Order Code RL32699
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Natural Resources:
Selected Issues for the 109th Congress
December 14, 2004
Nicole Carter and Carol Hardy Vincent, Coordinators
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress
Natural Resources:
Selected Issues for the 109th Congress
Summary
The 109th Congress is likely to consider a number of natural resource
management issues involving how the federal government should balance multiple
uses and invest in resource development and protection. Decisions on these issues
affect local communities, industries, ecosystems, and the nation. This report
introduces 30 key policy issues in five broad categories that may be addressed by the
109th Congress by authorizations, appropriations, or oversight. While this report will
be updated occasionally, many of the cited CRS products are updated more
frequently.
Although there is no central natural resource issue, certain themes often are
prevalent during consideration of resource questions. Many natural resource
conflicts center on balancing resource use and protection. The desirability of current
versus alternative uses and protection programs, and whether natural resources
should be managed to produce national or local benefits, are also common themes.
Other resource questions involve the effect of federal resource management on
privately owned lands and the role of scientific data in decision making.
For federal lands, questions before the 109th Congress may include how much
and which land the federal government should own, how to prioritize multiple uses
(e.g., grazing, timber, habitat, recreation), who should manage the lands, and whether
to designate additional lands. There are financial questions as well, such as whether
and how to collect or change fees for land uses and the disposition of collected funds.
The 109th Congress may consider recommendations from two ocean
commissions for a more coordinated national ocean policy and a reorganization of
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Congress also may debate
reauthorization of fishing, marine mammal, and coastal zone management legislation
and the Senate may address the U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea.
Federal species management and ecosystem protection are likely to be a focus
during the 109th Congress. Topics include whether to: amend the Endangered
Species Act, develop legislation to prevent or respond to invasive species, alter the
approach to protection for international species, support efforts to protect and restore
wetlands, and expand or curtail specific large-scale ecosystem restoration efforts.
Increased competition for water has fostered interest in evaluating the federal
policy and role in water resources, particularly for water supply and river
management. The 109th Congress is likely to consider transboundary water resource
management and assistance for rural and municipal water supply and for aging dams.
An array of other natural resource policy issues may be debated in the 109th
Congress. They include whether to expand access to federal lands for development
of energy and mineral resources and whether to alter the federal role in natural
disaster mitigation. Questions on federal involvement in managing natural resources
on private and Indian lands and tribal uses of non-Indian resources also are likely.
Contributors
Name
Primary Agency/Issue Area
E-mail
Phone
Federal Lands and Resources
Pamela Baldwin
legal issues
pbaldwin@crs.loc.gov
7-8597
Kori Calvert
recreation and reference
kcalvert@crs.loc.gov
7-6459
M. Lynne Corn
Fish and Wildlife Service
lcorn@crs.loc.gov
7-7267
Ross Gorte
U.S. Forest Service
rgorte@crs.loc.gov
7-7266
Carol Hardy Vincent
Bureau of Land Management
chvincent@crs.loc.gov
7-8651
Sandra Johnson
trails and rivers
sjohnson@crs.loc.gov
7-7214
David Whiteman
National Park Service
dwhiteman@crs.loc.gov
7-7786
Jeffrey Zinn
Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF)
jzinn@crs.loc.gov
7-7257
Ocean Affairs and Earth Sciences
Marjorie Browne
treaties and international agreements
mbrowne@crs.loc.gov
7-7695
Eugene Buck
fish and marine mammals
gbuck@crs.loc.gov
7-7262
John Justus
ocean and climate sciences
jjustus@crs.loc.gov
7-7078
Wayne Morrissey
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Admin.
wmorrissey@crs.loc.gov
7-7072
Pervaze Sheikh
U.S. Geological Survey
psheikh@crs.loc.gov
7-6070
Jeffrey Zinn
coastal zone
jzinn@crs.loc.gov
7-7257
Species Management and Ecosystem Protection
Pamela Baldwin
legal issues
pbaldwin@crs.loc.gov
7-8597
Eugene Buck
aquatic species
gbuck@crs.loc.gov
7-7262
M. Lynne Corn
terrestrial species
lcorn@crs.loc.gov
7-7267
Pervaze Sheikh
ecosystem restoration, international species
psheikh@crs.loc.gov
7-6070
Jeffrey Zinn
wetlands
jzinn@crs.loc.gov
7-7257
Water Resources
Nicole Carter
Corps authorizations, water research
ncarter@crs.loc.gov
7-0854
Betsy Cody
Bureau of Reclamation, water policy
bcody@crs.loc.gov
7-7229
H. Steve Hughes
water institutions, Corps budgets
not available
7-7268
Kyna Powers
dams and hydropower
kpowers@crs.loc.gov
7-6881
Pervaze Sheikh
ecosystem restoration
psheikh@crs.loc.gov
7-6070
Stephen Viña
legal issues
svina@crs.loc.gov
7-8079
Other
Keith Bea
natural disaster response and mitigation
kbea@crs.loc.gov
7-8672
M. Lynne Corn
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR)
lcorn@crs.loc.gov
7-7267
Marc Humphries
energy resources on federal lands
mhumphries@crs.loc.gov
7-7264
Aaron Flynn
energy and mineral legal issues
aflynn@crs.loc.gov
7-4877
Barbara Johnson
agricultural land conservation
bjohnson@crs.loc.gov
7-0248
Roger Walke
Indian lands and resources
rwalke@crs.loc.gov
7-8641
Jeffrey Zinn
private land conservation
jzinn@crs.loc.gov
7-7257
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Natural Resource Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Federal Lands and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Federal Estate: Ownership and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Federal Land Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Forests and Fire Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
National Park Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Rangelands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Wilderness and Roadless Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Ocean Affairs and Earth Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Assessing Ocean Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Atmospheric and Oceanic Research, Operations, and Services . . . . . . . 8
Coastal Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fishery and Marine Mammal Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Natural Hazards and Mapping Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Species Management and Ecosystem Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Endangered Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
International Species Protection and Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Invasive Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Large-Scale Ecosystem Restoration and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Wetlands Protection and Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Assessing Federal Water Resources Policy and Research . . . . . . . . . . 15
Army Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Bureau of Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Rural and Municipal Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Transboundary Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Water Use Challenges and River Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Arctic Oil, Arctic Refuge (ANWR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Energy and Mineral Resources on Federal Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Indian Lands and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Natural Disaster Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Private Land Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Natural Resources:
Selected Issues for the 109th Congress
Introduction
Decisions on how to develop, manage, and protect the nation’s natural resources
have economic, social, and environmental implications. Some impacts are local,
others are national or international. This report briefly discusses selected natural
resource issues that the 109th Congress may consider through oversight,
authorizations, or appropriations. Although for the most part these are not new topics
for Congress, different policy options may be considered during the 109th Congress
than during earlier Congresses. This report will be updated only occasionally;
however, it lists some of the related CRS products that provide more detailed
information and that are updated more frequently. For a complete listing of current
CRS products on natural resource issues covered in this report, as well as products
on other natural resource issues, see the CRS web page at [http://www.crs.gov/
products/browse/is-environment.shtml].
