Order Code IB98048
CRS Issue Brief for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Social Security Reform
Updated May 24, 2005
Dawn Nuschler
Domestic Social Policy Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

CONTENTS
SUMMARY
MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
Basic Debate
Push for Major Reform
Arguments for Retaining the Existing System
Specific Areas of Contention
System’s Financial Outlook
Public Confidence
Doubts About Money’s Worth
“Privatization” Debate
Retirement Age Issue
Cost-of-Living Adjustments (COLAs)
Social Security and the Budget
Initiatives for Change
Legislation in the 109th Congress
LEGISLATION


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Social Security Reform
SUMMARY
President Bush has highlighted Social
project that the system’s tax revenue would
Security reform as a top priority during his
fall below outgo beginning in 2017. At that
second term. The President has not presented
point, other federal receipts would be needed
a detailed plan for reform. Rather, he has put
to help meet benefit costs (by providing cash
forth guidelines for Congress to consider in
as the federal bonds held by the trust funds are
the development of legislation to create per-
redeemed). If there are no other surplus gov-
sonal accounts within a program in need of
ernmental receipts, policymakers would have
“wise and effective reform.” The President
three options: raise taxes or other income,
has acknowledged that other changes would
reduce spending, or borrow the money.
be needed to address the system’s projected
long-range funding shortfall. In recent years,
Public opinion polls that show fewer than
reform ideas have ranged from relatively
50% of respondents are confident that Social
minor changes to the current pay-as-you-go
Security can meet its long-term commitments.
social insurance system to a redesigned pro-
In addition, there is growing public perception
gram based on personal savings and
that Social Security may not be as good a
investments modeled after IRAs and 401(k)s.
value for future retirees. These concerns and
a belief that the nation must increase its na-
Currently, the Social Security system is
tional savings (partly in response to the pro-
generating surplus revenues. However, its
jected increase in the number of people age 65
board of trustees reports that, under its inter-
and older) have led to proposals to redesign
mediate (or mid-range) projections, the trust
the system.
funds would be depleted in 2041. At that
point, an estimated 74% of benefits would be
Others suggest that the system’s financial
payable with incoming receipts. On average,
outlook is not a “crisis” in need of immediate
over the next 75 years, the trustees project that
action. Supporters of the current program
the system’s costs would be 14% higher than
structure point out that the system is now
its income. By 2080, projected costs would be
running surpluses, continues to have public
43% higher than income. The primary reason
support and could be adversely affected by the
is demographic: the post-World War II baby
risk associated with some of the new reform
boomers will begin retiring in 2008 and life
ideas. They contend that only modest changes
expectancy is projected to increase. Between
are needed to restore long-range solvency to
2005 and 2025, the number of people age 65
the system.
and older is projected to grow by 69%. In
contrast, the number of workers supporting
In the 109th Congress, Representatives
the system is projected to grow by 13%.
Kolbe, Sam Johnson, Shaw, Ryan, and Wexler
and Senators Hagel and Sununu have intro-
The trustees project that surplus Social
duced reform proposals (H.R. 440, H.R. 530,
Security revenues plus interest will cause the
H.R. 750, H.R. 1776, H.R. 2472, S. 540 and
trust funds, comprised of federal bonds, to
S. 857, respectively). With the exception of
peak at $6.0 trillion in 2026. Thereafter, the
H.R. 2472, these measures would establish
system’s outgo is projected to exceed income,
personal accounts to supplement or replace
and the trust funds would be drawn down until
part of the Social Security system.
depletion in 2041. However, the trustees
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
President Bush has highlighted Social Security reform as a top priority of his second
term in office. The President has not presented a detailed reform plan. Rather, he has put
forth guidelines for Congress to consider in the development of legislation to create personal
accounts within a program in need of “wise and effective reform.”
In his 2005 State of the Union Address, the President offered the following guidelines
for reform: (1) workers born before 1950 (i.e., workers age 55 and older in 2005) would not
be affected by personal accounts or other components of reform; (2) participation in personal
accounts would be voluntary; (3) eligible workers would be allowed to redirect up to 4% of
covered earnings into a personal account, initially up to $1,000 per year; (4) a centralized
government entity would administer the accounts; and (5) workers would be required to
annuitize the portion of the account balance needed to provide at least a poverty-level stream
of life-long income, with any remaining balance available as a lump sum.
In addition to stating his support for personal accounts as part of the creation of an
“ownership society,” the President acknowledged that other changes would be needed to
address the system’s projected long-range funding shortfall. The President cited several
potential program changes that would be on the table for consideration: (1) raising the full
retirement age; (2) reducing benefits for wealthy recipients; and (3) modifying the benefit
formula. The only approach that has been ruled out by the President is an increase in the
payroll tax rate.
On April 28, 2005, during a television news conference, President Bush proposed a
change in the Social Security benefit formula in which future “benefits for low-income
workers will grow faster than benefits for people who are better off.” Although details of the
proposal have not been released, a White House press statement indicates that the President’s
proposal is similar to one put forth by Robert Pozen, a former member of the 2001
President’s Commission to Strengthen Social Security appointed by President Bush. Stated
generally, Mr. Pozen’s proposal, known as “progressive indexing,” would index initial
benefits for low earners to wage growth (as under current law), index initial benefits for high
earners to price growth (resulting in lower projected benefits compared to current-law
promised benefits), and index benefits for middle earners to a combination of wage growth
and price growth. Mr. Pozen discussed his proposal in testimony before the Senate Finance
Committee on April 26, 2005 (Mr. Pozen’s testimony is available on the committee’s
website at [http://finance.senate.gov/hearings/testimony/2005test/ptest042605.pdf]). In
addition, the President restated his support for voluntary personal accounts funded with a
portion of payroll taxes as part of a reform package.
