Order Code RL32552
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Social Security: Calculation and
History of Taxing Benefits
Updated March 23, 2005
Christine Scott
Specialist in Tax Economics
Domestic Social Policy Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

Social Security: Calculation and
History of Taxing Benefits
Summary
The Social Security system provides monthly benefits to qualified retirees,
disabled workers, and their spouses and dependents. Until 1984 (P.L. 98-21), Social
Security benefits were exempt from the federal income tax. In 1983, Congress made
up to 50% of Social Security (and Tier I Railroad Retirement) benefits taxable for
taxpayers whose income plus one-half (50%) of Social Security (and Tier I) benefits
exceeds $25,000 for an individual or $32,000 for a married couple filing a joint tax
return. The 1993 omnibus budget reconciliation bill (P.L. 103-66) introduced a two
tier system for the calculation of taxable Social Security and Tier I benefits, with
recipients whose incomes exceed $34,000 (single) or $44,000 (married couples),
taxed on up to 85% of benefits. The proceeds from the taxation of Social Security
benefits for the first tier (using the 50% ratio) go to the Old-Age and Survivors
Insurance trust fund (OASI), and the Disability Insurance (DI) trust fund. The
proceeds of the tax associated with the second tier (using the 85% ratio) go to the
Health Insurance trust fund for Medicare.
Preliminary data for tax year 2002, show that 10.8 million income tax returns
had taxable Social Security benefits, and that these returns included $94.7 billion in
Social Security benefits in taxable income. In 2002, total Social Security benefits
paid were $453.8 billion, resulting in 20.9% of benefits subject to the income tax.
Because not all Social Security benefits are taxable, information from tax returns
does not reflect all Social Security beneficiaries. In addition, for married couples
filing a joint tax return there may be more than one beneficiary. The Congressional
Budget Office (CBO) has estimated, using 2000 population and income levels with
2003 provisions of law, that 39% (or 15.6 million) Social Security beneficiaries are
impacted by the income taxation of Social Security benefits.
In the 108th Congress, 16 bills were introduced, but did not pass either chamber,
that would have liberalized or repealed the taxation of Social Security benefits. In
the 109th Congress, three bills (H.R. 137, H.R. 179, and H.R. 1014) have been
introduced which would impact the taxation of Social Security benefits. In addition,
the Senate Budget Resolution (S.Con.Res. 95) would alter the taxation on benefits.
This report will be updated as warranted by legislative activity.

Contents
Calculation of Taxable Social Security Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Lump sum distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Repayments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Coordination of Workers Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Treatment of Nonresident Aliens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Withholding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
State Taxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Impact of Taxing Social Security Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Impact on the Trust Funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
History of Taxing Social Security Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Legislation in the 108th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Legislation in the 109th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
List of Figures
Figure 1. Taxable Social Security Benefits as Non-Social Security
(and Provisional) Income Increases For A Single Retiree with $11,117
in Annual Social Security Benefits, Tax Year 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 2. Social Security and Taxable Income as Non-Social Security
(and Provisional) Income Increases For A Single Retiree with
$11,117 in Annual Social Security Benefits, Tax Year 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 3. Taxable Income For A Single Retiree with $20,000 or $30,000
in Non-Social Security Income as Social Security Benefits Increase,
Tax Year 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 4. Total and After-Tax Income For A Single Retiree with $11,117 in
Annual Social Security Benefits, Tax Year 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
List of Tables
Table 1. Calculation of Taxable Social Security and Tier I Railroad
Retirement Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Table 2. State Income Taxation of Social Security Benefits, Tax Year 2003 . . . . 9
Table 3. Number and Percentage of Beneficiaries with Taxable Social
Security Benefits By Income Class Under 2003 Law, Population and
Income at 2000 Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 4. Social Security Benefits and Taxes on Social Security Benefits By
Income Class Under 2003 Law, Population and Income at 2000 Levels . . . 11