This report introduces 30 natural resource issues, many of which are complex
and interrelated. Some discussions are site- or agency-specific, such as the entry on
the Army Corps of Engineers, while others are national or international in scope,
such as the section on “Assessing Ocean Policy.” Others deal with specific resources,
for instance, the Forests and Fire Management paragraph. The 30 issues have been
grouped into five categories, including a miscellaneous “Other” category, as follows:
! Federal Lands and Resources
! Ocean Affairs and Earth Sciences
! Species Management and Ecosystem Protection
! Water Resources
! Other
Although there is no single or central natural resource issue, certain themes have
been prevalent during consideration of resource questions. These themes include the
extent to which natural resources should be used or protected, and the desirability of
current versus alternative uses and protection programs. Conflicting views reflect
different values, needs, and perceptions of the condition of resources and the
sustainability of uses. A related debate is over whether natural resources should be
managed primarily to produce national benefits or benefits for the localities and
states in which they are located.
Who decides how natural resources should be managed, and how the decisions
are made, also have been topics of discussion. Some stakeholders seek to maintain
or enhance the federal role in resource management. Others support more local
influence or international decision making in some cases. Conflicts over natural
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resources in the United States perhaps have intensified as a result of pressures from
overall population growth and economic development nationally and worldwide.
Another theme in resource discussions is the role of science in multiple areas, such
as determining the health and availability of resources and the extent and impact of
changing resource conditions. Congress has also debated whether federal funds for
natural resources issues are adequate and focused on the appropriate resource
priorities.
Congress deals with natural resource issues on a number of fronts. Key laws,
programs, and issues are handled by multiple authorizing committees in the House
and Senate. Also, many issues involve several committees, such as those involving
wetlands protection and restoration. In addition, natural resource issues often are
addressed during consideration of bills providing annual appropriations for natural
resource agencies, programs, and activities.1 In many cases, natural resource issues
do not divide along clear party lines. Instead, they often are split along rural-urban,
eastern-western, coastal-interior, or upstream-downstream interests.
A number of the natural resources issues in this report are intertwined with
issues in other policy areas. For example, the relationship between natural resources
management and environmental protection are evident in many issues, such as
groundwater contamination’s effect on rural water supply. (For information on
environmental quality and protection issues, see CRS Issue Brief IB10115,
Environmental Protection Issues in the 108th Congress, coordinated by Susan
Fletcher and Margaret Isler.) Cross-cutting issues are included in this report if the
congressional concern revolves principally around resource conditions and supply.
Similarly, debates on energy policy, a major issue in past Congresses,
encompass questions of access to energy resources and the impact of energy
production on lands and resources. While a few energy resource issues are covered
in this report, information on energy policy broadly is contained in CRS Issue Brief
IB10116, Energy Policy: The Continuing Debate and Omnibus Energy Legislation,
by Robert L. Bamberger. Many natural resource issues, especially ones dealing with
resource conditions and uses on private lands, overlap with agricultural topics. For
information on federal conservation programs for agricultural lands, see CRS Issue
Brief IB96030, Soil and Water Conservation Issues, by Jeffrey A. Zinn. Finally,
climate change may have implications for natural resources, including agriculture,
forestry, fisheries, water availability, and ecosystem health, and may contribute to
changes in the intensity, location, and timing of some natural disasters, such as
flooding, drought, and hurricanes. For information on climate change, see CRS Issue
Brief IB89005, Global Climate Change, by John R. Justus and Susan R. Fletcher.
1 For information on appropriations bills and issues, and links to CRS reports on the same,
see the CRS appropriations page at [http://www.crs.gov/products/appropriations/apppage.
shtml].
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Natural Resource Issues
Federal Lands and Resources
Federal Estate: Ownership and Issues. The federal government owns
about 672 million acres — nearly 30% — of the 2.27 billion acres of land in the
United States. The percentage of federal ownership in some western states is
significantly higher. Four agencies administer 94% of federal lands: the Forest
Service (FS) in the Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Bureau of Land
Management (BLM), Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and National Park Service
(NPS), all in the Department of the Interior (DOI).
The ownership of lands by the federal government has long generated
controversy and is likely to continue to do so. A key area of debate is how much land
the federal government should own — and hence whether some federal lands should
be moved to state or private ownership, or some land should be acquired for
conservation, open space, and wildlife habitat purposes. For lands retained in federal
ownership, debates may involve whether to curtail certain land designations, such as
national monuments created by the President, or if current management procedures
should be changed — for instance, to allow a greater role for state and local
governments, or to establish special management entities. Also, the extent to which
federal lands should be preserved, made available for development or resource
extraction, or opened to recreational uses raises a variety of related resources policy
matters, especially with respect to preserving wildlife habitat, designating wilderness
areas, developing energy resources, grazing livestock, and harvesting timber.
Further, the various types of federal lands typically are administered under separate
statutes, which may be considered for amendment.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL32393, Federal Land Management Agencies: Background on
Land and Resources Management, coordinated by Carol Hardy Vincent.
CRS Report RL30126, Federal Land Ownership: Constitutional Authority; the
History of Acquisition, Disposal, and Retention; and Current Acquisition and
Disposal Authorities, by Ross W. Gorte and Pamela Baldwin.
Federal Land Funding. Funding for federal lands continues to be
contentious. Federal lands and natural resource programs must compete against other
federal priorities (defense, education, etc.) as well as internally among the several
land and resource management agencies. Some policy questions relate to setting fees
(e.g., recreation and grazing fees, discussed in “Recreation” and “Rangelands”
below). One perennial question relates to funding from the Land and Water
Conservation Fund (LWCF). This account is credited with deposits of $900 million
annually, but the funds can only be spent when Congress enacts appropriations.
Current congressional attention centers on (1) deciding the amount to appropriate
annually to each of the four eligible federal land management agencies, and to the
state grant program; (2) determining which lands should be acquired; and (3)
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appropriating LWCF funds for purposes other than land acquisition. The primary
context for debating these issues is the annual Interior appropriations legislation.
Another contentious area is compensating counties for the tax-exempt status of
federal lands. Appropriations for the primary program, Payments in Lieu of Taxes
(PILT), have not kept pace with the increasing authorized level. The 109th Congress
will likely address PILT funding as part of annual Interior appropriations legislation.
In addition, the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act (P.L.
106-393) was enacted to offset FS and BLM payments that had declined due to lower
timber sales. This act expires at the end of FY2006, and the 109th Congress is likely
to consider whether to retain the law and, if so, in what form.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL32306, Appropriations for FY2005: Interior and Related
Agencies, coordinated by Carol Hardy Vincent and Susan Boren.
CRS Report RS21503, Land and Water Conservation Fund: Current Status and
Issues, by Jeffrey A. Zinn.
CRS Report RL31392, PILT (Payments in Lieu of Taxes): Somewhat Simplified,
by M. Lynne Corn.
Forests and Fire Management. In recent years, wildfires have killed
firefighters, burned homes, threatened communities, and destroyed trees. Reducing
fuels in the federal forests has been proposed to reduce the threats from fire, although
the threats are not limited to federal forests. In December 2003, Congress enacted
the Healthy Forests Restoration Act (P.L. 108-148) to facilitate fuel reduction
activities and for other purposes indirectly related to wildfire protection. Oversight
and funding of fire programs are likely topics in the 109th Congress.
The Bush Administration has made numerous regulatory changes related to
forest management, public involvement in FS planning and decision making,
environmental impacts of FS activities, and fuel reduction. Changes include:
! categorical exclusions from analysis and documentation under the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), involving activities
including fuel reduction, post-fire rehabilitation, and “small” timber
sales;
! modified review procedures, for example, for administrative review
and internal Endangered Species Act consultations; and
! new rules governing national forest uses, such as for issuing special
use permits and for protecting roadless areas. These changes
necessarily alter forest management, set forth in forest plans
prepared under the National Forest Management Act of 1976
(NFMA; 16 U.S.C. §§1600-1616, et al.).
