Order Code RL31849
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Energy: Useful Facts and Numbers
Updated October 27, 2003
Carol Glover
Technical Information Specialist
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Carl E. Behrens
Specialist in Energy Policy
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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Energy: Useful Facts and Numbers
Summary
Energy supplies and prices are a major economic factor in the United States, and
energy markets are volatile and unpredictable. For both these reasons, energy policy
is of frequent interest to the Congress. This report presents a statistical view of the
supply and consumption of various forms of energy. Both long-term trends and
short-term variations are given.
After an introductory overview of aggregate energy consumption, the report
presents detailed analysis of trends and statistics regarding specific energy sources:
oil, electricity, natural gas, and coal. A section on trends in energy efficiency is also
presented.
This report will be frequently updated with the latest available figures.

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Contacts
Area of Expertise
Name
Telephone
Introduction & General
Carl Behrens
7-8303
Oil
Larry Kumins
7-7250
Energy Taxes
Salvatore Lazzari
7-7825
Electricity
Amy Abel
7-7239
Other Conventional
Natural Gas
Larry Kumins
7-7250
Coal
Marc Humphries
7-7264
Nuclear Energy
Mark Holt
7-1704
Conservation & Energy Efficiency
Solar & Renewable Energy
Fred Sissine
7-7039
Larry Parker
7-7238
Brent Yacobucci
7-9662
CAFE Standards (vehicle fuel economy)
Rob Bamberger
7-7240
Statistics, Tables & Figures
Carol Glover
7-7353

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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Petroleum Consumption, Supply and Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Petroleum and Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Petroleum Prices: Historical Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Short-Term Petroleum Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Other Conventional Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Conservation and Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Vehicle Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Energy Consumption and GDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Major Statistical Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Links to Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Energy Information Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Other Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
List of Figures
Figure 1. Per Capita Energy Consumption in Transportation
and Residential Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 2. Electricity Use: Commercial, Residential & Industrial Sectors . . . . . . . 4
Figure 3. Fossil Fuel Consumption, 1950-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 4. World Crude Oil Reserves, 1973-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 5. U.S. Dependence on Imported Petroleum, 1960-2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 6. Transportation Use of Petroleum, 1950-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 7. Crude Oil Prices, 1968-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 8. Price Per Gallon of Motor Gasoline, 1949-2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 9. Consumer Spending on Oil as % of GDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 10. Daily Crude Oil and Wholesale Gasoline
Spot Prices, Dec. 2001-Aug. 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 11. Daily Wholesale Heating Oil Spot Prices, Dec. 2001-Aug. 2003 . . . 15
Figure 12. Electricity Generation by Source, selected years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 13. Capacity Additions 1990-1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 14. Price of Retail Residential Electricity, 1960-2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 15. Natural Gas Prices to Electric Utilities, 1978 - 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 16. Motor Vehicle Fuel Rates, 1973-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 17. Oil & Gas Consumption per Dollar of GDP, 1973-2001 . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 18. Change in Oil & Gas Consumption & Growth in GDP, 1973-2001 . 27

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List of Tables
Table 1. U.S. Energy Consumption, 1950-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Table 2. Energy Consumption in Quads and Percent of Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table 3. Petroleum Use by Sector, 1950-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Table 4. U.S. Crude Oil Production, 1955-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table 5. Transportation Use of Petroleum, 1950-2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Table 6. Crude Oil Prices, 1968-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Table 7. State and Local Retail Gasoline Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 7. State and Local Retail Gasoline Taxes (continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 8. Electricity Generation by Region and Fuel, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table 9. Natural Gas Consumption by Sector, 1950-2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 10. Coal Consumption by Sector, 1950-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

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Energy: Useful Facts and Numbers
Introduction
Tracking changes in energy activity is complicated by variations in different
energy markets, most of which operate independently. Since aggregate indicators of
total energy production and consumption do not adequately reflect these
complexities, this compendium focuses on the details of individual activities.
Primary among these are oil, particularly gasoline for transportation, and electricity
generation and consumption.
Natural gas is also an important energy source,
particularly in industry and electricity generation. Coal is used almost entirely for
electricity generation, nuclear and hydropower completely so.
Solar power and other renewable sources (except hydropower) continue to offer
more potential than actual energy production. Conservation and energy efficiency
have shown significant gains over the past three decades, however, and offer
encouraging potential to relieve some of the dependence on imports that has caused
economic difficulties in the past.
To give a general view of energy consumption trends, Table 1 shows
consumption by economic sector — residential, commercial, transportation, and
industry — from 1950 to the present. To supplement this overview, some of the
trends are highlighted by graphs in Figures 1 and 2.
In viewing these figures, a note on units of energy may be helpful. Each source
has its own unit of energy. Oil, for instance, is measured in million barrels per day
(mbd), coal in million tons per year, natural gas in trillion cubic feet (TCF) per year.
To aggregate various types of energy in a single table, a common measure, British
Thermal Unit (Btu) is often used. In Table 1, energy consumption by sector is given
in units of quadrillion Btus per year, or “quads,” while per capita consumption is
given in million Btus (Mbtu) per year. One quad corresponds to one TCF of natural
gas, or approximately 50 million tons of coal. One million barrels per day of oil is
approximately 2 quads per year. Approximately 3,600 kilowatt-hours (kwh) of
electricity is equivalent to one Mbtu.
From Table 1 it can be seen that total U.S. energy consumption almost tripled
in the half century from 1950 to 2000, with the industrial sector, the heaviest energy
user, growing at the slowest rate. When population increase is accounted for, the
growth in energy consumption during the period was about 50%. As Figure 1
illustrates, much of the growth in per capita energy consumption took place before
1970.
Table 1 does not include consumption of energy by the electricity sector,
because it is both a producer and a consumer of energy.
For the residential,