In the 109th Congress, Representatives Kolbe, Sam Johnson, Shaw, Ryan, and Wexler
and Senators Hagel and Sununu have introduced reform proposals (H.R. 440, H.R. 530, H.R.
750, H.R. 1776, H.R. 2472, S. 540 and S. 857, respectively). With the exception of H.R.
2472, these measures would establish a system of personal accounts to supplement or replace
part of the Social Security system.
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BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
President Bush’s initiative to restructure Social Security through the creation of personal
accounts has moved the policy issue to the forefront of the political debate. The President
advocates a system in which benefits would be based increasingly on what is referred to as
a pre-funded system through personal savings and investments with the creation of personal
accounts. He has pointed to the system’s projected long-range deficit as a driver for change
in conjunction with his vision of an “ownership society.” Most Democrats support
maintaining the current structure of the program (a system of defined benefits funded on a
pay-as-you-go basis). Democrats have pointed to the system’s long-range financial
projections to support their view that the system is not in “crisis,” and that only modest
changes aimed at supporting the current structure may be needed.
Currently, Social Security income exceeds outgo. The Social Security Board of
Trustees (comprised of three officers of the President’s Cabinet, the Commissioner of Social
Security, and two public representatives) projects that, on average over the next 75 years,
Social Security outgo will exceed income by 14% and by 2041 the trust funds would be
depleted (based on the intermediate, or mid-range, projections). At that point, revenues
would pay for an estimated 74% of program costs. One of the main reasons is demographic:
the leading edge of the post-World War II baby boom generation will begin retiring in 2008
and projected increases in life expectancy will contribute to an older society. Between 2005
and 2025, the number of people age 65 and older is predicted to increase by 69%, while the
number of workers whose taxes will finance future benefits is projected to increase by only
13%. As a result, the number of workers supporting each recipient is projected to decline
from 3.3 today to 2.3 in 2025.
Social Security revenues are paid into the U.S. Treasury and most of the proceeds are
used to pay for benefits. Surplus revenue is invested in federal securities recorded to the Old
Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI, the formal name for Social Security) trust
funds maintained by the Treasury Department. Social Security benefits and administrative
costs are paid out of the Treasury and a corresponding amount of trust fund securities are
redeemed. Whenever current Social Security taxes are insufficient to pay benefits, the trust
fund’s securities are redeemed and Treasury makes up the difference with other receipts.
Currently, Social Security tax revenues exceed what is needed to pay benefits. These
surpluses and interest credited to the trust funds in the form of government bonds appear as
growing trust fund balances. The trustees project that the trust fund balances will peak at
$6.0 trillion in 2026, after which the system’s outgo would exceed income and the trust fund
balances would begin to decline. By 2041, the trust funds would be exhausted and
technically insolvent. By 2017, Social Security tax revenue (i.e., excluding interest credited
to the trust funds) would fall below the system’s outgo. Because interest credited to the trust
funds is an exchange of credits between Treasury accounts — and not a resource for the
government — other federal receipts would be needed to meet the system’s costs starting in
2017 (in other words, the government would begin redeeming bonds held by the trust funds).
At that point, policymakers would have three options: raise taxes, reduce spending, or
borrow the money from the public (i.e., replace bonds held by the trust funds with bonds held
by the public). The system’s reliance on general revenues is projected to be $64 billion by
2020 and $256 billion by 2030 (in constant 2005 dollars).
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Today, the annual cost of the system ($527 billion) is equal to 11.13% of workers’ pay
subject to Social Security taxation (or taxable payroll). It is projected to increase slowly over
the next several years, reaching 11.93% of payroll in 2013. It would then rise more
precipitously to 15.55% in 2025 and 17.37% in 2035, as the baby boomers retire. Afterward,
the system’s cost would rise slowly to 19.12% of payroll in 2080. Over the entire period
(2005-2079), the system’s average cost would be 15.79% of payroll, or 14% higher than its
average income. However, the gap between income and outgo would grow throughout the
period and by 2080 income would equal 13.38% of taxable payroll, outgo would equal
19.12% of taxable payroll, and the gap would equal 5.75% of taxable payroll. By 2080,
outgo would exceed income by 43%.
This projected long-range financial outlook is mirrored in public opinion polls that show
fewer than 50% of respondents express confidence in Social Security’s ability to meet its
long-term commitments. There is a growing public perception that Social Security may not
be as good a value in the future. Until recent years, retirees could expect to receive more in
benefits than they paid in Social Security taxes. However, because Social Security tax rates
have increased to cover the costs of a maturing “pay-as you-go” system, these ratios have
become less favorable. Such concerns and a belief that the nation must increase national
savings to meet the needs of an increasingly elderly society have led to proposals to reform
the system.
Supporters of the current program structure suggest that the issues confronting the
system are not as serious as sometimes portrayed and believe there is no imminent crisis.
They point out that the system is now running surpluses, that there continues to be public
support for the program, and there would be considerable risk in some of the new reform
ideas. They contend that relatively modest changes could restore long-range solvency to the
system.
Basic Debate
The Social Security system has faced funding shortfalls in the past. In 1977 and 1983,
Congress enacted a variety of measures to address the system’s financial imbalance. These
measures include constraints on the growth of initial benefit levels, a gradual increase in the
full retirement age from 65 to 67 (i.e., the age at which unreduced benefits are payable),
payroll tax increases, taxation of benefits for higher-income recipients, and extension of
Social Security coverage to federal and nonprofit workers. Subsequently, projections showed
the re-emergence of long-term deficits as a result of changes in actuarial methods and
assumptions, and because program changes had been evaluated with respect to their effect
on the average 75-year deficit. That is, while program changes were projected to restore
trust fund solvency on average over the 75-year period, a period of surpluses was followed
by a period of deficits.