The Bush Administration also has proposed new regulations governing NFMA
planning, and there is substantial uncertainty over management of the national
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forests. The 109th Congress may conduct oversight or consider legislation related to
some or all of the proposed changes.
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB10076, Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Lands and
National Forests, coordinated by Ross W. Gorte and Carol Hardy Vincent.
CRS Report RL30755, Forest Fire/Wildfire Protection, by Ross W. Gorte.
National Park Management. The NPS mission to provide for the public
enjoyment of parklands while protecting the park resources has fostered continuing
management challenges. The 109th Congress is likely to address a variety of park
management issues. For instance, although the NPS is working to define and
quantify its maintenance needs, the extent of progress toward eliminating the
agency’s multibillion dollar backlog of deferred maintenance remains unclear.
Questions for Congress include the adequacy of efforts to reduce the backlog,
sufficiency of funds for backlogged maintenance, and the balance of eliminating the
backlog with other NPS priorities. Congress funds and oversees NPS efforts to
enhance security, particularly along U.S. borders and at national icons, such as the
Washington Monument and Statue of Liberty. Congress may continue to examine
the role of “partnership” groups that raise funds for the NPS. In addition, many park
and recreation bills to designate or study sites for particular purposes or to adjust the
boundaries of park units are likely to be debated.
National Heritage Areas (NHAs), which are designated by Congress, receive
technical and financial assistance from the NPS but are not federally owned. Due to
the large number of existing NHAs, and recent bills to study and designate additional
areas, Congress has considered legislation to provide consistent criteria for NHA
designation, management, and funding. The Urban Park and Recreation Recovery
program provides federal grants to urban areas for rehabilitation of recreational
facilities; it has not received funding for grants in recent appropriations laws.
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB10126, Heritage Areas: Background, Proposals, and Current
Issues, by Carol Hardy Vincent and David Whiteman.
CRS Issue Brief IB10093, National Park Management and Recreation,
coordinated by Carol Hardy Vincent.
Rangelands. Management of federal rangelands presents an array of matters
for Congress. They include efforts by BLM to change grazing regulations and
policies to improve grazing administration overall; these efforts have been supported
by some but criticized by others either as unnecessary or as removing important
environmental protections. Another focus involves the automatic renewal of expiring
grazing permits and leases, with one recent law authorizing temporary renewal,
without requirements for environmental studies, for those expiring through FY2008.
Further, the federal grazing fee for private livestock grazing on federal lands has been
controversial since its inception. Instances of grazing on federal land without a
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permit or payment of fees, and agency actions to fine and jail owners and impound
and sell trespassing cattle, also have been contentious.
Federal rangeland condition is of recurring interest to Congress, with oversight
of agency efforts to inventory, monitor, and improve range conditions as well as
enhance their productivity. Restricting or eliminating grazing on some federal land
because of environmental and recreational concerns has been considered. Also,
many view invasive and noxious weeds as an expanding threat to the health and
productivity of rangelands. (See “Invasive Species,” below.) Other range matters
include the consistency of BLM and FS grazing programs, access across private
lands, and management of riparian areas. In addition, there has been concern about
BLM’s wild horse and burro program and related provisions of law, particularly the
removal, adoption, and treatment of animals and agency efforts to achieve its
identified optimal herd size on the range.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL32244, Grazing Regulations and Policies: Changes by the
Bureau of Land Management, by Carol Hardy Vincent.
CRS Report RS21423, Wild Horse and Burro Issues, by Carol Hardy Vincent.
Recreation. The federal land management agencies administer most U.S.
government land for multiple purposes, including preservation, recreation, and
development of natural resources. This preservation/use dichotomy is a focal point
for debate over recreation on federal lands. Key topics include access for recreation
generally, motorized off-highway vehicle use and policies for BLM and FS areas, and
the use of personal watercraft, snowmobiles, and aircraft for NPS units. Specific
conflicts for NPS units center on snowmobiles in three Yellowstone area parks, air
tour overflights and “natural quiet” at Grand Canyon National Park (GCNP), and the
proposed Colorado River Management Plan for GCNP allocating permits for
motorized and non-motorized boats. Other matters include the effect of recreation,
especially motorized, on natural resources, visitor experience, and local economies.
Debate also may continue over trails; while trail designation is often popular,
questions remain regarding their quantity, quality, and funding. Possible legislative
proposals in the 109th Congress include adding routes to the National Trails System,
authorizing studies of routes for addition to the system, creating new categories of
trails, and authorizing acquisition of land from willing sellers for certain trails.
Recreation debates also arise in areas managed by other federal agencies, such as
reservoirs and rivers managed by the Army Corps of Engineers and Bureau of
Reclamation. Subjects of congressional oversight might include balancing
recreational water needs and other purposes, financing maintenance of recreational
facilities, and developing policies for recreational development and land use.
Congress also may oversee agency efforts to establish, collect, and distribute fees for
recreation at federal lands and waters.
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CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB10093, National Park Management and Recreation,
coordinated by Carol Hardy Vincent.
CRS Report RS21861, Recreational Fee Demonstration Program: Retaining
the Program?, by Carol Hardy Vincent.
Wilderness and Roadless Areas. Federal agencies manage some federal
lands to preserve natural conditions, for biological, recreational, or scenic purposes.
In 1964, the Wilderness Act created the National Wilderness Preservation System,
with statutory protections that emphasize preserving areas in their natural state.
Although a few exceptions were provided in the act, wilderness areas included in the
System cannot have permanent roads and structures, and use of machines and
mechanized travel is limited. Units of the System can only be designated by
Congress, and many bills to designate wilderness areas are introduced in each
Congress. Designation of new wilderness areas can be controversial. Many areas
currently being considered are managed by BLM under the Federal Land Policy and
Management Act (FLPMA). Whether FLPMA allows the BLM to conduct additional
wilderness inventories or to create new “Wilderness Study Areas” are current policy
questions, as is the development of language to “release” undesignated study areas
to multiple use management. In addition, some BLM lands do not include the
headwaters of water sources flowing through the land, which may raise water rights
and other issues as part of congressional consideration of designating BLM
wilderness areas.
Management for the remaining forest roadless areas remains a controversial
issue. The Clinton Administration promulgated nationwide rules to administratively
protect the remaining “roadless areas” in the National Forest System by precluding
most roads and timber cutting. These roadless rules have been called de facto
wilderness management even though roads and timbering were allowed in more
instances than is true for areas in the National Wilderness Preservation System. The
validity of the rules has been litigated, and enforcement of the rules has been
enjoined. The Bush Administration has proposed alternative rules that would
eliminate a nationwide approach, return management of roadless areas to each forest
unit, and give governors of the various states a role in making recommendations on
the management of roadless areas. These proposed rules may be finalized soon.
Congress may conduct oversight of agency rulemaking on roadless areas or consider
related legislation.
CRS Products
CRS Report RS21917, Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Wilderness Review
Issues, by Ross W. Gorte and Pamela Baldwin.
CRS Report RL32393, Federal Land Management Agencies: Background on
Land and Resources Management, coordinated by Carol Hardy Vincent.
CRS Report RL30647, The National Forest System Roadless Areas Initiative,
by Pamela Baldwin.