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CRS-2
commercial, industrial and transportation sectors, the consumption figures given are
the sum of the resources such as oil and gas that are directly consumed, plus the total
energy used to produce the electricity each sector consumed.
As Figure 2
demonstrates, a major trend during the 50-year period was the electrification of the
residential and commercial sectors, and also of industry to a lesser extent. By the end
of the century, electricity represented 75% of residential energy consumption, 65%
of commercial energy consumption, and close to 40% of industrial energy
consumption.
Table 1. U.S. Energy Consumption, 1950-2002
Energy Consumption by Sector
Population Consumption Per Capita
(Quads)
(million)
(MBtu)
Year
Resid. Comm. Indus. Trans.
Total
Resid.
Trans.
Total
1950
6.0
3.9
16.2
8.5
34.6
152.3
39.6
55.8
227.5
1955
7.7
3.9
19.5
9.6
40.2
165.9
46.4
57.6
242.5
1960
9.1
4.6
20.8
10.6
45.1
180.7
50.4
58.7
249.7
1965
10.7
5.8
25.1
12.4
54.0
194.3
55.1
64.0
278.0
1970
13.8
8.3
29.6
16.1
67.9
205.1
67.4
78.5
330.9
1975
14.8
9.5
29.4
18.2
72.0
216.0
68.5
84.5
333.6
1980
15.8
10.6
32.2
19.7
78.3
227.2
69.5
86.7
344.6
1985
15.9
11.5
29.0
20.1
76.4
237.9
66.8
84.4
321.1
1990
16.9
13.3
31.9
22.5
84.6
249.5
67.7
90.4
339.1
1995
18.7
14.7
33.9
24.0
91.2
262.8
71.2
91.2
347.0
2000
20.5
17.2
34.6
26.7
98.9
282.1
72.7
94.6
350.6
2001
20.2
17.3
32.3
26.5
96.3
285.3
70.8
92.9
337.5
2002
20.9
17.4
32.5
26.8
97.7
288.4
72.5
92.9
338.8
Source: CRS; Updated 10/8/03.Original data from Energy Information Administration (EIA), Annual
Energy Review, 2001, Table 2.1a. Revised data, 1975 and later, from Monthly Energy Review, August
2003, Table 2.1. Population estimates, 2001-2002 from Census Bureau, July figures. Per Capita data
calculated.

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CRS-3
Figure 1. Per Capita Energy Consumption in Transportation
and Residential Sectors, 1949-2002
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 2.1a. Revised
10/09/03 from Monthly Energy Review September 2003 Table 2.1 for data post-1973.

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CRS-4
Figure 2. Electricity Use: Commercial, Residential & Industrial Sectors,
1949-2002
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 2.1a. Revised
10/09/03 from Monthly Energy Review September 2003 Table 2.1 for data post-1973.
Consumption of major energy resources — petroleum, natural gas, and coal —
is presented in Table 2, and shown graphically in Figure 3. The historical trends
show that petroleum has been and continues to be the major source of energy, rising
from about 38% in 1950 to 45% in 1975, then declining to about 40% in response to
the energy crisis of the 1970’s. Natural gas followed a similar pattern at a lower
level, increasing its share of total energy from just 6% in 1950 to over 30% in 1970,
then declining to about 20%. Coal, still a major energy source in 1950 at 35%,
declined to about 20% a decade later and remained at about that level for the rest of
the century.

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CRS-5
Table 2. Energy Consumption in Quads and Percent of Total
Petroleum
Natural Gas
Coal
Other
Total
1950
13.3
38.4%
6.0
17.3%
12.3
35.5%
3.0
8.7%
34.6
1955
17.3
43.0%
9.0
22.4%
11.2
27.9%
2.7
6.7%
40.2
1960
19.9
44.1%
12.4
27.5%
9.8
21.7%
3.0
6.7%
45.1
1965
23.2
43.0%
15.8
29.3%
11.6
21.5%
3.4
6.3%
54.0
1970
29.5
43.4%
21.8
32.1%
12.3
18.1%
4.3
6.3%
67.9
1975
32.7
45.4%
19.9
27.6%
12.7
17.6%
6.7
9.3%
72.0
1980
34.2
43.7%
20.4
26.1%
15.4
19.7%
8.3
10.6%
78.3
1985
30.9
40.4%
17.8
23.3%
17.5
22.9%
10.2
13.4%
76.4
1990
33.6
39.7%
19.7
23.3%
19.2
22.7%
12.1
14.3%
84.6
1995
34.6
37.9%
22.8
25.0%
20.1
22.0%
13.7
15.0%
91.2
2000
38.4
38.8%
24.0
24.3%
22.6
22.9%
13.9
14.1%
98.9
2001
38.3
39.8%
22.9
23.8%
21.9
22.7%
13.2
13.7%
96.3
2002
38.4
39.3%
23.1
23.7%
22.2
22.7%
13.9
14.2%
97.6
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 1.3 &
Monthly Energy Review, Dec. 2002, Tables 2.2-2.6. Updated 9/10/03 From MER Table 1.3.
Figure 3. Fossil Fuel Consumption, 1950-2002
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 1.3. Updated
9/10/03 From MER Table 1.3.