Social Security: Calculation and History of
Taxing Benefits
The Social Security system provides monthly benefits to qualified retirees,
disabled workers, and their spouses and dependents. Until 1984, Social Security
benefits were exempt from the federal income tax.
Calculation of Taxable Social Security Benefits
In general, the Social Security and Tier I Railroad Retirement1 benefits of most
recipients are not subject to the income tax. However, up to 85% of Social Security
and Tier I Railroad Retirement benefits can be included in taxable income for
recipients whose “provisional income” exceeds either of two statutory thresholds
(based on filing status).2
“Provisional income” is total income,3 plus certain otherwise tax-exempt income
(tax-exempt interest), plus the addition (or adding back) of certain income
specifically excluded from federal income taxation (interest on certain U.S. savings
bonds,4 employer-provided adoption benefits, foreign earned income or foreign
housing, and income earned in Puerto Rico or American Samoa by bona fide
residents), and plus one-half (50%) of Social Security and Tier I Railroad Retirement
benefits.
The thresholds below which no Social Security or Tier I benefits are taxable are
$25,000 for taxpayers filing as single, head of household, or qualifying widow(er)
and $32,000 for taxpayers filing a joint return. A taxpayer who is married filing
separately who has lived apart from his or her spouse all tax year has a threshold
1 Tier I railroad retirement benefits are paid to a qualified railroad retiree who has met the
quarterly work requirements for Social Security benefit eligibility. The retiree receives
Social Security benefits based on the work history that qualified the retiree for Social
Security benefits, and Tier I benefits based on both the Social Security and railroad work
histories. The actual Social Security benefits received are subtracted from this calculation
of Tier I benefits to get actual Tier I benefits.
2 For additional information on calculating taxable Social Security benefits, see U.S.
Department of the Treasury, Internal Revenue Service, “Social Security and Equivalent
Railroad Retirement Benefits,” Publication 915, 2003, available at [http://www.irs.gov/
pub/irs-pdf/p915.pdf].
3 Total income is the total of income from all sources recognized for tax purposes. See
Publication 915 for details on the sources of income included in computing provisional
income.
4 Interest on qualified U.S. savings bonds used to pay certain educational expenses is
exempt from federal income taxation.

CRS-2
amount of $25,000. A taxpayer who is married filing separately who lived with his
or her spouse at any point during the tax year, has a threshold amount of $0.
If provisional income is between the first tier thresholds of $25,000 (single) or
$32,000 (married couple) and the second tier thresholds of $34,000 (single) or
$44,000 (married couple), the amount of Social Security and Tier I benefits subject
to tax is the lesser of (1) one-half (50%) of Social Security and Tier I benefits; or (2)
one-half (50%) of provisional income in excess of the first threshold.
If income is above the second tier threshold, the amount of Social Security and
Tier I Railroad Retirement benefits subject to tax is the lesser of (1) 85% of Social
Security and Tier I benefits; or (2) 85% of provisional income above the second
threshold, plus the smaller of: (a) $4,500 (single) or $6,000 (married couple);5 or (b)
one-half (50%) of Social Security and Tier I benefits.
Because the threshold for a married taxpayer filing separately who has lived
with his or her spouse at any time during the tax year is $0, the taxable benefits in
such a case are the lesser of 85% of Social Security and Tier I benefits or 85% of
provisional income. None of the thresholds are indexed for inflation or wage growth.
Table 1 summarizes the thresholds and calculation of taxable Social Security and
Tier I Railroad Retirement benefits.
5 The $4,500 (single) and $6,000 (married couple) amounts are the maximum taxes for the
Tier I calculation, and are equivalent to one-half (50%) of the difference between the first
and second tier thresholds.

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Table 1. Calculation of Taxable Social Security and Tier I
Railroad Retirement Benefits
Calculation of Taxable Social Security and Tier I
Provisional Income (*)
Railroad Retirement Benefits
Single taxpayer
Less than $25,000
No taxable Social Security or Tier I Railroad Retirement
benefits
$25,000 less than
Lesser of: (1) 50% of Social Security and Tier I
$34,000
benefits; or
(2) 50% of provisional income above
$25,000
More than $34,000
Lesser of: (1) 85% of Social Security and Tier I
benefits; or
(2) 85% of provisional income above
$34,000 plus lesser of:
(A) $4,500; or
(B) 50% of Social Security and
Tier I benefits
Married taxpayer
Less than $32,000
No taxable Social Security or Tier I Railroad Retirement
benefits
$32,000 less than
Lesser of: (1) 50% of Social Security benefits; or
$44,000
(2) 50% of provisional income above
$32,000
More than $44,000
Lesser of: (1) 85% of Social Security benefits; or
(2) 85% of provisional income above
$44,000 plus lesser of:
(A) $6,000; or
(B) 50% of taxable Social Security
benefits
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS).
Note: Provisional income is total income plus certain income exclusions plus one-half (50%) of
Social Security benefits.