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Ocean Affairs and Earth Sciences
Assessing Ocean Policy. Two reports present ocean policy issues that the
109th Congress may consider. In June 2003, the Pew Oceans Commission presented
to Congress and the nation 26 recommendations in its final report, America’s Living
Oceans: Charting a Course for Sea Change. The report outlines a national agenda
for protecting and restoring our oceans. The final report of the U.S. Commission on
Ocean Policy, An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century, containing extensive
recommendations on a coordinated and comprehensive national ocean policy, was
delivered to Congress and the President on September 20, 2004.
These reports cover an array of issues, such as law of the sea; national and
regional governance; federal organization, regulation, and enforcement; offshore
management regimes; funding for sound science and research and for implementing
commission recommendations; oceanic education; coastal and watershed
management; and ecosystem based management. The 109th Congress may consider
legislative responses to the findings and recommendations of both commissions. If
action is deemed appropriate, there would be related questions on the timing and
level of that response and the fiscal implications and out-year budgetary impacts on
current and future ocean programs. While some argue that congressional action is
more pressing for expiring and expired major coastal and marine laws, the U.S.
Commission’s report counsels delay until Congress can examine the report and
possibly draw from it as the reauthorization process proceeds. Early consideration
in the 109th Congress appears likely for an organic act for the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), a prominent recommendation in both
commission reports. (See “Atmospheric and Oceanic Research, Operations, and
Services,” below.) The same law that created the U.S. Commission also requires the
President to submit to Congress a statement of proposals implementing or responding
to the commission’s recommendations for a national policy on ocean and coastal
resources. That statement was scheduled for delivery to Capitol Hill on December
20, 2004. Committees may hold hearings to assess the Administration’s statement.
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB10132, Ocean Commissions: Ocean Policy Review and
Outlook, by John Justus, Eugene H. Buck, Jeffery Zinn, and Wayne Morrissey.
Atmospheric and Oceanic Research, Operations, and Services.
Atmospheric and oceanic research is conducted for a variety of reasons, including
improving weather forecasts and warnings by the National Weather Service,
monitoring air quality, assessing water availability, and detecting climate change.
Much of civilian oceanic and atmospheric research is done by the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, but other federal agencies also contribute. NOAA
also performs a variety of other activities ranging from climate outlooks to marine
fisheries management. Funding for NOAA is currently authorized under several
laws, because programs from different federal agencies were merged into the agency
when it was created in 1970 and placed in the Department of Commerce.
A NOAA organic act has been proposed for many years to give the agency more
budgetary and decision making autonomy from the Department of Commerce.
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Recent interest in a NOAA organic act is driven by U.S. Ocean Policy Commission
recommendations, which focus on federal agency-wide coordination of ocean and
coastal programs by NOAA. Bills introduced in the 108th Congress addressed NOAA
reorganization, budget authorization, and other Ocean Policy Commission-related
topics. Some or all of these, or other measures, will likely be introduced in the 109th
Congress. Congress may confront related organizational issues, such as establishing
NOAA as an independent agency, or transferring NOAA to another department, or
maintaining the status quo with enhanced budget authority.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL32309, Appropriations for FY2005: Commerce, Justice, State,
the Judiciary, and Related Agencies (section entitled “A NOAA Organic Act”),
coordinated by Ian F. Fergusson and Susan B. Epstein.
CRS Issue Brief IB10132, Ocean Commissions: Ocean Policy Review and
Outlook, by John Justus, Eugene H. Buck, Jeffrey Zinn, and Wayne Morrissey.
Coastal Resources. Coastal resource issues almost always involve conflicts
between human activities in coastal areas and protection of natural resources. While
the country’s coastal counties are only 17% of the nation’s area, they are home to
more than 50% of the country’s population and jobs. Conflicts may increase in
number and intensity as population and development continue to concentrate in
coastal areas. Currently, development is concentrated along the shoreline of most
coastal counties, where it can displace or disrupt wetlands, beaches and dunes,
estuaries, and other highly productive natural systems. At the same time, the
shoreline is exposed to hazardous natural forces including ocean storms, high winds,
and flooding. Where the shoreline is developed, property owners try to stabilize it
in its current location which can increase the loss from hazards, and subsequent
federal outlays.
The coastal zone management program is the central federal effort for managing
coastal development and resource protection. The authorization of appropriations
expired at the end of FY1999, and the 109th Congress may consider reauthorization.
The program provides federal grants to assist states and territories in creating and
administering federally approved plans for development and protection. Statutory
and regulatory guidance for these plans give participants considerable latitude as to
which topics they emphasize. The program also gives participants leverage over
federal actions in or affecting coastal zones by requiring those actions to be
consistent with approved plans. In addition to the reauthorization, Congress may
consider programs that deal with specific coastal resource topics, such as estuaries,
wetlands, beach erosion, or coastal barriers. Many other federal programs apply
more broadly but have large coastal components, such as resource protection
programs for certain federal lands (e.g., seashore units of the National Park System
and units of the National Wildlife Refuge System), and the National Flood Insurance
Program. (See “Natural Disaster Mitigation” below.)
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CRS Products
CRS Report RS20498, Coastal Zone Management Reauthorization: An
Overview, by Jeffrey A. Zinn.
Fishery and Marine Mammal Policy. Two recent ocean policy reports,
discussed in “Assessing Ocean Policy,” expressed concern over U.S. management
and use of fish and marine mammals. These reports recommend measures to address
declining fish stocks and marine mammal populations and to improve the stability
and competitiveness of the U.S. commercial fishing industry. Authorizations of
appropriations for both the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
Management Act (MSFCMA) and the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA)
have expired. The MSFCMA authorized federal management of fishing in waters
of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone beyond state jurisdiction to 200 miles offshore.
The MMPA prohibited taking of marine mammals unless permitted under several
programs. Proposals to reauthorize and amend both the MSFCMA and the MMPA
were considered but not enacted in the 108th Congress. The 109th Congress may
consider similar proposals.
Among the topics likely to arise in amending the MSFCMA are modifying
management of bycatch, the management of larger marine ecosystems, and increasing
protecting for unique habitats, with possible policy questions concerning the
legislative designation of marine protected areas. Proposed reforms also include
creating user fees and other revenue sources to fund conservation, management, and
enforcement. Other proposed changes seek to promote the collection of necessary
data and ensure that regional fishery management council decisions are fair and
balanced. Other proposals aim to enhance the stability of the fishing industry by
implementing programs to reduce fishing capacity and by establishing national
standards for individual fishing quota programs.
Likely topics of debate for amending the MMPA include modifying
management of commercial fishing interactions, robust wild stocks, and marine
mammals in captivity; actions fostering international cooperation on managing
marine mammal populations may also be considered. Discussions of regulatory
changes may encompass subsistence use of marine mammals by Native Americans,
effects of underwater noise of human origin, and incidental takes of marine
mammals.
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB10109, Fishery, Aquaculture, and Marine Mammal
Legislation in the 108th Congress, by Eugene H. Buck.
CRS Report RL30215, The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
Management Act: Reauthorization Issues, by Eugene H. Buck and Daniel A.
Waldeck.
CRS Report RL30120, The Marine Mammal Protection Act: Reauthorization
Issues, by Eugene H. Buck.
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Natural Hazards and Mapping Data Management. In 2004, there was
a rash of natural disasters — hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.
The federal government funds natural hazards research, which contributes to
understanding the scientific reasons for disasters; defines potential disaster locations,
surmises possible impacts, and identifies extent of post-disaster damage and loss.
Resulting data and research findings can be disseminated as electronic data via the
internet. Disaster decision support is possible through federally developed
technologies such as electronic geographic information systems (GIS), remote
sensing, and accurate locator devices. The federal government also funds other
approaches to disaster management, including mitigation and disaster assistance.