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CRS-6
Oil
Almost 40% of the energy consumed in the United States is supplied by
petroleum, and that proportion has remained approximately the same since 1950, as
the data in the previous section show. Also unchanged is the almost total dependence
of the transportation sector on petroleum, mostly gasoline.
The perception that the world is on the verge of running out of oil, widespread
during the 1970’s, has changed, however. The rapid price increases at that time,
aided by improved exploration and production technology, stimulated a global search
for oil, and resulted in the discovery of large amounts of new reserves. Indeed, as
concerns about tightening supply and continually increasing prices were at a peak,
proven reserves actually increased by about 50% between 1973 and 1990. Some of
the increase was in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in Mexico, but most was located
in the region that already dominated the world oil market, the Middle East. With
prices essentially steady during the 1990s, the search for oil slowed, but additions to
reserves during the decade exceeded the amount of oil pumped out of the ground, as
shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. World Crude Oil Reserves, 1973-2000
Source: EIA, International Energy Annual, 1990, & 2000, Table 32.

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CRS-7
Petroleum Consumption, Supply and Imports
Table 3. Petroleum Use by Sector, 1950-2000
(million barrels per day)
Residential -
Industrial Electricity Transportation
Total
Commercial
1950
1.1
1.8
0.2
3.4
6.4
1955
1.3
2.4
0.2
4.5
8.5
1960
1.7
2.7
0.2
5.1
9.8
1965
1.9
3.2
0.3
6.0
11.5
1970
2.2
3.8
0.9
7.8
14.7
1975
1.9
4.0
1.4
9.0
16.3
1980
1.5
4.8
1.2
9.5
17.1
1985
1.3
4.1
0.5
9.9
15.7
1990
1.1
4.3
0.6
11.0
17.0
1995
1.1
4.6
0.3
11.7
17.7
2000
1.2
4.9
0.5
13.1
19.7
Source: EIA, Monthly Energy Review, Dec. 2002, Tables 2.2-2.6.
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review 2001, Tables 5.12a-d.
Table 3. Petroleum Consumption by Sector, 1950-2001
(MBD and Percent of Total)
Residential-
Industrial
Electric
Transportation
Total
Commercial
MBD
Percent
MBD
Percent
MBD
Percent
MBD
Percent
MBD
1950
1.1
17.2%
1.8
28.1%
0.2
3.1%
3.4
53.1%
6.4
1955
1.3
15.3%
2.4
28.2%
0.2
2.4%
4.5
52.9%
8.5
1960
1.7
17.3%
2.7
27.6%
0.2
2.0%
5.1
52.0%
9.8
1965
1.9
16.5%
3.2
27.8%
0.3
2.6%
6.0
52.2%
11.5
1970
2.2
15.0%
3.8
25.9%
0.9
6.1%
7.8
53.1%
14.7
1975
1.9
11.7%
4.0
24.5%
1.4
8.6%
9.0
55.2%
16.3
1980
1.5
8.8%
4.8
28.1%
1.2
7.0%
9.5
55.6%
17.1
1985
1.3
8.3%
4.1
26.1%
0.5
3.2%
9.9
63.1%
15.7
1990
1.1
6.5%
4.3
25.3%
0.6
3.5%
11.0
64.7%
17.0
1995
1.1
6.2%
4.6
26.0%
0.3
1.7%
11.7
66.1%
17.7
2000
1.2
6.1%
4.9
24.9%
0.5
2.5%
13.1
66.5%
19.7
2001
1.2
6.1%
4.7
23.8%
0.6
3.1%
13.2
67.3%
19.6
Source: EIA, Monthly Energy Review, Dec. 2002, Tables 2.2-2.6.
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review 2001, Tables 5.12a-d.
Consumption of petroleum by sector reflects a variety of trends. In the
residential and commercial sectors petroleum consumption grew steadily from
1950 to 1970, while accounting for about 15% of total petroleum consumption.
After the price surge in the 1970s, consumption in those sectors declined, falling

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CRS-8
to about 6% of total petroleum consumption in 2000. Usage in the electric power
sector followed a similar but more abrupt pattern. Until 1970 only about 3% of
petroleum went to power generation. In the late 1960’s efforts to improve air
quality by reducing emissions led utilities to convert a number of coal-fired
powerplants to burn oil, and many new plants were designed to burn oil or natural
gas. Utilities found themselves committed to increasing dependence on oil just at
the time of shortages and high prices; in 1975 almost 9% of oil consumption went
for power production. Consumption then fell sharply as alternate sources became
available, declining to about 2% of total consumption in 2000.
Industrial consumption of petroleum, which includes such large consumers
as refineries and petrochemical industries, has remained about 25% of total
consumption throughout the last half-century. As other sectors’ share fell,
transportation, which was a little more than half of total consumption prior to
1975, climbed to almost two-thirds by 2000.