Some policymakers believe that some type of action should be taken sooner rather than
later. This view has been shared by the Social Security trustees and other recent panels and
commissions that have examined the problem. In recent years, a wide range of interest
groups have echoed this view in testimony before Congress. However, there is no consensus
on whether the projections represent a “crisis.” In 1977 and 1983, the trust fund balances
were projected to fall to zero within a very short period (within months of the 1983 reforms).
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Today, the problem is perceived to be as few as 12 or as many as 36 years away. Lacking
a “crisis,” the pressure to compromise is diffused and the issues and the divergent views
about them have led to myriad complex proposals. In 1977 and 1983, the debate was not
about fundamental reform. Rather, it revolved around how to raise the system’s income and
constrain costs. Today, the ideas range from restoring the system’s solvency with as few
alterations as possible to replacing it entirely with something modeled after IRAs or 401(k)s.
This broad spectrum was clearly reflected in the 1997 Social Security Advisory Council
report, which presented three different reform plans. None of the three plans was supported
by a majority of the council’s 13 members. Similar diversity is reflected in the Social
Security reform bills introduced in recent Congresses.
Push for Major Reform. Advocates of reform view Social Security as an
anachronism, built on depression-era concerns about high unemployment and widespread
“dependency” among the aged. They see the prospect of reform today as an opportunity to
modernize the way society saves for retirement. They maintain that the vast economic, social
and demographic changes that have transpired over the past 68 years require the system to
change, and they point to changes made in other countries that now use market-based
personal accounts to strengthen retirement incomes and bolster their economies by spurring
savings and investments. They believe government-run, pay-as-you-go systems are
unsustainable in aging societies. They prefer a system that allows workers to acquire wealth
and provide for their retirement by investing in personal accounts.
They also view it as a way to counter skepticism about the current system by giving
workers a greater sense of ownership of their retirement savings. They contend that private
investments would yield larger retirement incomes because stocks and bonds have provided
higher returns than are projected from the current system. Some believe that personal
accounts would address what they view as the system’s contradictory mix of insurance and
social welfare goals (although benefits are not based strictly on a worker’s contributions,
many of its social benefits go to financially well-off individuals in the absence of a means
test). Others maintain that creating a system of personal accounts would prevent the
government from using surplus Social Security taxes for other government spending.
Others, who do not necessarily seek a new system, view enactment of long-range Social
Security constraints as one way to curb federal entitlement spending. The aging of society
means that the cost of entitlement programs that aid the elderly will increase greatly in the
future. The costs of the largest entitlement programs, Social Security, Medicare, and
Medicaid, are directly linked to an aging population. Proponents of imposing constraints on
these programs express concern that, if left unchecked, their costs would place a large strain
on the federal treasury far into the future, consuming resources that could be used for other
priorities and forcing future generations to bear a much higher tax burden.
As a matter of fairness, it has been pointed out that many of today’s recipients get back
more than the value of their Social Security contributions, and far more than the baby boom
generation will receive. They believe that to delay making changes to the program is unfair
to today’s workers, who must pay for “transfer” payments that they characterize as
“overgenerous” and unrelated to need, while facing the prospect that their own benefits may
have to be scaled back severely. Others emphasize the system’s projected long-range
funding shortfall and contend that steps should be taken soon (e.g., raising the full retirement
age, constraining future growth in initial monthly benefits, reducing COLAs, raising taxes)
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so that changes can be phased in, allowing workers more time to adjust their retirement
expectations/plans to reflect what these programs will be able to provide in the future.
Otherwise, they maintain that more abrupt changes in taxes and benefits would be required.
Arguments for Retaining the Existing System. Those who favor a more
restrained approach believe that the issues facing the system can be resolved with modest tax
and spending changes, and that the program’s critics are raising the specter that Social
Security will “bankrupt the Nation” in order to undermine public support and to provide an
excuse to “privatize” it. They contend that personal savings accounts would erode the social
insurance nature of the current system that favors low-income workers, survivors and the
disabled.
Others are concerned that switching to a new system of personal accounts would pose
large transitional problems by requiring today’s younger workers to save for their own
retirement while paying taxes to cover benefits for current retirees. Some doubt that it would
increase national savings, arguing that higher government debt (resulting from the redirection
of current payroll taxes to personal accounts) would offset the increased personal account
savings. They also contend that the capital markets’ inflow created by the accounts would
make the markets difficult to regulate and potentially distort equity valuations. They point
out that some of the countries that have moved to personal accounts did so to create capital
markets. Such markets, they argue, are already well developed in the United States.
Some believe that a system of personal accounts would expose participants to excessive
market risk for an income source that has become so essential to many of the nation’s elderly.
They say that the nation now has a three-tiered retirement system — Social Security, private
pensions and personal assets — that already has private saving and investment components.
They contend that while people may want and be able to undertake some “risk” in the latter
two tiers, Social Security — as the tier that provides a basic floor of protection — should be
more stable. They further contend that the administrative costs of maintaining personal
accounts could be very large and significantly erode their value.
Some say that concerns about future growth in entitlement spending are overblown,
arguing that as people live longer, they will work longer as labor markets tighten and
employers offer inducements for them to remain on the job. They state that a projected low
ratio of workers to dependents is not unprecedented, as it existed when the baby boomers
were in their youth.
Specific Areas of Contention
System’s Financial Outlook. There are conflicting views about the severity of
Social Security’s projected funding shortfall. Some maintain that the problem is more acute
than has been portrayed traditionally (e.g., as having an average 75-year deficit of 14%, or
1.92% of taxable payroll). They believe this view is supported by a new portrayal in the
trustees report showing that, if projections are extended beyond the 75-year window, the
status of the program is even more dire (i.e., the projected long-range deficit over the
“infinite horizon” would be 3.5% of taxable payroll). They also point out that the system’s
costs are projected to exceed receipts by 3.54% of taxable payroll in 2030 (a difference of
27% between the system’s projected income — 13.20% of taxable payroll — and the
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system’s projected cost — 16.74% of taxable payroll). In 2080, the gap would be 5.75% of
taxable payroll (a difference of 43% between the system’s projected income — 13.38% of
taxable payroll — and the system’s projected cost — 19.12% of taxable payroll). Thus, on
a pay-as-you-go basis, the system would need much more than a 14% change in taxes or
expenditures over the next 75 years to cover projected program costs. They maintain that
viewing the problem as 36 years away (because the trust funds would have a balance until
2041) does not take into account the financial pressure Social Security will exert on the
government beginning in 2017 when projected expenditures would exceed tax revenue. At
that point, the government would have to rely on other resources to help cover program costs,
resources that could be used to finance other governmental functions.