Current debate about federal disaster management centers on what is the appropriate
role for the federal government, whether current approaches work, and whether
federal policy is cost effective and beneficial at a national level.
One disaster mitigation effort is spearheaded by the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) in the Department of Homeland Security. FEMA is
engaged in a Flood Map Modernization Initiative (FMMI) to convert all flood plain
maps to digital electronic format, and produce new ones in that format which the
agency contends are more accurate. Congress has been concerned about the progress
of FMMI, its cost, and related issues such as benefits for homeland security, public
access to data and information, and right-to-privacy. A related issue is the interplay
of this initiative with the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) and its coastal
mapping requirements. Some in Congress have sought to remove certain parcels of
land from designated barriers, which have been mapped under CBRA. CBRA maps
can overlap FEMA-designated flood hazard areas, and consequently can be used in
determinations to deny property owners access to federal flood insurance. Also,
some communities have been exempted by law from the National Flood Insurance
Program so they can develop FEMA-designated flood plains and regulated
floodways. Controversies over federal disaster management approaches, flood map
modernization, access to mapping data, and exemptions to CBRA and NFIP could
lead to legislative debates in the 109th Congress.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL32242, Emergency Management Funding for the Department
of Homeland Security: Information and Issues for FY2005, by Keith Bea, Shawn
Reese, Wayne Morrissey, Frank Gottron, and C. Stephen Redhead.
CRS Report RL31691, FEMA’s Flood Hazard Map Modernization Initiative,
by Wayne A. Morrissey.
U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea. The 1982 United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea and the 1994 Agreement Relating to
Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
remain pending before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. The Convention
established a legal regime governing activities on, over, and under the world’s
oceans. If, as it did in 2004, the Committee again favorably recommends Senate
advice and consent to U.S. adherence, this convention may be an issue for the full
Senate in the 109th Congress. The following have been among recent arguments
presented in support of U.S. adherence: participation would protect U.S. interests
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during ongoing deliberations by the Commission on the Limits of the Continental
Shelf, which was created by the Convention, and enable the United States to submit
its own limits; and participation would enhance U.S. efforts to amend the
Convention. November 16, 2004, marked the first opportunity for the proposal of
amendments to the Convention. Some opponents to U.S. adherence assert that
participation in the Convention would be contrary to U.S. national security interests,
especially as the United States carries out its counter-terrorism programs. Opponents
also maintain that fundamental concerns raised in 1982 by the Reagan Administration
were not corrected by the 1994 Agreement, and are concerned about the extent to
which adherence would infringe on U.S. sovereignty.
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB95010, The Law of the Sea Convention and U.S. Policy, by
Marjorie Ann Browne.
CRS Report RL32185, U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea: Living
Resources Provisions, by Eugene H. Buck.
CRS Report RS21890, The U.N. Law of the Sea Convention and the United
States: Developments Since October 2003, by Marjorie Ann Browne.
Species Management and Ecosystem Protection
Endangered Species. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) has been
one of the more contentious environmental laws. This may stem from its strict
substantive provisions, which can affect the use of both federal and nonfederal lands
and resources. Under the ESA, species of plants and animals (both vertebrate and
invertebrate) can be listed as “endangered” or “threatened” according to assessments
of their risk of extinction. Once species are listed, legal tools are available to aid
their recovery and protect their habitat. The ESA also may be controversial because
dwindling species usually are harbingers of resource scarcity: the most common
cause of listing species is habitat loss. The authorization for spending under the ESA
expired on October 1, 1992. The prohibitions and requirements of the ESA remain
in force, even in the absence of an authorization, and funds have been appropriated
to implement the administrative provisions of the ESA in each subsequent fiscal year.
The 109th Congress is likely to focus on various proposals to amend the ESA. Likely
policy questions include changes to the role of science in decision-making; changes
to the definition and process for designating critical habitat; further protections for
private property owners’ interests; and encouragement of increased landowner
protection of listed species.
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB10072, Endangered Species: Difficult Choices, by Eugene
H. Buck, M. Lynne Corn, and Pamela Baldwin.
International Species Protection and Conservation. The United States
is involved in the conservation of foreign species and natural areas through various
laws and international treaties, such as the ESA and the Convention on International
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Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). CITES is an international agreement among
national governments that aims to ensure that the international trade in plants and
animals does not threaten their survival. The ESA protects foreign endangered
species by limiting or banning their import into the United States, and implements
CITES. Overall, the ESA has a more comprehensive approach to foreign species
protection than CITES. For example, the ESA protects species based on several
criteria that may threaten their survival, whereas CITES protects species based solely
on the threat of trade to survival. The United States also assists in the conservation
of some high-visibility foreign species (e.g., tigers and elephants) by providing funds
for conserving their populations and habitat through the Multinational Species
Conservation Fund. The United States also promotes the conservation of tropical
forests in developing countries, most notably through debt-for-nature transactions
under the Tropical Forest Conservation Act.
The 109th Congress may address whether protection for foreign species under
the ESA should be modified to more closely follow CITES. For example, Congress
may oversee a proposed FWS policy to allow limited imports of endangered foreign
species if the import enhances the species’ population. The proposed policy would
move ESA protections closer to CITES. The 109th Congress also may conduct
oversight on the implementation of the Tropical Forest Conservation Act, restoration
of Iraqi marshlands, and the conservation of international fisheries.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL31286, Debt-for-Nature Initiatives and the Tropical Forest
Conservation Act: Status and Implementation, by Pervaze A. Sheikh.
CRS Report RL32433, The Iraq Marshes: Restoration Activities, by Kyna
Powers.
CRS Report RS21157, Multinational Species Conservation Fund, by M. Lynne
Corn and Pervaze A. Sheikh.
Invasive Species. The 109th Congress may consider whether new legislative
authorities and funding are needed to address issues of non-native species and their
increasing economic and ecological impacts. A major unanswered question
regarding non-native species is who should be responsible for ensuring economic
integrity and ecological stability in response to the actual or potential impacts of non-
native species. To date the congressional response to problems posed by harmful
non-native species generally has been to addressing the specific non-native species,
such as brown tree snakes on Guam and impure seed stocks. A few notable efforts
have begun to address specific pathways (e.g., ship ballast water), but no current law
addresses the general concern over non-native species and the wide variety of paths
by which they enter this country. In addition to the benefits that legislation may have
on the variety of natural resources suffering biological damage as a result of non-
native species, many interests could be helped or harmed by legislation, including
domestic and international trade and tourism, industries dependent on bringing in
non-native species, and those dependent on keeping them out. Additional policy
considerations include the balance between response and prevention, overlapping
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jurisdiction of congressional committees, and coordination of the many agencies and
levels of government now dealing with this invasive species.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL30123, Invasive Non-Native Species: Background and Issues for
Congress, by M. Lynne Corn, Eugene H. Buck, Jean Rawson, Alex Segarra, and Eric
Fischer.
Large-Scale Ecosystem Restoration and Management. In the last 25
years, the United States has devoted substantial efforts and spent billions of dollars
on restoring some large ecosystems such as the Florida Everglades, the Chesapeake
Bay, and the San Francisco Bay and Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers Delta
(California Bay-Delta). Many of these efforts have multi-purpose objectives and
benefits, such as improving water supply and conveyance, and managing natural
resources and watersheds. Policy matters at these and other location such as the
allocation of natural resources (e.g., agricultural and municipal water), governance
of restoration initiatives, funding of restoration activities, and the science behind
restoration projects were debated in the 108th Congress and are expected to be
considered in the 109th Congress.