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The following two examples illustrate how taxable Security benefits may be
calculated for a single retiree in tax year 2004. The retiree is over age 65, and
receives $11,117 in annual Social Security benefits — the average in July 2004 for
a retiree.6 The examples include other (non-Social Security) income of $22,000 or
$32,000.
Example One. The single retiree received $11,117 in Social Security benefits
and has other income of $22,000 for the tax year.
Provisional income =
$27,558
[Other income ($22,000) plus
One-half (50%) of Social Security or Tier I benefits
($5,558)]
First tier threshold =
$25,000
Excess
=
$2,558
[Provisional income ($27,558) minus First tier
threshold ($25,000)]
Taxable Social =
$1,279
Security benefits
[Lesser of: one-half (50%) of Social Security or Tier
I benefits ($5,558), or
one-half (50%) of excess ($1,279)]
Example Two. The single retiree received $11,117 in Social Security benefits
and has other income of $32,000 for the tax year.
Provisional income =
$37,558
[Other income ($32,000) plus
One-half (50%) of Social Security or Tier I benefits
($5,558)]
First tier threshold =
$25,000
Excess
=
$9,000
[Maximum of : provisional income ($37,558) minus
first tier threshold ($25,000), or
$9,000 (difference between the first and second tier
thresholds)]
6 The average monthly benefit for a retiree in July 2004 was $926.40. This would be an
annual benefit amount of $11,117. Information on current monthly benefits is available at
[http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/oasdi_monthly/2004-07/table2.html].

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First tier taxable =
$4,500
benefits

[Lesser of: one-half (50%) of Social Security benefits
($5,558), or
one-half (50%) of excess ($4,500)]
Second tier threshold =
$34,000
Excess
=
$3,558
[Provisional income ($37,558) minus Second tier
threshold ($34,000)]
Second tier taxable =
$3,024
benefits
[85% of excess ($3,558 times .85 = $3,024)]
Taxable Social =
$7,524
Security benefits
[Lesser of: 85% of Social Security benefits
($9,449),or
second tier taxable benefits ($3,024) plus
lesser of:
one-half (50%) of Social Security or tier 1 benefits
($5,558); or
$4,500 (the tier 1 maximum)]
Figure 1 shows taxable Social Security benefits for a single retiree with Social
Security benefits of $11,117 as non-Social Security income (and provisional income)
increases. Shown on the figure is the point at which taxable benefits are calculated
using the Tier 2 formula in which the comparisons in the formula use a ratio of 85%.
At this point, each additional dollar of non-Social Security income results in a larger
increase in taxable Social Security benefits because of the ratio change from 50% to
85% in the calculations.
In Figure 1, the line representing taxable Social Security benefits becomes flat
at the taxable income level ($34,564) where taxable Social Security benefits are at
the maximum of 85% of benefits.
The calculation of taxable Social Security benefits depends on the level of
benefits, the tax filing status, and non-Social Security income. Holding non-Social
Security income constant, as benefits increase, taxable Social Security benefits will
increase. For the same levels of non-Social Security income and Social Security
benefits, a married couple will have lower taxable Social Security benefits than a
single retiree. Consequently, Figure 1 does not reflect other levels of benefits, or the
impact of taxation on a married couple filing a joint tax return.

CRS-6
Figure 1. Taxable Social Security Benefits as Non-Social Security (and Provisional) Income Increases
For A Single Retiree with $11,117 in Annual Social Security Benefits, Tax Year 2004
$10,000
$9,000
$8,000
$7,000
fits
e

$6,000
rity Ben
$5,000
cial Secu
Point where Tier 2 formula begins
le So
$4,000
axab
T

$3,000
$2,000
$1,000
$0
$0
$3,000
$6,000
$9,000
$12,000
$15,000
$18,000
$21,000
$24,000
$27,000
$30,000
$33,000
$36,000
$39,000
Non-Social Security Income
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS).

CRS-7
Lump sum distributions. A Social Security beneficiary may receive a lump
sum distribution of benefits for one or more prior years.7 In this situation, a
beneficiary has the option of choosing between two methods for calculating the
taxable portion of the benefits for prior years: (1) the taxpayer may include all of the
benefits for prior years in calculating the taxable benefits for the current year; or (2)
the taxpayer may re-calculate the prior year taxable benefits using prior year income
and take the difference between the recalculated taxable benefits and the taxable
benefits reported in each prior year. In computing the taxable portion of benefits in
prior years, the provisional income for the prior years is adjusted gross income plus
tax exempt interest plus the excluded income (as detailed earlier) plus the addition
(or add-back) of the adjustment for student loan interest, plus one-half (50%) of
Social Security benefits.
Repayments. Sometimes a Social Security beneficiary must repay a prior
overpayment of benefits. In this case, the calculation of taxable Social Security
benefits is based on the net benefits — gross benefits less the repayment. Married
taxpayers filing a joint tax return would use the total of the net Social Security
benefits for the tax year received by each party (taxpayer plus spouse). If however,
the repayment results in negative net Social Security benefits, there are two
consequences for taxes: (1) there are no taxable Social Security benefits; and (2) the
taxpayer may take a miscellaneous deduction8 as part of itemized deductions, or a
credit for the negative net Social Security benefits. If the negative net Social Security
benefits are less than $3,000, the taxpayer must include negative net Social Security
benefits in miscellaneous deductions for computing itemized deductions. If the
negative net Social Security benefits are greater than $3,000, the taxpayer must
compute the current year tax liability two ways: (1) using the negative balance as a
miscellaneous deduction for computing itemized deductions; and (2) re-computing
the taxes (without the overpayment income) for the prior years in which an
overpayment was received and subtracting these amounts from the prior year taxes
paid, and then subtracting this result (the sum of the differences in prior year taxes)
from the current year tax liability. If the tax liability computed using the negative
balance as a miscellaneous deduction is lower, the taxpayer claims the deduction. If
the tax liability from re-computing prior years taxes is lower, the taxpayer claims a
tax credit equal to the sum of the prior year tax differences.
Coordination of Workers Compensation. Under current law, an
individual’s Social Security benefits (until the full retirement age), may be reduced
by a portion of the Workers Compensation payments (payments from some other
public disability program) received by the individual. Any reduction in Social
Security benefits due to the receipt of Workers Compensation is considered to be a
Social Security benefit, and is used in determining the amount of Social Security
benefits subject to taxation.
7 This is not the lump-sum death benefit which is not subject to the federal income tax. An
individual originally denied benefits, but approved on appeal, may receive a lump sum
amount for the period when benefits were denied (which may be prior years).
8 Miscellaneous itemized deductions are subject to a 2% floor. That is, they are included
in itemized deductions to the extent they exceed 2% of adjusted gross income.