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CRS-9
Table 4. U.S. Crude Oil Production, 1955-2000
(mbd)
48 States
Alaska
Total
1955
6.8
—
6.8
1960
7.0
—
7.0
1965
7.8
—
7.8
1970
9.4
0.2
9.6
1975
8.2
0.2
8.4
1980
7.0
1.6
8.6
1985
7.1
1.8
9.0
1990
5.6
1.8
7.4
1995
5.1
1.5
6.6
2000
4.9
1.0
5.8
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 5.2.
While petroleum consumption increased throughout the last half century
(except for a temporary decline following the price surge of the 1970s), U.S.
domestic production peaked in 1970. The result, as shown in Figure 5, was
greater dependence on imported petroleum, which rose from less than 20% in
1960 to more than 50% by 2000.
Figure 5. U.S. Dependence on Imported Petroleum, 1960-2002
Source: EIA, Monthly Energy Review, Dec. ‘02, Table 1.8 & Annual Energy Review, 1986, Table
51. Updated 10/03: MER, September 2003, Table 1.7.

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CRS-10
Petroleum and Transportation
Table 5. Transportation Use of Petroleum, 1950-2001
(mbd)
Motor
Year
Aviation
Diesel Fuel
Gasoline
Other
Total
1950
0.1
0.2
2.4
0.7
3.4
1955
0.3
0.4
3.2
0.6
4.5
1960
0.5
0.4
3.7
0.5
5.1
1965
0.7
0.5
4.4
0.4
6.0
1970
1.0
0.7
5.6
0.5
7.8
1975
1.0
1.0
6.5
0.5
9.0
1980
1.1
1.3
6.5
0.7
9.6
1985
1.2
1.5
6.7
0.5
9.9
1990
1.5
1.8
7.1
0.6
11.0
1995
1.5
2.0
7.7
0.5
11.7
2000
1.7
2.5
8.4
0.5
13.1
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 5.12c.
Since the transportation sector is so heavily dependent on petroleum, and
uses so much of it, Table 5 presents a more detailed breakdown of the various
types of petroleum used.
Aviation fuel includes both aviation gasoline and kerosene jet fuel. In 1950
aviation was almost entirely gasoline powered; by 2000 it was 99% jet fuel. The
growth in flying is illustrated by the fact that aviation fuel was only 3% of
petroleum consumption in 1950, but had grown to 12% in 1965 and maintained
that share for the rest of the century.
Diesel fuel consumption showed a similar dramatic increase. About 6% of
total petroleum consumption in 1950, it rose to 11% by 1975 and to 13% by 2000.
Diesel fuel is used by a number of transportation sectors. Part of the increase
involved the change of railroads from coal-fired steam to diesel and diesel-electric
power. Diesel fuel is used also in the marine transportation sector, and some
private automobiles are diesel-powered. The major part of diesel fuel
consumption in transportation is by large commercial trucks. Total diesel fuel
consumption increased from about 200,000 barrels per day in 1950 to 2.5 million
barrels per day in 2000.
Most of the petroleum consumed in the transportation sector is motor
gasoline. In 1950 it was 71% of total sector consumption, and by 2000, despite the
increase in aviation fuel and diesel, it was 64%. In that half century, gasoline
consumption increased by a factor of 3.5. Most motor gasoline is consumed by
private vehicles, although commercial small trucks and some large ones are
significant users.
Of the other petroleum products consumed in the transportation sector, the
largest is residual fuel oil, most of which is used in large marine transport.
Consumption of residual fuel oil in the transportation sector was about 500,000
barrels in 1950, and declined gradually to about 400,000 in 2000.

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CRS-11
Figure 6. Transportation Use of Petroleum, 1950-2000
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 5.12c.
Petroleum Prices: Historical Trends
Most commodity prices are typically volatile. Because oil is widely
consumed, and is so important at all levels of the economy, its price is closely
watched and analyzed. Especially since the 1970s, when a generally stable market
dominated by a few large oil companies was broken by the Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) cartel and a relatively open world market
came into being, the price of crude oil has been particularly volatile, as illustrated
in Table 6 and Figure 7.

---

CRS-12
Table 6. Crude Oil Prices, 1968-2000
Nominal
Constant 1996
Year
Dollars
Dollars
1968
3.17
12.05
1969
3.29
11.92
1970
3.40
11.70
1975
10.38
25.93
1980
28.07
49.21
1985
26.75
36.30
1986
14.55
19.32
1990
22.22
25.68
1995
17.23
17.56
1996
20.71
20.71
1997
19.04
18.68
1998
12.52
12.13
1999
17.51
16.73
2000
28.26
26.40
Note: Composite of domestic and imported prices
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 5.19.
Figure 7. Crude Oil Prices, 1968-2000
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 5.19.
At the consumer level, prices of products such as motor gasoline and heating
oil have reacted to price and supply disruptions in ways that have been modulated
by various government and industry policies and international events. A

---

CRS-13
significant and not often noted fact is that, like many commodities, the long-term
trend in gasoline prices, adjusted for inflation, has been down. As shown in
Figure 8, the real price of gasoline in 1998 was significantly lower than in 1949,
and even the increases of the last several years have not driven it much higher
than the earlier level.
Figure 8. Price Per Gallon of Motor Gasoline, 1949-2001
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 5.22.
The effect of this trend is shown in Figure 9, which illustrates the proportion
of the gross national product (GNP) dedicated to consumer spending on oil. The
price surges in the 1970s pushed this ratio from about 4.5% before the Arab oil
embargo to about 8.5% following the 1978 crisis in Iran, but since then it has
declined to less than 3%.