Others express concern that the problem is being exaggerated. First, they maintain that
in contrast to earlier episodes of financial imbalance, the system has no immediate problem.
Surplus tax receipts are projected for 12 years and the trust funds are projected to have a
balance for 36 years. They state that projections for the next 75 years, let alone the indefinite
future, cannot be viewed with any significant degree of confidence and Congress should
respond to them cautiously. They maintain that even if the 75-year projections hold, the
average imbalance could be eliminated by increasing the payroll tax rate immediately by 0.96
percentage point on both employees and employers. They point out that as a share of GDP,
projections show that the system’s cost would increase from 4.26% today to 6.14% in 2030.
While acknowledging that this would be a notably larger share of GDP, they point out that
GDP itself would have risen substantially in real terms. Moreover, while the ratio of workers
to recipients is projected to decline, they believe that employers are likely to respond with
inducements for older workers to stay on the job longer. Phased-in retirements are becoming
more prevalent, and older workers are increasingly viewing retirement as something other
than an all-or-nothing decision.
Congressional Budget Office (CBO) projections released in March 2005 (Updated
Long-Term Projections for Social Security) provide a somewhat more favorable long-range
outlook for the Social Security system. CBO projects that the system will begin running cash
flow deficits in 2020 (3 years later than the trustees’ projections), and that the trust funds will
remain solvent until 2052 (11 years later than the trustees’ projections). At that point, annual
revenues would be sufficient to cover an estimated 78% of promised benefits. In its June
2004 report (The Outlook for Social Security), CBO noted that, despite the differences
between their projections and those of the trustees, the basic conclusion is the same —
“under current law, the program will generate a sustained and significant demand for
budgetary resources” [page 29]. CBO’s March 2005 report may be accessed at
[http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/60xx/doc6064/03-03-LongTermProjections.pdf]; the June 2004
report may be accessed at [http://www.cbo.gov/showdoc.cfm?index=5530&sequence=
=0&from=7].
Public Confidence. Recent polls have shown that a majority of Americans lack
confidence in the system’s ability to meet its future commitments. While skepticism abated
following enactment of legislation in 1983 to shore up the system, it has risen again with just
over half of the public now expressing a lack of confidence [CBS News/New York Times
Poll
, November 2004]. Younger workers are particularly skeptical. For example, 62% of
persons ages 18-34, 56% of persons ages 35-44, and 49% of persons ages 45-54 expressed
a lack of confidence in the system’s ability to pay promised benefits in the future, compared
to 16% of persons age 55 and older [Newsweek Poll, February 2005].
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Some observers express caution about inferring too much from polling data, arguing
that public understanding of Social Security is limited and often inaccurate. They maintain
that a major reason confidence is highest among older persons is that, being more
immediately affected, they have learned more about the program. In 1995, the Social
Security Administration began phasing in a system to provide annual statements to workers,
which some believe will make workers more aware of their promised benefits and thus more
trusting of the system. Others, however, suggest that skepticism is justified by the system’s
repeated financial difficulties and diminished “money’s worth” for younger workers.
Doubts About Money’s Worth. Until recent years, Social Security recipients
received more, often far more, than the value of the Social Security taxes they paid.
However, because Social Security tax rates have increased over the years and the full
retirement age (the age at which unreduced benefits are first payable) is being increased
gradually, it is becoming more apparent that Social Security will be less of a good deal for
many future retirees. For example, for workers who earned average wages and retired in
1980 at age 65, it took 2.8 years to recover the value of the retirement portion of the
combined employee and employer shares of their Social Security taxes plus interest. For
their counterparts who retired at age 65 in 2003, it will take 17.4 years. For those retiring in
2020, it will take 21.6 years (based on the trustees’ 2003 intermediate forecast). Some
observers believe these discrepancies are inequitable and cite them as evidence that the
system needs to be substantially restructured.
Others discount this phenomenon, viewing Social Security as a social insurance
program serving social ends that transcend questions of whether some individuals do better
than others. For example, the program’s anti-poverty features replace a higher proportion
of earnings for low-paid workers and provide additional benefits for workers with families.
Also, today’s workers who will receive less direct value from their taxes than today’s
retirees, have in large part been relieved from having to support their parents, and many
elderly are able to live independently and with dignity. These observers contend that the
value of these aspects of the system is not reflected in simple comparisons of taxes and
benefits.
“Privatization” Debate. Social Security’s projected long-range financing problems,
skepticism about the sustainability of the current system, and a belief that economic growth
could be bolstered through increased savings have led to a number of proposals to “privatize”
part or all of the system, reviving a philosophical debate that dates back to its creation in
1935. All three plans presented by the 1994-1996 Social Security Advisory Council featured
program involvement in the financial markets. The first called upon Congress to consider
authorizing investment of part of the Social Security trust funds in equities (on the
assumption that stocks would produce a higher return to the system). The second would
require workers to contribute an extra 1.6% of pay to personal accounts to make up for Social
Security benefit reductions called for under the plan to restore the system’s long-range
solvency. The third would redesign the system by gradually replacing Social Security
retirement benefits with flat-rate benefits based on length of service and personal accounts
(funded with 5 percentage points of the current Social Security tax rate).