CRS-8
Treatment of Nonresident Aliens. Citizenship is not required for receipt
of Social Security benefits. Aliens may receive benefits provided they have engaged
in covered employment and otherwise meet eligibility requirements. In general,
85% of the Social Security benefits for nonresident aliens is subject to income tax
(i.e., none of the thresholds apply). However, there are a number of exceptions to
this general rule based on tax treaties such that nonresident aliens, or U.S. citizens
living abroad may not have U.S. Social Security benefits subject to U.S. income
taxes.9
Withholding. In general, withholding for a wage earner is based on the
estimated income taxes for a full year of earnings at the periodic (weekly, bi-weekly,
monthly, etc.) rate. Taxable Social Security benefits, and the associated taxes, are
based on the amount of non-Social Security income earned by a recipient during the
tax year. The Social Security Administration, without knowledge about the amount
of other income received by a beneficiary, is unable to properly determine the amount
of taxes that should be withheld from Social Security benefits. Like other non-wage
earners, Social Security recipients can make quarterly estimated income tax
payments. The Uruguay Round Agreements Act (P.L.103-465) amended the Internal
Revenue Code (IRC) to allow individuals to request that monies be withheld from
certain federal payments to satisfy their income tax liability (this is commonly
referred to as voluntary tax withholding). An amendment to Section 207 of the
Social Security Act allowed this voluntary tax withholding from Social Security
benefits.10 Voluntary tax withholding became effective with payments issued in
February 1999.
Aliens residing outside the United States are subject to different tax withholding
rules. Section 871 of the Internal Revenue Code imposes an arbitrary rate of tax
withholding (30%) on almost all of the U.S. income of nonresident aliens, unless a
lower rate is fixed by treaty. Thus, 30% of 85% (or 25.5%) of a nonresident alien’s
Social Security benefits may be withheld for federal income taxes.
State Taxation. While the Railroad Retirement Act prohibits states from
taxing railroad retirement benefits (including any federally taxable Tier I benefits),
states may tax Social Security benefits. In general, state personal income taxes
follow federal taxes. That is, many states use as a beginning point for the state
income tax calculations either federal adjusted gross income, federal taxable income,
or federal taxes paid. All of these beginning points include the federally taxed
portion of Social Security benefits. States with these beginning points for state
taxation must then make an adjustment, or subtraction from income (or taxes), for
railroad retirement benefits. A state may also make an adjustment for all or part or
the federally taxed Social Security benefits. Some states do not begin the calculation
9 Publication 915 provides a lists of the countries whose citizens (as nonresident aliens) are
exempt from U.S. income taxes of Social Security benefits, and countries where residing
U.S. citizens are exempt.
10 Because they are not subject to the federal income tax, Supplemental Security Income
payments, Black Lung payments, Medicare premium refunds, Lump Sum Death Payments,
returned check reissuances, and benefits due before Jan. 1984, are not subject to voluntary
tax withholding.