The 109th Congress may consider authorization of additional ecosystem
restoration efforts, such as proposals for restoration of the Upper Mississippi River
System, Great Lakes (also discussed in “Transboundary Water Resources”), and
coastal Louisiana (also discussed in “Wetlands Protection and Restoration”).
Currently authorized initiatives may receive direction through oversight, project
authorizations, and appropriations. For instance, Congress authorized an initial set
of Everglades projects and approved a general restoration framework in 2000;
attempts to authorize additional Everglades restoration projects are expected in the
109th Congress. Requests for additional restoration measures in ongoing initiatives
such as in the Chesapeake Bay also are expected. Oversight of ecosystem restoration
is likely, in particular for water supply and environmental restoration in the
California Bay-Delta, and coordination of Great Lakes restoration through the
recently formed Great Lakes Interagency Task Force.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL31975, CALFED Bay-Delta Program: Overview of Institutional
and Water Use Issues, by Pervaze A. Sheikh and Betsy A. Cody.
CRS Report RL31621, Florida Everglades Restoration: Background on
Implementation and Early Lessons, by Pervaze Sheikh.
CRS Report RL32630, Upper Mississippi River System: Proposals to Restore
an Inland Waterway’s Ecosystem, by Kyna Powers and Nicole T. Carter.
Wetlands Protection and Restoration. Today there are about 105 million
acres of wetlands, of an estimated 220 million acres present when Europeans arrived
in the area that became the 48 coterminus states. Until the early 1980s, federal
policies emphasized converting wetlands to other uses, primarily agricultural
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production. Since then, these policies have been revised, and now seek to retain
wetlands for their resource values. Presidents, starting with George H. W. Bush,
have articulated a goal of either no-net-loss or net-gain. The current Bush
Administration has announced that wetland protection will be a second term priority,
with a goal of restoring or improving 3 million acres.
Congress has supported recent wetland protection efforts by altering or
eliminating programs that contributed to wetland destruction and by creating new
protection programs. Recent Congresses have focused on conflicts between the
rights of landowners and protection efforts because almost 75% of all wetlands are
on private lands. The 109th Congress is likely to continue reviewing federal
protection efforts, such as the permit program of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
under §404 of the Clean Water Act and federal acquisition and easement programs.
Congress also may conduct oversight regarding changes in wetland acreage,
including where wetlands are being lost or gained; how different types of wetlands
are affected by protection efforts; and the effectiveness of various protection
approaches and programs. Large scale ecosystem restoration programs, such as
coastal Louisiana and the Everglades, designed both to restore existing wetlands and
create additional wetlands may attract interest. (See “Large-Scale Ecosystem
Restoration and Management,” above.)
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB97014, Wetland Issues, by Jeffrey A. Zinn and Claudia
Copeland.
Water Resources
Assessing Federal Water Resources Policy and Research.
Responsibilities for federal water resources planning, management, and development
are spread among many congressional committees, and among many federal
departments, agencies, and bureaus. Recurrent pressures on existing water supplies
(from population growth, drought, species needs, and changing public interests, etc.)
have fostered interest in evaluating the federal role in water resources planning,
management, and infrastructure development. This interest manifested itself in
several ways during the 108th Congress. Examples range from national-level
legislation to establish a new national water policy commission, provide periodic
water resource assessments, and change water resources project planning, to site-
specific authorization of multi-faceted water supply and ecosystem restoration
projects. Similar water resource legislation is expected in the 109th Congress.
Increased federal support for water technology research and integrated water and
energy research was the focus of proposed legislation in the 108th Congress and also
may be the subject of legislation in the 109th.
CRS Products
CRS Report RS20569, Water Resource Issues in the 108th Congress, by Betsy
A. Cody and H. Steven Hughes.
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Army Corps of Engineers. Congress regularly authorizes and reviews
water resources programs and projects of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in a
Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) and/or the annual Energy and Water
Development Appropriations acts. Consideration of a WRDA, which typically has
been biennial, is likely in 2005; the last WRDA was enacted in 2000. Debate of a
WRDA in the 109th Congress is likely to include discussions of whether or not to
require controversial changes to project development and evaluation practices at the
Corps. WRDA debates also are likely on changes to state and local roles in projects
and authorization of high-profile projects, such as coastal Louisiana restoration and
lock expansion and ecosystem restoration for the Upper Mississippi River.
Congressional concern has been raised by a shift, beginning with the FY2005
budget request, to performance-based budgeting for the Corps. The shift contributed
to the Administration reducing support for operation and maintenance of some
waterways and a policy of not funding sand renourishment of beach protection
projects after an initial nourishment. Congress may provide the Corps direction in
appropriations bills on these issues, as well as on security of Corps facilities,
implementation of Florida Everglades ecosystem restoration, and flow management
of the Missouri River. Congress may provide direction on agency management
issues, such as internal reorganization, strategic planning, and competitive sourcing
efforts, in either a WRDA or an appropriation bill.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL32064, Army Corps of Engineers Water Resources Activities:
Authorization and Appropriations, by Nicole T. Carter.
CRS Issue Brief IB10133, Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) and
Other Army Corps of Engineers Legislation, coordinated by Nicole T. Carter.
Bureau of Reclamation. The Bureau of Reclamation operates hundreds of
federal dams, reservoirs, and distribution facilities throughout the western United
States. As the largest wholesale water supplier (primarily to irrigation) and the
second largest hydro-electric power producer in the country, the Bureau’s facilities
are intricately involved in myriad western water resource issues. Perennial matters
for Congress involve appropriations for authorized construction and levels of funding
for newly authorized water re-use (Title 16) and rural water supply projects.
Other topics of congressional debate involve project management and operations
— particularly how project operations and water contract renewals affect federally
listed threatened and endangered species, and how requirements to alter project
operations to protect such species affect long-term water users. Areas where project
operations are particularly controversial include the Klamath River basin (OR and
CA); the Trinity River basin (CA); the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers (CA),
including the Bay-Delta area where they converge; and the Middle Rio Grande area
(NM). Overarching legislation to address water issues in California (CALFED) was
enacted at the end of the 108th Congress; however, activities such as progress on
storage projects and federal spending, as well as efforts to increase pumping and
renew long-term contracts, may receive congressional oversight and judicial attention
during the 109th Congress. Other areas of congressional interest are more
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programmatic, such as whether the Bureau should continue to invest in water re-use
projects and whether a rural water supply program ought to be established. (See
“Rural and Municipal Water Supply,” below.)
CRS Products
CRS Report RL31975, CALFED Bay-Delta Program: Overview of Institutional
and Water Use Issues, by Pervaze A. Sheikh and Betsy A. Cody.
CRS Report RL31098, Klamath River Basin Issues: An Overview of Water Use
Conflicts, by Betsy A. Cody, Pamela Baldwin, and Eugene H. Buck.
CRS Issue Brief IB10019, Western Water Resource Issues, by Betsy A. Cody
and Pervaze A. Sheikh.
Dams. While the nation’s more than 77,000 federal and nonfederal dams
provide multiple benefits, they also pose risks. Although dam failures have been
rare, dam safety and security is a concern because approximately 30% of U.S. dams
are situated such that their failure or mis-operation would threaten lives or
infrastructure. Age, construction deficiencies, inadequate maintenance, and seismic
or weather events may contribute to structural integrity. As state and municipal
budgets tighten, and more dams reach the end of their projected useful lives,
pressures are likely to grow for federal funding to rehabilitate or remove nonfederal
dams. Other potential questions for the 109th Congress may include reauthorizing
appropriations for specific dam safety programs. Security of most federal dams was
assessed after September 11, 2001; for the most part, security now competes for
agency appropriations with longer-standing safety and other operation and
maintenance activities involving federal facilities.
