://www.cis.org/articles/2004/jessicaoped041304.html].
50 For examples of the approach, see White House Office of the Press Secretary, Fact Sheet:
Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America, Mar. 23, 2005.
51 For examples of these views, see “Statement by President George W. Bush on the Central
American and Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement,” Washington, June 23, 2005
available at [http://geneva.usmission.gov/Press2005/0623BushonCAFTA.htm]; and U.S.
Congress, House Committee on Ways and Means, Exchange of Letters on Issues
Concerning the Negotiation of a North American Free Trade Agreement, committee print,
102d Cong., 1st sess., May 1, 1991, WMCP 102-10 (Washington: GPO, May 1, 1991).

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CRS-21
Others maintain that, while this theory may prove true in the long run, FTAs are
more likely to trigger new migration, some of it illegal, for at least a generation.
They assert that this additional migration, whether temporary or permanent, will take
root and stimulate the traditional flows of family-based immigration to the United
States. Some argue that FTAs should be evaluated on the particular terms of the
agreement and not on their potential effects on unauthorized migration.52
52 For examples of these perspectives, see Martin, Economic Integration and Migration;
Jessica Vaughan, Be Our Guest: Trade Agreements and Visas, Center for Immigration
Studies, Dec. 2003; and Robert Manning, Five Years After NAFTA: Rhetoric and Reality
of Mexican Immigration in the 21st Century, Mar. 2000.

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CRS-22
Appendix A. Selected Trade and Admissions Data
for Top U.S. Trading Partners, 2004
(millions of U.S. dollars, Customs Basis)
Balance of
Entries with E, H,
Total entries
Country
trade
Total trade
L and TN visas
(Nonimmigrant)
Australia
6,727
21,815
23,434
645,234
Belgium
4,428
29,325
6,795
208,754
Brazil
-7,294
35,020
22,954
534,163
Canada
-65,765
446,091
126,295
238,897
China
-161,978
231,420
26,477
687,148
Colombia
-2,785
11,794
21,507
394,152
France
-10,574
53,054
46,817
1,241,511
Germany
-45,855
108,617
62,193
1,630,247
Hong Kong
6,496
25,123
2,588
81,237
India
-9,467
21,657
111,355
611,327
Indonesia
-8,142
13,480
1,621
72,859
Iraq
-7,658
9,371
68
2,041
Ireland
-19,276
35,608
11,821
428,209
Israel
-5,329
23,725
15,593
337,513
Italy
-17,378
38,800
19,636
759,895
Japan
-75,194
183,995
118,441
4,335,975
Korea (South)
-19,829
72,496
28,940
829,031
Malaysia
-17,288
39,082
4,039
68,712
Mexico
-45,068
266,618
133,427
4,454,061
Netherlands
11,682
36,891
16,059
607,110
Nigeria
-14,694
17,798
1,873
61,550
Philippines
-2,072
16,216
9,751
266,840
Russia
-8,889
14,806
8,369
121,774
Saudi Arabia
-15,678
26,169
256
16,091
Singapore
4,295
34,907
3,715
98,849
South Africa
-2,772
9,116
9,613
111,563
Spain
-835
14,116
15,124
542,733
Sweden
-9,421
15,952
10,067
307,827
Switzerland
-2,374
20,911
8,229
276,433
Taiwan
-12,886
56,348
(in China)
(in China)
Thailand
-11,214
23,940
104,642
82,205
United Kingdom
-10,442
82,362
117,303
4,996,211
Venezuela
-20,181
29,744
24,028
363,962
World totals
-651,521
2,289,573
1,181,799
30,781,330
Source: Table 6 in CRS Issue Brief IB96038, U.S. International Trade: Data and Forecasts, by
Dick K. Nanto and Thomas Lum; and temporary admissions data from DHS Office of Immigration
Statistics, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2004.

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CRS-23
Appendix B. Year of Arrival for Non-Mexican
Foreign-Born Residents
The March Supplement of the Current Population Survey offers limited data on
migration by year of arrival. The CPS is a representative sample of all persons living
in the United States and, thus, includes unauthorized aliens, long-term
nonimmigrants, and legal permanent residents, as well as U.S. citizens. Specifically,
the CPS asks foreign-born residents: “When did you come to the U.S. to stay?” The
CPS data represent a sample of those foreign born who still remain in the United
States as of March 2004. The data understate the earlier migration trend because of
the emigration and death of earlier migrants. As a result, the slope of the trend line
depicted in Figure 6 is biased upward.
Figure 6. Estimated Non-Mexican Foreign-Born Residents of the
United States by Reported Year of Arrival, 1980-2004
Thousands
2500
Actual Arrival
Pre-1996 Trend
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1980-1981
1982-1983
1984-1985
1986-1987
1988-1989
1990-1991
1992-1993
1994-1995
1996-1997
1998-1999
2000-2001
2002-2004
Source: CRS analysis of the March 2004 Supplement of the Current Population Survey.
As Figure 6 illustrates, the estimated number of non-Mexican foreign-born
residents of the United States who report that they came after 1995 tracks fairly
closely to the trend line based upon the numbers who came prior to 1996. Migration
to the United States dropped sharply after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.
Post-September 11 revisions of immigration law and procedures have slowed down
the processing of immigrant petitions and visas. The United States’ economic
recession in 2001 and initially slow recovery, moreover, may have also slowed down
migration.

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