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of state income taxes with these federal tax values, but instead begin with a
calculation based on income by source. The state may then include part or all of
Social Security benefits11 in the state calculation of income.
In tax year 2003, 28 of the 42 states (and the District of Columbia) with a
personal income tax, fully excluded Social Security benefits from the state personal
income tax. Fourteen (14) states tax all, or part, of Social Security benefits. Table
2
shows the states taxing all or part of Social Security benefits for state personal
income taxes in tax year 2003.
Table 2. State Income Taxation of Social Security Benefits,
Tax Year 2003
States taxing all or part
Connecticut, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri,
of the federal taxable
Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota,
Social Security benefits
Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, West Virginia,
Wisconsin
States not taxing Social
Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado,
Security benefits
Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Hawaii,
Idaho, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine,
Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, New
Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Virginia
States without a state
Alaska, Florida, Nevada, New Hampshirea, South
personal income tax
Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, Wyoming
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS).
a. New Hampshire does tax interest and dividend income.
Impact of Taxing Social Security Benefits
In 2002, total Social Security benefits paid were $453.8 billion.12 Preliminary
tax year 2002 data13 indicate that 10.8 million taxpayers had taxable Social Security
benefits totaling $94.7 billion, or 20.9% of total Social Security benefits. The
Congressional Budget Office (CBO) has estimated, for 2003 law and 2000 levels of
income and population, that 39% of all beneficiaries are impacted by the taxation of
Social Security benefits, and that the total income tax associated with Social Security
benefits equals 5.2% of total Social Security benefits.
11 States that chose to tax Social Security benefits, generally tax up to the federally taxed
amount.
12 Social Security Administration, Social Security and Medicare Benefits, updated Feb. 20,
2004, available online at [http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/STATS/table4a4.html].
13 Internal Revenue Service, “Individual Income Tax Returns, Preliminary Data, 2002,”
Statistics of Income, SOI Bulletin, winter 2003-2004, vol. 23, no. 3.

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Table 3 shows the CBO estimates of the number of Social Security
beneficiaries, the number of beneficiaries impacted by the taxation of Social Security
benefits, and the percent of beneficiaries impacted by taxation by level of income
(cash income for the tax unit plus capital gains realizations). As shown in Table 3,
the current tax structure results in a higher percentage of beneficiaries impacted by
taxation at higher income levels. The percentage of Social Security beneficiaries
impacted increases with the income level, with more than 90% of beneficiaries with
an income of $40,000 or more impacted by the taxation of Social Security benefits.
Table 3. Number and Percentage of Beneficiaries with Taxable
Social Security Benefits By Income Class Under 2003 Law,
Population and Income at 2000 Levels
Number of
Number of
beneficiaries
Percent of
Social Security
affected by
beneficiaries
beneficiaries
taxation
affected by
Level of income
(in thousands)
(in thousands)
taxation
Less than $10,000
7,157
2
0%
$10,000 - $15,000
4,845
7
0%
$15,000 - $20,000
3,509
12
0%
$20,000 - $25,000
3,439
22
1%
$25,000 - $30,000
2,854
360
13%
$30,000 - $40,000
5,225
2,237
43%
$40,000 - $50,000
3,918
3,598
92%
$50,000 - $100,000
6,705
6,608
99%
Over $100,000
2,737
2,723
100%
Total
40,389
15,569
39%
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research (CRS) from Committee on Ways and Means,
2004 Green Book, Background Material Within the Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and
Means, Table 1-25, prepared by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO).
Notes: Level of income is cash income (based on tax filing unit) plus capital gains realizations
Number of Social Security beneficiaries includes beneficiaries under and over age 65.
Table 4 shows the CBO estimates of the amount of Social Security benefits, and
the income taxes associated with Social Security benefits by level of income (cash
income for the tax unit plus capital gains realizations). As shown in Table 4, as
income increases, the taxes on Social Security benefits became a larger share of
benefits reflecting the formula for calculating taxable benefits and the income tax
rates.

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Table 4. Social Security Benefits and Taxes on Social Security
Benefits By Income Class Under 2003 Law, Population and
Income at 2000 Levels
Social Security
Taxes on Social
Taxes as a
benefits
Security benefits
percent of
Level of income
(in millions)
(in millions)
benefits
Less than $10,000
$44,745
$ -
0%
$10,000 - $15,000
$44,827
$2
0%
$15,000 - $20,000
$31,887
$4
0%
$20,000 - $25,000
$33,025
$14
0%
$25,000 - $30,000
$27,332
$48
0%
$30,000 - $40,000
$49,036
$650
1%
$40,000 - $50,000
$39,011
$1,948
5%
$50,000 - $100,000
$72,224
$9,424
13%
Over $100,000
$35,351
$7,386
23%
Total
$377,438
$19,476
5%
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research (CRS) from Committee on Ways and Means,
2004 Green Book, Background Material Within the Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and
Means, Table 1-25, prepared by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO).
Notes: Level of income is cash income (based on tax filing unit) plus capital gains realizations.
Number of Social Security beneficiaries includes beneficiaries under and over age 65. Social Security
benefits and taxes on Social Security benefits are understated because of benefits paid abroad, death
of recipients before March interview, and exclusion of institutionalized beneficiaries.
As previously noted, because of the thresholds not all Social Security benefits
are taxable. Figure 2 shows how taxable Social Security benefits impact taxable
income for a given level of Social Security benefits ($11,117) for a single retiree in
tax year 2004.14 The gap between the line for Social Security benefits and taxable
Social Security benefits is the untaxed portion of Social Security benefits. The
growth in taxable Social Security benefits as non-Social Security income increases
is mirrored in the difference between taxable income without taxable Social Security
benefits and taxable income with Social Security benefits.
Figure 3 shows how different levels of Social Security benefits impact taxable
income for a single retiree with either $20,000 or $30,000 in non-Social Security
income.15 In Figure 3, the Social Security benefits increase until they reach the
annual maximum benefits for a person receiving benefits at age 62 - $17,064.
Because of the thresholds, retirees with the same level of Social Security
benefits, but with different levels of non-Social Security income will have different
after-tax (or disposable) income. Figure 4 shows for a given level of Social Security
14 The retiree uses the standard deduction including the additional standard deduction for
elderly taxpayers. For tax year 2004, the standard deduction for a single is $4,850, the
additional standard deduction for a single aged taxpayer is $1,200, and the personal
exemption is $3,100. This is a total subtraction from income of $9,150 for the personal
exemption and standard deduction.
15 Ibid.