The 109th Congress also may address hydropower licensing reform. Operating
licenses for many hydropower facilities are due to expire. Relicensing will define
how these facilities are managed for the next 30-50 years. Within the current
licensing process, certain state and federal agencies have authority to establish
conditions as part of Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) licenses. The
108th Congress considered bills that would alter agencies’ conditioning authority.
Changes also have been proposed to the Department of the Interior regulations on its
conditioning authority. Given these proposed regulations and FERC’s new Integrated
Licensing Process, it remains to be seen if, and how, the 109th Congress will consider
hydropower licensing reform.
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB10122, Hydropower Licenses and Relicensing Conditions:
Current Issues and Legislative Activity, by Kyna Powers.
Rural and Municipal Water Supply. Increased quantity and quality
pressures on existing water supplies — due to growing population, environmental
regulation, in-stream species and ecosystem needs, water source contamination,
agricultural water demand, and changing public interests — have resulted in
heightened water use conflicts throughout the country, particularly in the West.
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These factors, coupled with the severity of recent drought in much of the West, have
fostered interest in new water supply development, supply augmentation, and security
of water supplies. Historically, local, regional, or state agencies generally have been
responsible for water supply, and have been wary of federal involvement in allocating
water. Small and rural communities, however, increasingly have come to Congress
for assistance with rural water supply projects, while urban communities have
pressed for assistance with new technologies to augment water supply, primarily
through desalination and water re-use or reclamation technologies.
One congressional response over the last two decades has been authorization for
the Bureau of Reclamation to construct individual rural water supply projects and
water reclamation and re-use facilities (Title 16 projects). Central questions for the
109th Congress are how these activities mesh with other federal programs to assist
communities with federal drinking water requirements, and whether a new rural
water supply program is needed for western states. The 108th Congress considered,
but did not enact, western rural water supply legislation.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL30478, Federally Supported Water Supply and Wastewater
Treatment Programs, by Resources, Science, and Industry Division.
CRS Issue Brief IB10118, Safe Drinking Water Act: Implementation and Issues,
by Mary Tiemann.
CRS Issue Brief IB10019, Western Water Resource Issues, by Betsy A. Cody
and Pervaze A. Sheikh.
Transboundary Water Resources. U.S. boundary waters — water basins
and aquifers shared by the United States and neighboring nations — often present
contentious resource issues, including water pollution, water withdrawals, and
ecosystem restoration. International cooperation sometimes is hindered by competing
economic interests, differences in governance, and varying levels of environmental
and human health protection. In the Southwest, agricultural interests and
municipalities depend on the Rio Grande River to satisfy growing needs, but
persistent drought and Mexico’s reported failures to deliver water obligated under a
1944 treaty appear to have caused significant economic losses to the region. Past
Congresses have provided significant monetary support to the region and
congressional interest is likely to continue during the 109th Congress.
Much attention also might be focused on the nation’s largest shared freshwater
resource — the Great Lakes. A major area of concern for the 109th Congress might
be the threat of water withdrawals and their potential effects on the environment and
surrounding population. The Council of Great Lakes Governors recently released a
draft agreement among the U.S. and Canada and a compact between the eight Great
Lakes states to create uniform water withdrawal standards; final versions are
anticipated in 2005. Some, however, have alleged that the draft agreement and
compact seriously challenge Canadian sovereignty and facilitate, rather than contain,
water diversions. Upon completion of the final draft, the compact would need to be
approved by each of the eight state legislatures, as well as Congress.
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Water Use Challenges and River Management. The nation’s surface
water and groundwater are used for multiple, sometimes competing, purposes.
Existing arrangements for water use may be challenged during the 109th Congress by
Indian water rights claims, drought conservation and preparedness measures, and
judicial decisions affecting water allocation (e.g., decisions requiring management
changes to support federally-listed threatened and endangered species). As these
demands are placed on available water supplies, a central question in management
is increasingly how to balance or prioritize uses, while satisfying existing water rights
and contractual obligations, especially during drought.
River and reservoir management, in particular, are receiving congressional and
public scrutiny. Rivers provide not only economic benefits — water supply for
agriculture and municipalities, navigation, and flood protection — but also
recreational opportunities and natural habitat. In many cases, Bureau of Reclamation
or Army Corps of Engineers facilities and their operation are central to debates over
multi-purpose rivers. Water resources management by federal agencies remains
controversial and is frequently challenged in the courts, on the Middle Rio Grande,
Colorado, Klamath, Columbia, Snake, Mississippi, and Missouri Rivers. In contrast,
groundwater management has been left primarily to states. The federal role in
groundwater monitoring and studies through agencies such as the USGS,
nonetheless, can be controversial. The 109th Congress may choose to become
involved in surface water and groundwater management through oversight,
legislative direction, authorizing legislation, or appropriations.
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB10120, Army Corps of Engineers Civil Works Program:
Issues for Congress, by Nicole T. Carter and Pervaze A. Sheikh.
CRS Report RS20569, Water Resource Issues in the 108th Congress, by Betsy
A. Cody and H. Steven Hughes.
Other
Arctic Oil, Arctic Refuge (ANWR). The future of the rich biological
resources, wilderness values, and energy potential of northeastern Alaska has been
debated in Congress for over 40 years. The question for Congress is whether to open
a portion of what is now the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) to allow the
development of potentially the richest on-shore source of oil remaining in the United
States, and if so under what restrictions. Alternatively, Congress might choose to
provide further protection for the refuge’s biological and wilderness resources
through statutory wilderness designation, or to maintain the current status of the area.
Under current law, unless Congress chooses to act, the entire refuge will remain
closed to development under provisions of the 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands
Conservation Act. Prospects for ANWR development legislation have improved
from the 108th Congress with the re-election of President Bush and enhanced support
in the 109th Congress’ House and Senate majority. Currently, the most commonly
discussed scenario for the 109th Congress is incorporation of an ANWR development
title in a budget reconciliation package, which could help avoid a filibuster by
opponents in the Senate.
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CRS Products
CRS Report RL31278, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: Background and Issues,
coordinated by M. Lynne Corn.
CRS Issue Brief IB10111, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR):
Controversies for the 108th Congress, by M. Lynne Corn, Bernard A. Gelb, and
Pamela Baldwin.
Energy and Mineral Resources on Federal Lands. A controversial
question is whether to increase access to federal lands for energy and mineral
development. Comprehensive energy legislation, which could affect energy
development on federal lands and the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), was considered
in the 108th Congress and is being planned for the 109th Congress. An issue that may
arise in energy legislation is access to energy and mineral resources on federal lands.
The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that significant oil and gas resources exist
below some federal lands now off-limits to energy development, particularly in the
Rocky Mountain region. The industry contends that entry into these areas is
necessary to ensure future domestic oil and gas supplies. Opponents to opening these
areas maintain that there are environmental risks, and the United States could meet
its energy needs through increased exploration elsewhere and energy conservation.
BLM recently implemented new management strategies intended to remove
impediments and streamline the permitting process for developing resources on
federal lands in general.