The reform that Chile enacted in 1981, which replaced a troubled pay-as-you-go system
with one requiring workers to invest part of their earnings in personal accounts through
government-approved pension funds, has been reflected in a number of reform bills
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introduced in recent Congresses. These measures would permit or require workers to invest
some or all of their Social Security tax into personal accounts. Most call for future Social
Security benefits to be reduced or forfeited. Similarly, the three options presented by the
commission appointed by President Bush in 2001 would allow workers to participate in
personal accounts and would reduce their eventual Social Security benefit by the projected
value of the account based on a specified (rather than the actual) rate of return.
Another approach is reflected in bills that would require any budget surpluses to be used
to finance personal accounts to supplement Social Security benefits for those who pay Social
Security taxes. President Clinton’s January 1999 reform plan would have allocated a portion
of budget surpluses to personal accounts, supplemented by a worker’s own contributions and
a government match (scaled to income). The plan also called for the redirection of a portion
of budget surpluses, or the interest savings resulting therefrom, to the Social Security trust
funds. Some of the funds would be used to acquire stocks, similar to the approach suggested
in one of the Advisory Council plans and in some recent bills. Most of these approaches
would require establishment of an independent board to invest some of the funds in stocks
or corporate bonds and the remaining funds in federal securities.
Some personal account proponents believe that personal accounts would reduce future
financial demands on government and reassure workers by giving them a sense of ownership
of their retirement savings. Others believe that personal accounts would enhance workers’
retirement income because stocks and bonds generally have provided higher rates of return
than are projected from Social Security. In concert with this, they maintain that personal
accounts would increase national savings and promote economic growth. Others maintain
that personal accounts would prevent the government from using surplus Social Security
revenues to “mask” public borrowing, or for other spending or tax reductions. Generally,
proponents of personal accounts express concern that investing the Social Security trust
funds in the markets would concentrate too much economic power in a government-
appointed board.
Opponents of personal accounts maintain that Social Security’s long-range financing
problems could be resolved without altering the program’s fundamental nature. They
express concern that replacing Social Security with personal accounts would erode the social
insurance aspects of the system that favor low-wage earners, survivors and the disabled.
Others are concerned that personal accounts would pose large transition problems by
requiring today’s younger workers to save for their own retirement while simultaneously
paying taxes to support current retirees, and would further exacerbate current budget deficits.
Some doubt that personal accounts would increase national savings, maintaining that any
increase in private savings would be offset by increased government borrowing. They also
point out that the investment pool created by the accounts could be difficult to regulate and
distort capital markets and equity valuations. Still others view it as exposing participants to
excessive market risk for something as essential as core retirement benefits and, unlike
Social Security, as providing poor protection against inflation. Many prefer “collective”
investment of the Social Security trust funds in the markets to potentially bolster their returns
and spread the risks of poor performance broadly.
Retirement Age Issue. Raising the Social Security retirement age is often
considered as a way to help restore long-range solvency to the system. Much of the growth
in Social Security’s costs is a result of increasing life expectancy. Since benefits were first
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paid in 1940, life expectancy for 65-year-old men and women has risen from 12.7 and 14.7
years, respectively, to 17.0 and 19.7 years, respectively. By 2030, it is projected to be 18.5
and 21.2 years, respectively. This trend bolstered arguments for increasing the full retirement
age as a way to achieve savings when the system was facing major financial problems in the
early 1980s. Congress raised the “full benefit” age from 65 to 67 as part of the Social
Security Amendments of 1983 (P.L. 98-21). This change is being phased in starting with
those born in 1938, with the full two-year hike affecting those born after 1959. The 1983
amendments did not raise the early retirement age (age 62), but the benefit reduction for
persons who retire at age 62 will increase from 20% to 30%. Proponents of raising the early
and/or full retirement age view it as reasonable in light of projected increases in life
expectancy. Opponents believe it will penalize workers who already get a worse deal from
Social Security than do current retirees, those who work in arduous occupations, and racial
minorities and others who have shorter life expectancies.
Cost-of-Living Adjustments (COLAs). Social Security benefits are adjusted
annually to reflect inflation as measured by the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ (BLS) Consumer
Price Index (CPI), which measures price increases for selected goods and services. The CPI
has been criticized for overstating the effects of inflation, primarily because the index’s
market basket of goods and services was not revised regularly to reflect changes in consumer
buying habits or improvements in quality. A BLS analysis in 1993 found that the annual
overstatement might be as much as 0.6 percentage points. CBO estimated in 1994 that the
overstatement ranged from 0.2 to 0.8 percentage points. A 1996 panel that studied the issue
for the Senate Finance Committee argued that it might be 1.1 percentage points.
In response to its own analysis as well as the outside criticisms, the BLS has since made
various revisions to the CPI. To some extent, these revisions may account for part of the
slower CPI growth seen in recent years. However, calls for adjustments continue. According
to the Social Security Administration, a COLA reduction of 0.5 percentage point annually
would improve the system’s long-range actuarial balance by an estimated 42%. A COLA
reduction of 1 percentage point annually would improve the long-range actuarial balance by
an estimated 80% (based on the trustees’ 2004 intermediate projections). While some view
further CPI changes as necessary to help keep Social Security and other entitlement spending
under control, others view such changes as a backdoor way of reducing benefits. They
maintain that the market basket of goods and services purchased by the elderly is different
from that of the general population around whom the CPI is constructed. It is more heavily
weighted with healthcare expenditures, which rise notably faster than the overall CPI, and
thus they contend that the cost of living for the elderly is higher than reflected by the CPI.