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benefits ($11,117) the total and after-tax income of a single retiree at different levels
of non-Social Security income in tax year 2004.16 Alternatively, Figure 4 can be
viewed as a comparison of total and after-tax income for single retirees with
different levels of non-Social Security income, but the same level of Social Security
benefits ($11,117).
16 Ibid

































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































CRS-13
Figure 2. Social Security and Taxable Income as Non-Social Security (and Provisional) Income
Increases For A Single Retiree with $11,117 in Annual Social Security Benefits, Tax Year 2004
$50,000
$40,000
Taxable Income with Tier I and Tier II Taxable Social Security
Benefits
$30,000
s
llar
Do

$20,000
Taxable Income - No Taxable Social
Social Security Benefits
Security Benefits
$10,000
Taxable Social
Security Benefits
$0
$0
$2,400
$4,800
$7,200
$9,600
$12,000 $14,400 $16,800 $19,200 $21,600 $24,000 $26,400 $28,800 $31,200 $33,600 $36,000 $38,400
Non-Social Security Income
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). The retiree uses the standard deduction for taxpayers aged 65 or over or
blind.

CRS-14
Figure 3. Taxable Income For A Single Retiree with $20,000 or $30,000 in Non-Social Security
Income as Social Security Benefits Increase, Tax Year 2004
$35,000
$30,000
$25,000
Taxable income with $30,000 in non-Social Security Income
$20,000
Taxable Income $15,000
$10,000
Taxable income with $20,000 in non-Social Security
income
$5,000
$0
$0
$1,500
$3,000
$4,500
$6,000
$7,500
$9,000
$10,500
$12,000
$13,500
$15,000
$16,500
Annual Social Security Benefits
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). The retiree used the standard deduction for taxpayers aged 65 or over or
blind. Social Security benefits increase to $17,064 - the maximum benefit in 2004 for a person that began receiving benefits at age 62.

CRS-15
Figure 4. Total and After-Tax Income For A Single Retiree with $11,117 in Annual Social Security
Benefits, Tax Year 2004
$60,000
$50,000
Total income
$40,000
llars $30,000
Do
After tax income
$20,000
$10,000
$0
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
$2
42
82
62
27
27
27
,02
,827
,22
,62
,427
,82
,22
,02
,42
$2,
$4,
$7,22
$9,
$12
$14,4
$16
$19
$21
$24,0
$26
$28
$31
$33,6
$36
$38
Non-Social Security Income
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). The retiree uses the standard deduction for taxpayers aged 65 or over or
blind.