---

CRS-14
Figure 9. Consumer Spending on Oil as % of GDP
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 3.4.
Short-Term Petroleum Prices
Before the 1970s much of the oil market operated on long-term contracts,
and relatively little was sold at current or spot prices. Since then markets for
crude oil and major products such as gasoline and home heating oil have become
dominant. Because of the widespread importance of oil in the economy, prices of
these commodities are of interest to many sectors besides those directly involved
in trading. The price volatility of these markets is shown in the short-term graphs
below. Figure 10 presents spot prices for crude oil and gasoline, and Figure 11
shows heating oil prices.

---

CRS-15
Figure 10. Daily Crude Oil and Wholesale Gasoline
Spot Prices, Jan. 2002 - Oct. 2003
Source: EIA, Weekly Petroleum Status Report, October 16, 2003, Table 14.

---

CRS-16
Figure 11. Daily Wholesale Heating Oil Spot Prices, Jan. 2002 - Oct. 2003
Source: EIA, Weekly Petroleum Status Report, October 16, 2003, Table 14.
The values shown in these figures are wholesale prices excluding taxes,
which vary for different states. Table 7 lists the gasoline and diesel fuel tax rates
imposed by each state per gallon of motor fuel, exclusive of local taxes, various
environmental taxes and fees, and license and inspection fees.” The federal tax on
gasoline is currently 18.4 cents per gallon.

---

CRS-17
Table 7. State and Local Retail Gasoline Taxes
Cents per Gallon Tax
State
Gasoline
note
Diesel
note
Alabama
16¢
17¢
Alaska
8¢
8¢
Arizona
18¢
18¢
Arkansas
21.5¢
22.5¢
California
18¢
1
18¢
1
Colorado
22¢
20.5¢
Connecticut
25¢
26¢
Delaware
23¢
22¢
District of Columbia
20¢
20¢
Florida
13.9¢
2
26.4¢
2
Georgia
7.5¢
3
7.5¢
3
Hawaii
Hawaii County
24.8¢
4
24.8¢
Honolulu County
32.5¢
4
32.5¢
Kauai County
29¢
4
29¢
Maui County
29¢
4
29¢
Idaho
25¢
25¢
Illinois
19¢
5
21.5¢
5
Indiana
15¢
6
16¢
Iowa
20.1¢
22.5¢
Kansas
23¢
7
25¢
7
Kentucky
15¢
8
12¢
8
Louisiana
20¢
20¢
Maine
22¢
23¢
Maryland
23.5¢
24.25¢
Massachusetts
21¢
21¢
Michigan
19¢
15¢
9
Minnesota
20¢
20¢
Notes:
1. California: The tax rates could be increased if the federal fuel tax rate is reduced and federal financial
allocations to California for highway and exclusive public mass transit guideway purposes are
reduced or eliminated correspondingly.
2. Florida: Rates include an additional fuel tax adjusted annually for inflation.
3. Georgia: An additional tax is levied at the rate of 3% of the retail sale price.
4. Hawaii: Rates are combined state and county rates. The state rate is 16¢ per gallon.
5. Illinois: The rates imposed represent the basic motor fuel tax rate and the additional tax on diesel fuel
used to operate motor vehicles in the state. An additional, variable rate applies to interstate motor
carriers. Until 1/1/13, an additional tax of 0.3¢ per gallon is imposed on receivers of motor fuel,
aviation fuels, home heating oil and kerosene, but excluding liquefied petroleum gases.
6. Indiana: Effective January 1, 2003, the gasoline tax increases to 18¢ per gallon.
7. Kansas: Effective July 1, 2003, until July 1, 2020, the gasoline tax rate will be 24¢ per gallon and the
diesel fuel tax rate will be 26¢ per gallon.
8. Kentucky: The tax is imposed at 9% of average wholesale price plus a supplemental highway user
motor fuel tax computed to reflect decreases in the average wholesale price of gasoline.
9. Michigan: 9¢ per gallon when used in commercial vehicles. 21¢ per gallon for motor carrier fuel.
Source: CCH-EXP, STATE-TAX-GUIDE ¶40-100, Table of Rates, Dec. 2002.