Social Security and the Budget. By law, Social Security is considered to be “off
budget” for many aspects of developing and enforcing annual budget goals. However, it is
still a federal program and its income and outgo help shape the year-to-year financial
condition of the government. As a result, policymakers often focus on “unified” or overall
budget totals that include Social Security. When President Clinton urged that then-projected
unified budget surpluses be reserved until Social Security’s long-range financing problems
were resolved, and proposed using a portion of those surpluses to shore up the system, Social
Security’s budget treatment became a major issue. Congressional views about what to do
with the surpluses were diverse, ranging from “buying down” publicly-held federal debt to
cutting taxes to increasing spending. However, support for setting aside a portion equal to
the annual Social Security trust fund surpluses was substantial. While projected budget
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deficits have re-emerged, there remains some congressional interest in the concept of a Social
Security “lock box.”
Initiatives for Change
The 1994-1996 Social Security Advisory Council presented three different approaches
to restore long-range solvency to the system, none of which was endorsed by a majority of
council members. The first (the “maintain benefits” plan) would maintain the system’s
current benefit structure by increasing revenue (including an eventual increase in the payroll
tax) and making minor benefit reductions. It was also suggested that a portion of the Social
Security trust funds be invested in stocks. The second (the “individual account” plan)
addressed the problem mostly with benefit reductions, and in addition would require workers
to make an extra 1.6% of pay contribution to new personal accounts. The third (the
“personal security account” plan) proposed a major redesign of the system that would
gradually replace the current earnings-related retirement benefit with a flat-rate benefit based
on length of service and establish personal accounts funded by redirecting 5 percentage
points of the current payroll tax. It would cover transition costs with an increase in payroll
taxes of 1.52% of pay and government borrowing. The conceptual approaches incorporated
in the Council’s plans are reflected in many of the reform bills introduced in recent
Congresses.
In his last three years in office, President Clinton repeatedly called for using Social
Security’s share of then-projected budget surpluses to reduce publicly-held federal debt and
crediting the trust funds for the reduction. In his 1999 State of the Union message, he
proposed crediting $2.8 trillion of some $4.9 trillion in budget surpluses projected for the
next 15 years to the trust funds — nearly $.6 trillion was to be invested in stocks, the rest in
federal securities. The plan was estimated to keep the system solvent until 2059. Concerns
were raised that the plan would be crediting the Social Security trust funds twice for its
surpluses, and that the plan would lead to government ownership of private companies.
Clinton further proposed that $.5 trillion of the budget surpluses be used to create new
Universal Savings Accounts (USAs) — 401(k)-like accounts intended to supplement Social
Security. In June 1999, he revised his plan by calling for general fund infusions to the trust
funds equal to the interest savings achieved by using Social Security’s share of the budget
surpluses to reduce federal debt. The infusions were to be invested in stocks until the stock
portion of the trust funds’ holdings reached 15%. In October 1999, he revised the plan again
by dropping the stock investment idea — all the infusions were to be invested in federal
bonds. His last plan, offered in January 2000, was similar but again called for investing up
to 15% of the trust funds in stock.
In May 2001, President Bush appointed a commission to make recommendations to
reform Social Security. As principles for reform, the President stated that any plan for
reform must preserve the benefits of current retirees and older workers, return Social Security
to a firm financial footing, and allow younger workers to invest in personal savings accounts.
The commission issued a final report on December 21, 2001, which included three reform
options. Each option would allow workers to participate in voluntary personal accounts and
reduce their eventual Social Security benefit by the projected value of the account based on
a specified (rather than the actual) rate of return. The first option would allow workers to
redirect 2% of taxable earnings to these accounts, but would make no other changes. The
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second option would allow workers to redirect 4% of taxable earnings, up to an annual limit
of $1,000; reduce future benefits by indexing their growth to prices rather than wages; and
increase benefits to low-paid workers and widow(er)s. The third option would allow workers
to contribute an additional 1% of taxable earnings and receive a government match of 2.5%
up to an annual limit of $1,000; reduce future benefits by indexing their growth to increases
in longevity and, for high-paid workers, by modifying the benefit formula; and increase
benefits for low-paid workers and widow(er)s.
During his second term in office, President Bush has highlighted Social Security reform
as one of his top priorities. The President has not presented a detailed plan for reform.
Rather, he has put forth guidelines for Congress to consider in the development of legislation
to create personal accounts within a program in need of “wise and effective reform.”
During the 2005 State of the Union Address, the President offered the following
guidelines for reform: (1) workers born before 1950 (i.e., workers age 55 and older in 2005)
would not be affected by personal accounts or other components of reform; (2) participation
in personal accounts would be voluntary; (3) eligible workers would be allowed to redirect
up to 4% of covered earnings into a personal account, initially up to $1,000 per year; (4) a
centralized government entity would administer the accounts; and (5) workers would be
required to annuitize the portion of the account balance needed to provide at least a poverty-
level stream of life-long income, with any remaining balance available as a lump sum.
While restating his support for personal accounts as part of the creation of an
“ownership society,” the President acknowledged that other changes would be needed to
address the system’s projected long-range funding shortfall. The President cited several
potential program changes that would be on the table for consideration: (1) raising the full
retirement age; (2) reducing benefits for wealthy recipients; and (3) modifying the benefit
formula. The only approach that has been ruled out by the President is an increase in the
payroll tax rate.
On April 28, 2005, during a television news conference, President Bush proposed a
change in the Social Security benefit formula in which future “benefits for low-income
workers will grow faster than benefits for people who are better off.” Although details of the
proposal have not been released, a White House press statement indicates that the President’s
proposal is similar to one put forth by Robert Pozen, a former member of the 2001
President’s Commission to Strengthen Social Security appointed by President Bush. Stated
generally, Mr. Pozen’s proposal, known as “progressive indexing,” would index initial
benefits for low earners to wage growth (as under current law), index initial benefits for high
earners to price growth (resulting in lower projected benefits compared to current-law
promised benefits), and index benefits for middle earners to a combination of wage growth
and price growth. Mr. Pozen discussed his proposal in testimony before the Senate Finance
Committee on April 26, 2005 (Mr. Pozen’s testimony is available on the web at
[http://finance.senate.gov/hearings/testimony/2005test/ptest042605.pdf]). In addition, the
President restated his support for voluntary personal accounts funded with a portion of
payroll taxes as part of a reform package.