CRS-16
Impact on the Trust Funds. The proceeds from taxing Social Security and
Tier I benefits at the 50% rate are credited to the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance
(OASI) trust fund, the Disability Insurance (DI) trust fund and the Railroad
Retirement system respectively, based on the source of the benefits taxed. Proceeds
from taxing Social Security benefits and Tier I benefits at the 85% rate are credited
to the Hospital Insurance trust fund (HI) of Medicare. In 2003, the Trustees Report
reflected income to OASDI of $13.4 billion from the taxation of benefits, or 2.1% of
the combined income for both funds.17 Income from the taxation of benefits in the
HI fund were $8.3 billion, or 4.7% of total fund income.18 Income taxes transferred
to support railroad retirement programs were comparatively smaller, $336 million,
in 2002.19
History of Taxing Social Security Benefits
Until 1984, Social Security benefits were exempt from the federal income tax.
The exclusion was based on rulings made in 1938 and 1941 by the Department of the
Treasury, Bureau of Internal Revenue (the predecessor of the Internal Revenue
Service). The 1941 Bureau ruling on OASDI payments viewed benefits as being for
general welfare, and reasoned that subjecting the payments to income taxation would
be contrary to the purposes of Social Security.20
Under these rules, the treatment of Social Security benefits was similar to that
of certain types of government transfer payments (such as Aid to Families with
Dependent Children, Supplemental Security Income, and black lung benefits). This
was in sharp contrast to then-current rules for retirement benefits under private
pension plans, the Federal Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS), and other
government pension systems. Benefits from these other pension plans were fully
taxable, except for the portion of total lifetime benefits (using projected life
expectancy) attributable to the employee’s own contributions to the system (and on
which he or she had already paid income tax).
Currently (and as in 1941), under Social Security the worker’s contribution to
the system is his or her share (one-half (50%)) of the payroll tax, officially known as
the Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) tax. The amount the worker pays
into the Social Security system in FICA taxes is not subtracted to determine income
subject to the federal income tax, and is therefore taxed. The employer’s
17 Social Security Administration, 2004 Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the
Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance and Disability Insurance Trust Funds
, Mar. 2004,
available at [http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/TR/TR04/tr04.pdf].
18 Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 2004 Annual Report of the Board of Trustees
of the Federal Hospital Insurance Trust and Federal Supplementary Medical Insurance
Trust Funds
, Mar. 2004, available at [http://www.cms.hhs.gov/publications/trusteesreport/
2004/tr.pdf].
19 Railroad Retirement Board, 2003 Annual Report, available at [http://www.rrb.gov/opa/
pdf/03annrpt.pdf].
20 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Finance, Tax Free Status of Social Security
Benefits, Report to Accompany S.Res. 87
, Comm. Rep. No. 97-135, June 15, 1981.

CRS-17
contributions to the system are not considered part of the employee’s gross income,
and are deductible from the employer’s business income as a business expense.
Consequently, neither the employee or the employer pays taxes on the employer’s
contribution.
The 1979 Advisory Council on Social Security concluded that the 1941 ruling
was wrong and that the tax treatment of private pensions was a more appropriate
model for tax treatment of Social Security benefits.21 The council estimated that the
most anyone who entered the workforce in 1979 would pay in payroll taxes during
his or her lifetime would equal 17% of the Social Security benefits he or she would
ultimately receive. (This was the most any individual would pay; in the aggregate
workers would make payroll tax payments amounting to substantially less than 17%
of their ultimate benefits.) Because of the administrative difficulties involved in
determining the taxable amount of each individual benefit, the council recommended
instead that half of everyone’s benefit be taxed. They justified this ratio as a matter
of “rough justice” and noted that it coincided with the portion of the tax (the
employer’s share) on which income taxes had not been paid. This position to tax
Social Security benefits was in contrast to position of the National Commission on
Social Security, established by Congress in the Social Security Amendments of 1977
(P.L. 95-216). The commission did not, in its 1981 final report, include a
recommendation to tax Social Security benefits.
The National Commission on Social Security Reform (often referred to as the
“Greenspan Commission”), appointed by President Reagan in 1981, recommended
in its 1983 report,22 that beginning in 1984, one-half (50%) of Social Security cash
benefits and Tier I benefits payable under the Railroad Retirement Act be taxable for
individuals whose adjusted gross income, excluding Social Security cash benefits,
exceeded certain thresholds — $20,000 for a single taxpayer, and $25,000 for a
married couple, with the proceeds of such taxation credited to the Social Security
trust funds. The commission did not include any provisions for indexing the
threshold amounts. The commission estimated that 10% of OASDI recipients would
be subject to taxation of benefits. The commission acknowledged that the proposal
had a “notch” problem, in that the extra dollar of income that would put one over the
threshold would have had the effect of subjecting fully one-half (50%) of Social
Security benefits to taxation, but trusted that it would be rectified during the
legislative process.
In enacting the 1983 Social Security Amendments (P.L. 98-21), Congress
adopted the commission’s recommendation to tax Social Security benefits, but with
a formula for determining taxable benefits that gradually increased as a person’s
income rose above the thresholds, up to a maximum of one-half (50%) of benefits.
21 U.S. Congress, Select Committee on Aging, Hearings Before the Committee on
Retirement Income And Employment, Oversight on Recommendations of the 1979 Social
Security Advisory Council, Statement of Henry Aaron, Chairman of the Advisory Council
on Social Security
, Comm. Pub. No. 96-230, Mar. 11 and 13, 1980, p. 13.
22 Social Security Administration, Report of the National Commission on Social Security
Reform
, Jan. 1983, pp. 2-10 through 2-11, available at [http://www.ssa.gov/history/reports/
gspan.html].