The OCS contains significant energy resources. The U.S. Gulf of Mexico is
identified by the Energy Information Administration as the most promising region
for new additions to U.S. oil reserves. The Minerals Management Service projects
Gulf oil production could be as high as 2.25 million barrels per day by 2011, 50%
higher than current production. Natural gas production is projected to reach 13 billion
cubic feet per day by 2011, more than twice its current level. These forecasts reflect
retaining the current leasing moratoria for certain areas, although there is industry
interest in accessing areas under moratoria. The moratoria were imposed in response
to economic and environmental concerns over drilling near coastal communities.
Another debate is whether, and how, to create a federal authority to administer future
use of the OCS for renewable energy production.
There generally is bipartisan interest in reforming the General Mining Law of
1872, which likely would include some form of royalty paid to the U.S. Treasury.
The mining industry also is interested in removing alleged permitting delays, while
some environment groups press for stricter environmental regulations.
CRS Products
CRS Issue Brief IB89130, Mining on Federal Lands, by Marc Humphries.
CRS Report RL32315, Oil and Gas Exploration and Development on Public
Lands, by Marc Humphries.
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CRS Report RL31521, Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas: Energy Security
and Other Major Issues, by Marc Humphries.
Indian Lands and Resources. American Indian reservations (trust and
non-trust lands), off-reservation trust lands, and Alaska Native corporation lands
(non-trust) cover more than 116 million acres (5%) of the United States — about 71
million acres in the lower 48 states and about 45 million acres in Alaska. Indian
tribes and individuals also are interested in non-Indian lands, waters, and other
natural resources, as subjects of legal rights, objects of legal claims, culturally
important areas, or economic resources.
On Indian trust lands (55 million acres), tribes have sought to increase their
autonomy to develop energy resources by reducing the trust oversight role of the
Department of the Interior. The omnibus energy bill considered in the 108th Congress
included provisions that would have allowed energy-related agreements based on
tribal rather than federal regulations; the provisions led to fears that tribes would not
only avoid federal environmental reviews but also lose federal trust protections
against losses. The energy bill will likely be reintroduced in the 109th Congress.
Indian tribes also have sought through legislation to improve planning for fish and
wildlife management on Indian lands.
Among significant topics for non-Indian areas, other than land claims, are rights
to water and to wildlife resources. Indian tribes have asserted water rights claims in
a number of western states, and many tribes are participating in negotiations or
adjudications with states, local governments, and other water users. The 108th
Congress approved negotiated water-rights settlements for the Nez Perce Tribe
regarding the Snake River in Idaho and for some central Arizona tribes, but the 109th
Congress may be asked to consider related Arizona and New Mexico tribal
settlements. Management of fish and wildlife on non-Indian lands and waters — for
instance, salmon and other fish in the Klamath and Trinity river basins (CA and OR),
marine mammals in the north Pacific, or caribou in ANWR — also has given rise to
water rights, fishing, and development controversies that Congress has been asked
to address. Another tribal issue on non-Indian lands concerns Indian sacred sites on
federal lands. Tribes have long promoted legislation to protect sacred sites and give
tribes a role in their management, but federal land managers and private companies
have voiced fears that such a management role might enable tribes to restrict
statutory uses, such as development or recreation.
CRS Products
CRS Report RL31098, Klamath River Basin Issues: An Overview of Water Use
Conflicts, coordinated by Betsy A. Cody.
CRS Report RS21670, Major Indian Issues in the 108th Congress, by Roger
Walke.
Natural Disaster Mitigation. Efforts have accelerated in recent years to save
lives and prevent property loss caused by natural disasters. Local land use plans,
particularly in districts struck by multiple floods (referred to as “repetitive loss”
areas), have been and continue to be revised. Development and construction patterns
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of the past have been altered, resulting in the relocation or elevation of homes and
businesses to prevent flood damages. Many buildings susceptible to earthquake
damage have been reinforced (“retrofitted”) to reduce the likelihood of damage or
loss of life or injury. Homeowners in rural areas at risk from wildfires have been
encouraged or required to make landscaping or construction changes to minimize
such risks. Hurricane damages have been reduced in some coastal areas through the
adoption and enforcement of strict building code provisions.
These and other hazard mitigation actions may help achieve desired goals. At
the same time, pressures remain to develop areas and use private property
notwithstanding their disaster risk. As a result, considerable debate has developed
on specific policies and the federal role in such actions. Areas of congressional
debate and related questions include the following.
! The federal government historically has provided disaster assistance
after state and local governments are overwhelmed by natural
disasters. To what extent does federal disaster relief reduce
community and individual incentives to undertake mitigation?
! The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) mandates that
participating property owners and communities undertake specified
mitigative actions. Some analysts contend that NFIP premiums do
not fully reflect actual costs, and that the program reduces disaster
resilience and prevention efforts by encouraging property owners to
rebuild in flood zones. Should Congress further modify the National
Flood Insurance Act to balance the need for insurance and rebuilding
with the goal of preventing disasters or reducing their impacts?
! The federal government provides funds for hazard mitigation
activities, including updating and modernizing flood zone maps.
(See “Natural Hazards and Mapping Data Management,” above.)
Are current tools sufficient to help Congress establish priorities and
determine the cost effectiveness of federal spending for these
activities?
CRS Products
CRS Report RL32242, Emergency Management Funding for the Department
of Homeland Security: Information and Issues for FY2005, by Keith Bea, Shawn
Reese, Wayne Morrissey, Frank Gottron, and C. Stephen Redhead.
Private Land Conservation. Natural resource questions related to private
lands that attract congressional attention are many and varied. Some center on the
effects of private land uses on natural resources, especially in rural areas.
Agricultural production — including crop and livestock production — occupies
about 41% of land in the lower 48 states, according to the National Agricultural
Statistics Service of the Department of Agriculture (USDA). It can contribute to
pesticide and nutrient runoff, soil erosion, air pollution, and loss of wildlife habitat.
USDA administers many voluntary programs which provide technical assistance,
funding, education, and research to help farmers address these problems. Some
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programs pay producers to retire lands that have high resource values, such as
wetlands, while other programs help producers grow crops in ways that protect
resources and environmental conditions. About 40 million acres of land (10% of all
cropland) is retired through federal conservation programs, using multi-year rental
agreements or easements. USDA states that its programs have reduced soil erosion
and increased wetland area. However, the effect of its programs on nutrient and
pesticide runoff and other problems has not been well measured. Many of these
conservation programs expire in FY2007, and the 109th Congress is likely to discuss
them as part of the farm bill debate.
Another set of resource questions is associated with development as it spreads
from established urban centers into less developed areas, including farm land. This
development can contribute to declines in habitat and environmental quality. Growth
is largely managed by local and state governments, but Congress could limit, guide,
or foster growth through federal programs to build roads, sewer and water lines, and
public facilities. Growth also could be addressed in omnibus transportation
legislation or other measures that designate sites or provide guidance for federal
projects or facilities.
A third set of resource questions can occur where private and public ownership
abut. At these locations, land use and resource protection goals may be incompatible,
leading to conflict over such topics as predator and weed control, and habitat for
important species. At the same time, private landowners often contend that public
land management is inconsistent and unresponsive to their concerns. Congress has
discussed some of these topics, largely on a case-by-case basis, but may look for
more systematic responses. Currently, few federal programs apply in the same way
to both public and private lands.
CRS Products
CRS Report RS20011, Managing Regional Growth: Is There a Role for
Congress?, by Jeffrey A. Zinn.
CRS Issue Brief IB96030, Soil and Water Conservation Issues, by Jeffrey A.
Zinn.