Legislation in the 109th Congress. Representatives Kolbe and Boyd introduced
H.R. 440 on February 1, 2005. For workers under age 55, the measure would redirect 3%
of the first $10,000 of covered earnings (indexed to average wage growth) and 2% of
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remaining covered earnings to mandatory personal accounts. Workers would be allowed to
make additional contributions of up to $5,000 annually (indexed to inflation), and lower-paid
workers would be eligible to receive an additional credit toward their account of up to $600.
With respect to traditional Social Security benefits, the measure would constrain the
growth in initial monthly benefits for future retirees by indexing initial benefits to increases
in life expectancy (rather than wage growth). In addition, the measure would: accelerate the
currently scheduled increase in the full retirement age from 65 to 67; include 40 years of
earnings (rather than the highest 35) to compute benefits; reduce cost-of-living adjustments;
set widow(er)s’ benefits equal to 75% of the couple’s combined pre-death benefit (rather
than 50%-67%); limit benefits for spouses of higher earners; and provide a minimum benefit
tied to the poverty level for workers with at least 40 years of earnings.
With respect to tax changes, the measure would increase the taxable wage base
gradually so that 87% of covered earnings are taxable. In addition, it would credit all of the
revenue from the taxation of Social Security benefits to the Social Security trust funds
(instead of crediting part to Medicare).
The measure would establish a central authority to administer the accounts and provide
initial investment options similar to the federal Thrift Savings Plan. Once the account
balance reaches $7,500 (indexed to inflation), the worker would be allowed to choose among
a broader range of centrally-managed investment options. The personal account would
become available at retirement, or earlier if the account balance is sufficient to provide a
payment at least equal to 185% of the poverty level. The worker would be required to
annuitize the portion of the account balance needed to provide a combined monthly payment
(traditional benefit plus annuity) at least equal to 185% of the poverty level. Any remaining
balance could be taken as a lump sum.
Representative Sam Johnson introduced H.R. 530 on February 2, 2005. The measure
would allow workers ages 21-54 to redirect 6.2 percentage points of the payroll tax to
voluntary personal accounts. Participation in personal accounts would be mandatory for
persons under age 21. Workers who participate in personal accounts would no longer accrue
benefits under the traditional system and would be issued a marketable “recognition bond”
equal to the value of benefits already accrued under the current system. The measure would
provide workers who participate in personal accounts a minimum benefit equal to a specified
percent of the poverty level, ranging from 100% for workers with at least 35 years of
earnings to 0% for workers with 10 years of earnings.
Workers who choose not to participate in personal accounts would remain in the current
system, however, initial monthly benefits would be lower than those promised under current
law. The measure would constrain the growth in initial monthly benefits for future retirees
by indexing initial benefits to price growth (rather than wage growth).
H.R. 530 would establish a central authority to administer the accounts and provide at
least three initial investment options with specified allocations in equities and fixed income
instruments (government bonds, corporate bonds), including a default 60/40 investment mix.
Once the account balance reaches $10,000 (indexed to inflation), the worker would be
allowed to transfer the balance to a private financial institution. The personal account would
become available at retirement, or earlier if the account balance is sufficient to provide an
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annuity at least equal to 100% of the poverty level. When the account reaches this level, the
worker may opt out of Social Security (i.e., no longer pay the employee’s share of the payroll
tax). The worker would be required to annuitize the portion of the account balance needed
to provide an annuity at least equal to 100% of the poverty level. Any remaining balance
may be taken as a lump sum. If the balance is not sufficient to provide the prescribed
minimum payment, a supplemental payment to the account would be made from general
revenues.
Representative Shaw introduced H.R. 750 on February 10, 2005. The measure would
allow workers ages 18 and older to participate in voluntary personal accounts funded with
general revenues. Account contributions would be equal to 4% of taxable earnings, up
to$1,000 (indexed to wage growth).
With respect to traditional Social Security benefits, the measure would provide up to
five years of earnings credits for workers who stay at home to care for a child(ren) under age
seven and eliminate the earnings test for recipients below the full retirement age. In addition,
it would set widow(er)’s benefits equal to 75% of the couple’s combined pre-death benefit
(compared to 50%-67%); allow widow(er)s to qualify for benefits based on disability
regardless of age and when the disability occurred; and lower the Social Security
spousal/widow(er)’s benefit reduction under the Government Pension Offset from two-thirds
to one-third of the individual’s pension from noncovered employment.
Under H.R. 750, accounts would be administered by private financial institutions
selected by the government. The measure would provide three initial investment options
with specified allocations in equities and corporate bonds (60/40, 65/35, and 70/30). The
personal account would become available upon the worker’s entitlement to retirement or
disability benefits, or upon the worker’s death. Upon entitlement to benefits, the worker
would receive a lump sum equal to 5% of the account balance. The remaining balance would
be used to finance some or all of the worker’s benefit. The account balance would be
withdrawn gradually and transferred to the trust funds for the payment of monthly benefits.
The measure would guarantee the worker the higher of a current-law promised benefit and
an annuity based on 95% of the account balance, plus a lump sum equal to 5% of the account
balance.
Senator Hagel introduced S. 540 on March 7, 2005. The measure would allow workers
born in 1961 and later to redirect 4 percentage points of the payroll tax to voluntary personal
accounts. Workers would be enrolled automatically in the personal account system and
given the option to disenroll.