CRS-18
The formula calculated taxable benefits as the lesser of: one-half (50%) of benefits;
or one-half (50%) of the excess of the taxpayer’s provisional income over thresholds
of $25,000 (single) and $32,000 (married couple). Provisional income was defined
as total income plus certain tax-exempt income (tax-exempt interest) plus certain
income exclusions plus one-half (50%) of Social Security benefits. At the same
time, the tax credit for the elderly and disabled was expanded to provide additional
tax relief for lower income elderly taxpayers.23
In 1993, the Social Security Administration’s Office of the Actuary estimated
that, if pension tax rules were applied to Social Security, the ratio of total employee
Social Security payroll taxes to expected benefits for current recipients (in 1993)
would be approximately 4% or 5%. The actuarial estimates were that for workers
just entering the workforce
,24 the ratio would be, on average, about 7%. Because
Social Security benefits replaced a higher proportion of earnings of workers who
were lower paid and had dependents, and because women had longer life
expectancies, the workers with the highest ratio of taxes to benefits would be single,
highly-paid males. The estimated ratio for these workers (highly-paid males)entering
the workforce in 1993 was 15%.
Applying the tax rules for private and public pensions presents practical
administrative problems. Determining the proper exclusion would be complex for
several reasons, including calculating the ratio of contributions to benefits for each
individual worker’s account when, unlike private pensions, several people may
receive benefits based on the same worker’s account.
President Clinton proposed (as part of his FY1994 budget proposal) that the
portion of Social Security benefits subject to taxation be increased from 50% to 85%,
effective in tax year 1994. As under then- current law, only Social Security
recipients whose provisional income exceeded the thresholds of $25,000 (single) and
$32,000 (married couple) were to pay taxes on their benefits. Also as under then-
current law, the first step was to add one-half (50%), not 85%, of benefits to total
income. Because the thresholds and definition of provisional income did not change,
the measure would only affect recipients already paying taxes on benefits. However,
the ratio used to compute the amount of taxable benefits was increased from 50% to
85%. Taxing no more than 85% of Social Security benefits (the portion not based
on contributions by a recipient, including highly-paid males) would ensure that no
one would have a higher percentage of Social Security benefits subject to tax than if
the tax treatment of private and civil service pensions were actually applied.
The proceeds from the increase (from 50% to 85%) were slated to be credited
to the Medicare Hospital Insurance program, which had a less favorable financial
outlook than Social Security at that time. Doing so also avoided possible procedural
23 The credit was originally created to provide a benefit to retirees that had taxable
retirement income rather than nontaxable Social Security benefits.
24 The average for all workers entering the work force is for all workers born in 1970
entering the workforce. The estimate for single males assumed the worker entering the work
force in 1993 was 22 years old with steady income until retirement at either age 62 or the
normal retirement age.

CRS-19
obstacles (budget points of order that can be raised regarding changes to the Social
Security program in the budget reconciliation process). This measure was included
in the 1993 Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA), which passed the House
on May 27, 1993.
The Senate version of the bill included a provision to tax Social Security
benefits up to 85%, but imposed it only after provisional income exceeded new
thresholds of $32,000 (single) and $40,000 (married couple). When the House and
Senate versions of the budget package were negotiated in conference, the conference
agreement adopted the Senate version of the taxation of Social Security benefits
provision and raised the thresholds to $34,000 (single) and $44,000 (married couple).
President Clinton signed the measure into law (as part of P.L. 103-66) on August 10,
1993.
Legislation in the 108th Congress
In the 108th Congress, 16 bills were introduced, none of which passed in either
chamber, that would have altered the taxation of Social Security benefits. Some of
the legislation would have indexed the current tax thresholds, while other legislation
would have repealed part, or all, of the taxation of benefits.
Legislation in the 109th Congress
In the 109th Congress, three bills (H.R. 137, H.R. 179, and H.R. 1014) have been
introduced that would eliminate the taxation of Social Security benefits at the 85%
level, and thereby restore Social Security back to the pre-1993 calculations. The
Senate Budget Resolution, S.Con.Res. 18, as introduced contained reconciliation
instructions to the Senate Finance Committee to reduce revenues under the
committee’s jurisdiction (i.e., the instructions provided for a given level of tax cuts).
During floor debate, an amendment (S.Amend. 241, proposed by Senator Bunning)
was passed which increased the level of tax cuts in the reconciliation instructions for
the Senate Finance Committee. Another amendment (S.Amend. 243, proposed by
Senator Conrad) was also passed. This amendment created a Sense of the Senate
provision that provided that the tax cuts in the budget resolution are assumed to
include repeal of the 1993 tax change which subjected up to 85% of Social Security
benefits to taxation. The revenue loss to the Medicare Hospital Insurance Trust Fund
is to be replaced, and if inclusion of these provisions results in a total tax cut
exceeding the reconciliation instructions, the additional revenue loss is to be offset
by closing corporate tax loopholes