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CRS-18
Table 7. State and Local Retail Gasoline Taxes (continued)
Cents per Gallon Tax
State
Gasoline
note
Diesel
note
Mississippi
18¢
18¢
Missouri
17¢
17¢
Montana
27¢
27¢
Nebraska
24.5¢
10
24.5¢
10
Nevada
23¢
11
27¢
11
New Hampshire
18¢
18¢
New Jersey
10.5¢
13.5¢
New Mexico
17¢
12
18¢
New York
8¢
13
8¢
13
North Carolina
22.1¢
14
22.1¢
14
North Dakota
21¢
21¢
Ohio
22¢
22¢
Oklahoma
16¢
13¢
Oregon
24¢
24¢
Pennsylvania
26.6¢
31.8¢
Rhode Island
30¢
30¢
South Carolina
16¢
16¢
South Dakota
22¢
22¢
Tennessee
21.4¢
15
18.4¢
15
Texas
20¢
20¢
Utah
24.5¢
16
24.5¢
16
Vermont
20¢
25¢
17
Virginia
17.5¢
16¢
Washington
23¢
23¢
West Virginia
20.5¢
18
20.5¢
18
Wisconsin
28.1¢
28.1¢
Wyoming
14¢
14¢
Notes:
10. Nebraska: The figure includes an additional tax based on the statewide average cost of fuel plus a
second additional tax of 2¢ per gallon and an “ethanol tax adjustment.”
11. Nevada: The motor fuel tax rate includes a 1¢-per-gallon mandated county tax and a 1.75¢
-per-gallon tax that is levied by all counties. An additional tax will be levied if the federal tax on
fuel is reduced or discontinued. The amount of the additional tax will be equal to the federal tax
reduction, but not to exceed 4¢ per gallon.
12. New Mexico: Rate decreased to 16¢ per gallon, effective July 1, 2003, or the July 1 or January 1
immediately following an earlier date on which the obligations for payment of principal and
interest on the series 1993 state highway debentures have been defeased.
13. New York: Does not include the excise tax, petroleum business tax, petroleum testing fee, spill tax,
and pre-paid sales tax.
14. North Carolina: Includes an additional tax based on average wholesale price of motor fuel.
15. Tennessee: Plus an optional 1¢-per-gallon special tax imposed by certain counties.
16. Utah: An environmental surcharge of one-half cent per gallon is imposed on all petroleum sold.
17. Vermont: Licensed users pay diesel fuel tax rate for vehicles of less than 26,001 lbs. and 25¢ per
gallon on diesel fuel for vehicles weighing 26,001 lbs. or more.
18. West Virginia: Tax rate reduced to 15.5¢ per gallon on August 1, 2007.
Source: CCH-EXP, STATE-TAX-GUIDE ¶40-100, Table of Rates, Dec. 2002.

---

CRS-19
Electricity
While overall energy consumption in the United States increased three-fold
between 1950 and 2000, electricity consumption increased even more rapidly.
Annual power generation at the end of the century was ten times what it was in
1950. Figure 12 illustrates the trend.
Figure 12. Electricity Generation by Source, selected years.
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 8.2a.
Throughout this period, coal was used to generate about half the rapidly
increasing amount of electricity consumed. Petroleum became briefly important
as a source of power generation in the late 1960s because it resulted in lower
emissions of air pollutants, but the price surges of the 1970s reversed that trend,
and by 2000 only 3% of power generation was oil-fired.
Natural gas generation has a more complicated history. Consumption by the
electric power industry increased gradually as access by pipeline became more
widespread. With the price surge in oil in the 1970s, demand for gas also
increased, but interstate prices were regulated, and gas availability declined. In
addition, federal energy policy viewed generation of electricity by gas to be a
wasteful use of a diminishing resource. The Fuel Use Act of 1978 prohibited new
power generators from using gas and set a timetable for shutting down existing
gas-fired plants. Gas prices were later deregulated, resulting in increased
production, and the Fuel Use Act was repealed, but in the meantime generation of
electricity from gas fell from 24% in 1970 to 12% in 1985. In the 1990s gas

---

CRS-20
became more popular, and by 2000 was supplying 16% of total electric
generation. Most capacity additions during the late 1990s were gas fired. The
increased demand contributed to high prices in 2000 that were felt particularly in
California.
Nuclear power started coming on line in significant amounts in the late
1960s, and by 1975, in the midst of the oil crisis, was supplying 9% of total
generation. However, increases in capital costs, construction delays, and public
opposition to nuclear power following the Three Mile Island accident in 1979
curtailed expansion of the technology, and many construction projects were
cancelled. Continuation of some construction increased the nuclear share of
generation to 20% in 1990, where it remains currently, but no new plants are
currently under construction or on order.
Construction of major hydroelectric projects has also essentially ceased, and
hydropower’s share of electricity generation has gradually declined from 30% in
1950 to 15% in 1975 and less than 10% in 2000. However, hydropower remains
highly important on a regional basis, as Table 8 illustrates.
Figure 13. Capacity Additions 1990-1999
Source: EIA, Inventory of Electric Power Plants, 1990, Inventory of Electric Utility Power Plants,
2000, & Inventory of Nonutility Electric Power Plants, 2000, Table 2.

---

CRS-21
Table 8. Electricity Generation by Region and Fuel, 2000
Percent Generated by:
Region
Total
Generation
Petro-
Natural
Renew-
(billion kwh)
Coal
leum
Gas
Nuclear
Hydro
able
New England
112.8
18.3
16.3
20.1
30.4
6.3
8.6
Middle Atlantic
401.7
38.7
4.9
14.9
33.3
6.5
1.8
East North Central
617.3
71.7
0.6
4.2
22.1
0.6
0.8
West North Central
284.5
75.7
0.6
2.8
15.8
4.1
1.0
South Atlantic
754.8
57.1
5.9
7.6
26.1
1.1
2.3
East South Central
350.6
69.4
1.1
4.2
19.4
3.9
2.0
West South Central
569.1
39.2
0.9
45.9
11.4
1.0
1.5
Mountain
325.0
67.3
0.3
10.7
9.3
11.6
0.7
Pacific Contiguous
367.3
4.3
0.8
33.6
11.9
43.0
6.4
Pacific Noncontiguous
16.8
13.0
50.0
25.7
0.0
6.6
4.6
U.S. Total
3,799.9
51.8
2.9
16.1
19.8
7.2
2.2
Source: EIA, Electric Power Annual, 2000, Tables A7- A13.
Sources of power generation vary greatly by region. Hydropower in the
Pacific Coast states, for instance, supplies 43% of total generation, and natural gas
34%. In 2000, the combination of a drought-caused shortage of hydropower, a
tightening of gas supply, and California’s new electric regulatory scheme and
market manipulation caused very sharp increases in electricity prices in that
region. Other regions are heavily dependent on coal generation: the North Central
and East South Central states, as well as the Mountain states, generate more than
65% of their electricity from coal, while other regions such as New England and
the Pacific Coast use relatively little coal. The West South Central region
generates 46% of its electricity from gas. New England in the 1970s and 1980s
was heavily dependent on oil-generated power; in 2000, despite an increased use
of natural gas, oil produced 16% of New England’s power, far greater than the
national average of 3%.