With respect to traditional Social Security benefits, the measure would constrain the
growth in initial monthly benefits for future retirees by indexing initial benefits to increases
in life expectancy (rather than wage growth). The benefit reduction would not apply to
surviving children or surviving spouses with a child in care. While the benefit reduction
would not apply to disabled workers below the full retirement age, a pro-rated reduction
would apply to disabled workers when they are converted from the disability to the
retirement rolls at the full retirement age. In addition, the measure would raise the full
retirement age from 67 to 68 for persons born in 1961 and later. It would increase the early
retirement reduction factors and delayed retirement credits.
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For account participants, the traditional Social Security benefit would be offset by an
amount equal to the annuity value of a hypothetical (or “shadow”) account assumed to earn
a 3% real rate of return.
S. 540 would establish a central authority to administer the accounts and initially
provide 5 investment options as under the federal Thrift Savings Plan. The personal account
would become available at retirement, or in the event of the worker’s death. Upon
entitlement to benefits, the worker would be required to annuitize the portion of the account
balance needed to provide a combined monthly payment (traditional benefit plus annuity) at
least equal to 135% of the poverty level. Any remaining balance could be withdrawn in a
manner chosen by the worker.
Senator Sununu introduced S. 857 on April 20, 2005, and Representative Paul Ryan
introduced a companion measure (H.R. 1776) on April 21, 2005. The measures would allow
workers under age 55 to redirect a portion of payroll taxes to voluntary personal accounts
(workers would be enrolled automatically in the personal account system and given the
option to disenroll). From 2006 to 2015, workers would be allowed to redirect 5% of
covered earnings up to a base amount ($10,000 in 2006, indexed to wage growth thereafter)
and 2.5% of remaining covered earnings to personal accounts. Beginning in 2016, workers
would be allowed to redirect 10% of covered earnings up to the base amount and 5% of
remaining covered earnings to their accounts. Workers who participate in personal accounts
would be issued a “benefit credit certificate” (or recognition bond) to reflect the value of
benefits accrued under the traditional system. The recognition bond would be redeemable
at retirement, though the value of accrued benefits would be reduced to reflect the payroll
taxes redirected to the worker’s account. (Benefits for disabled workers and their dependents
and benefits for survivors (except elderly widow(er)s) would not be subject to the reduction.)
The measures would provide account participants a combined payment (traditional benefit
plus annuity) at least equal to current-law Social Security benefits. Workers who choose not
to participate in personal accounts would receive traditional Social Security benefits.
The measures would provide six indexed investment accounts, including a default
“lifecycle investment account” with an expected average investment mix of 65%
equities/35% fixed income instruments. Once the worker’s account balance reaches at least
$25,000 (indexed to inflation), additional investment options would be available. At
retirement, the worker would be required to annuitize the portion of the account balance
needed to provide a combined payment (traditional benefit plus inflation-indexed annuity)
at least equal to current-law Social Security benefits. Any excess balance could be
withdrawn in a manner chosen by the worker. Pre-retirement distribution would be allowed
if the account is sufficient to provide an annuity at least equal to a required minimum
payment. The measures also include several financing provisions. They would constrain
future growth rates for federal spending and dedicate the savings to Social Security;
“reserve” annual Social Security cash flow surpluses for Social Security purposes; and
dedicate a portion of projected corporate tax revenue increases to Social Security.
Representative Wexler introduced H.R. 2472 on May 18, 2005. The measure would
increase Social Security revenues by requiring workers and employers each to contribute 3%
of earnings above the Social Security taxable wage base. Under current law, workers and
employers each pay 6.2% of covered earnings, up to a limit (the taxable wage base). In 2005,
the taxable wage base, which is adjusted annually based on average wage growth, is $90,000.
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A worker’s earnings up to the taxable wage base (i.e., earnings on which contributions are
paid currently) are credited for benefit computation purposes. Under H.R. 2472, workers and
employers each would be required to pay an additional 3% of earnings above the taxable
wage base. Earnings above the taxable wage base taxed at the 3% rate would not be credited
for benefit computation purposes. The measure also would extend the pay-as-you-go
requirement under the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985 with
respect to future direct spending or revenue legislation.
LEGISLATION
H.R. 440 (Kolbe)
Creates mandatory personal accounts for workers under age 55 financed with a
redirection of payroll taxes and makes modifications to Social Security benefits. Introduced
February 1, 2005; referred to Committee on Ways and Means and Committee on Rules.
H.R. 530 (Sam Johnson)
Creates voluntary personal accounts for workers under age 55 financed with a
redirection of payroll taxes, provides participants a payment at least equal to 100% of the
poverty line, and makes modifications to traditional Social Security benefits. Introduced
February 2, 2005; referred to Committee on Ways and Means.
H.R. 750 (Shaw)
Creates voluntary personal accounts for workers age 18 and older financed with general
revenues, provides participants a payment at least equal to current-law Social Security
benefits, and makes certain benefit improvements. Introduced February 10, 2005; referred
to Committee on Ways and Means; Committee on Rules; and Committee on the Budget.
S. 540 (Hagel)
Creates voluntary personal accounts for workers born in 1961 and later financed with
a redirection of payroll taxes, makes modifications to Social Security benefits, and raises the
full retirement age. Introduced March 7, 2005; referred to Committee on Finance.
S. 857/H.R. 1776 (Sununu/Ryan)
Create voluntary personal accounts for workers under age 55 financed with a redirection
of payroll taxes, provide participants a payment at least equal to current-law Social Security
benefits, and include several financing provisions. S. 857 introduced April 20, 2005; referred
to Committee on Finance. H.R. 1776 introduced April 21, 2005; referred to Committee on
Ways and Means; Committee on the Budget; and Committee on Rules.
H.R. 2472 (Wexler)
Increases Social Security revenues by requiring workers and employers each to
contribute 3% of earnings above the taxable wage base and extends the pay-as-you-go
requirement under the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985.
Introduced May 18, 2005; referred to Committee on Ways and Means; Committee on Rules;
and Committee on the Budget.
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