---

CRS-22
Figure 14. Price of Retail Residential Electricity, 1960-2001
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001, Table 8.6.

---

CRS-23
Other Conventional Energy Resources
Natural Gas
Table 9. Natural Gas Consumption by Sector, 1950-2002
Total
Percent Consumed by:
Consumption
(tcf)
Residential-
Industrial
Electric
Commercial
1950
5.77
27.5%
59.4%
10.9%
1955
8.69
31.7%
52.2%
13.3%
1960
11.97
34.5%
48.2%
14.4%
1965
15.28
35.0%
46.5%
15.2%
1970
21.14
34.2%
43.8%
18.6%
1975
19.54
38.0%
42.8%
16.2%
1980
19.88
37.0%
41.2%
18.5%
1985
17.28
39.7%
39.7%
17.6%
1990
19.16
36.6%
43.1%
16.9%
1995
22.21
35.5%
42.3%
19.1%
1997
22.74
36.1%
42.7%
17.9%
1998
22.24
33.8%
42.7%
20.6%
1999
22.40
34.7%
40.9%
21.5%
2000
23.46
35.0%
40.0%
22.2%
2001
22.64
35.6%
38.4%
22.2%
2002
22.44
35.9%
36.4%
24.8%
Source: EIA, Monthly Energy Review, June 2003.
Consumption of natural gas was about four times as great in 2000 as it was in
1950. Throughout the period, consumption in the residential and commercial
sector grew at about the same rate as total consumption, in the range of 30% to
40% of the total. Consumption for electric power generation increased from
about 10% in 1950 to more than 20% at the end of the century.
In part because of increased demand by electric utilities, natural gas prices
have become extremely volatile in recent years, as illustrated by Figure 15.

---

CRS-24
Figure 15. Natural Gas Prices to Electric Utilities, 1978 - 2002
Source: EIA, Monthly Energy Review, June, 2003, Table 9.11.

---

CRS-25
Coal
Table 10. Coal Consumption by Sector, 1950-2000
Percent Consumed by:
Total Consumption
Residential-
Industrial
Transportation
Electric
(Million Tons)
Commercial
1950
494.1
23.2
45.5
12.8
18.6
1955
447.0
15.3
48.7
3.8
32.2
1960
398.1
10.3
44.6
0.8
44.4
1965
472.0
5.4
42.6
0.1
51.9
1970
523.2
3.1
35.7
0.1
61.2
1975
562.6
1.7
26.2
—
72.2
1980
702.7
0.9
18.1
—
81.0
1985
818.0
1.0
14.2
—
84.8
1990
902.9
0.7
12.8
—
86.5
1995
962.1
0.6
11.0
—
88.4
2000
1084.1
0.4
8.7
—
90.9
Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2001.
Consumption of coal about doubled in the half century from 1950 to 2000,
but during that period coal as an energy source changed from a widely used
resource to a single-use fuel for generating electricity. In 1950 the residential and
commercial sector consumed almost a quarter of total coal consumed; by 1980
less than 1% of coal went to that sector. In transportation, steam locomotives (and
some coal-fired marine transportation) consumed 13% of coal; by 1970 they were
all replaced with diesel-burning or electric engines. Industry consumed 46% of
coal in 1950; in 2000 less than 10% of coal was consumed by that sector.
Meanwhile, the electric power sector, which consumed less than 20% of the half-
billion tons of coal burned in 1950, used more than 90% of the billion tons
consumed in 2000.

---

CRS-26
Conservation and Energy Efficiency
Vehicle Fuel Economy
Energy efficiency has been a popular goal of policy makers in responding to
the repeated energy crises of recent decades, and efforts to reduce the energy
intensity of a broad spectrum of economic activities have been made both at the
government and private level. Because of the transportation sector’s near total
dependence on vulnerable oil supplies, improving the efficiency of motor vehicles
has been of particular interest. (For an analysis of legislative policies to improve
vehicle fuel economy, see CRS Issue Brief IB90122, Automobile and Light Truck
Fuel Economy: The CAFE Standards.) Figure 16 illustrates the trends in this
effort for passenger cars and for light trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles, as
well as the general lack of improvement in heavy trucks.
Figure 16. Motor Vehicle Fuel Rates, 1973-2000
Source: EIA, Monthly Energy Review, Feb. 2003, Table 1.10.
Further analysis by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) indicates
that light vehicle fuel economy has declined on average between 1988 and 2003.
This is largely because of increased weight, higher performance, and a higher
proportion of sports utility vehicles and light trucks sold. In 2003, SUVs, pickups
and vans comprised 48 percent of all sales, more than twice their market share in
1983. (The EPA study is available online at www.epa.gov/otaq/fetrends.htm.)

---

CRS-27
Energy Consumption and GDP
A frequent point of concern in formulating energy policy is the relationship
between economic growth and energy use. It seems obvious that greater
economic activity would bring with it increased energy consumption, although
many other factors affecting consumption make the short term relationship highly
variable. Over a longer period, for some energy-related activities, however, the
relationship with economic growth has been essentially level. For the period from
1973 to 2001, for instance, consumption of electricity remained close to 0.45 kwh
per constant dollar of GDP. Similarly, the number of miles driven by all vehicles
was close to 3 miles per constant dollar of GDP throughout the same period.
In the case of oil and gas, however, a remarkable drop took place in the ratio
of consumption to economic growth following the price spikes and supply
disruptions, as illustrated in Figure 17. Consumption of oil and gas declined from
14,000 Btus per constant dollar of GDP in 1973 to a little more than 8,000 in
1985, and continued to decline at a slower rate for the rest of the century.
Figure 17. Oil & Gas Consumption per Dollar of GDP, 1973-2001
Source: EIA, Monthly Energy Review, Feb. 2003, Table 1.9.
During the earlier period, oil and gas consumption actually declined 15%
while GDP, despite many economic problems with inflation and slow growth, was
increasing by 44%. (See Figure 18.) During the period 1986 to 2001, oil and gas
consumption increased by about 23%, while GDP increased 51%.

---

CRS-28
Figure 18. Change in Oil & Gas Consumption & Growth in GDP, 1973-2001
Source: EIA, Monthly Energy Review, Feb. 2003, Table 1.9.

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CRS-29
Major Statistical Resources
Links to Sources
Most of the tables and figures in this report are derived from data bases
maintained by the Department of Energy’s Energy Information Administration
(EIA). If other or more detailed information is desired, the agency’s web site
presents the complete text of its many statistical reports in PDF format, and also
as spreadsheet files in the format of the program Excel. Some of the more
important EIA publications are described below. Other sources used in this report
are also listed.
Energy Information Administration.
[http://www.eia.doe.gov]
“The agency’s responsibility is to provide timely, high-quality information and to
perform objective, credible analyses. ... EIA collects, evaluates, assembles,
analyzes, and disseminates data and information relevant to energy resources,
reserves, production, demand, technology, and related economic and statistical
information.”
Annual Energy Review
[http://www.eia.doe.gov/aer/contents.html]
“The Annual Energy Review (AER) presents the Energy Information
Administration’s historical energy statistics. For many series, statistics are given
for every year from 1949 through 2001. The statistics cover all major energy
activities, including consumption, production, trade, stocks [inventories], and
prices, for all major energy commodities, including fossil fuels, electricity, and
renewable energy sources.”
Monthly Energy Review
[http://www.eia.doe.gov/mer/contents.html]
The Monthly Energy Review (MER) presents an overview of the EIA’s recent
monthly energy statistics. The statistics cover the major activities of U.S.
production, consumption, trade, stocks (inventories) and prices for petroleum,
natural gas, coal electricity, and nuclear energy.
International Energy Annual
[http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/contents.html]
The International Energy Annual presents information and trends on world energy
production and consumption for petroleum, natural gas, coal, and electricity. This
report is published to keep the public and other interested parties fully informed of
primary energy supplies on a global basis.
Weekly Petroleum Status Report
[http://www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/weekly_petroleum_
status_report/wpsr.html]
The Weekly Petroleum Status Report (WPSR) provides
data on supply and selected prices of crude oil and principal petroleum products in
the context of historical data and forecasts. Updated every Wednesday morning.
Electric Power Annual
[http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epav1/epav1_sum.html]

---

CRS-30
The Electric Power Annual provides a statistical review of the domestic electric
power industry for the most recent year including information on; industry
capability, generation, fossil-fuel consumption, and stocks. Data on retail sales of
electricity and average revenue per kilowatt-hour are also presented.
Inventory of Electric Utility Power Plants
[http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/ipp/ipp_sum.html]
Inventory of Non-Utility Electric Power Plants
[http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/ipp/ipp_sum2.html]
The Inventories provide annual statistics on generating units operated by electric
utilities and nonutilities, respectively, in the United States. They also provide a 5-
year outlook for generating unit additions and generating unit retirements.
EIA Quick Stats Pages
[http://www.eia.doe.gov/neic/quickstats.html]
Coal, Electricity, Natural Gas, Nuclear & Petroleum each have a quick stats page
containing a list of 15-20 frequently asked for statistics, often hot-linked to their
source documents, and a link to the EIA home page for that subject. This link
appears on EIA home page in the top left-hand column.
Other Sources.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission Information Digest
[http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/sr1350/ ]
Updated annually, this official NRC publication (NUREG-1350) includes general
statistics on U.S. and worldwide nuclear power production, U.S. nuclear reactors,
and radioactive waste.
American Petroleum Institute (API)
[http://api-ec.api.org/newsplashpage/index.cfm]
The primary trade association of the oil and natural gas industry representing more
than 400 members. Research, programs, and publications on public policy,
technical standards, industry statistics, and regulations.
Bloomberg.Com, Market Data: Commodities, Energy Prices
[http://www.bloomberg.com/energy/index.html]
Displays four tables:
! Petroleum ($/bbl) for crude oil. The generally accepted price for crude oil
is “WTI Cushing $” which is listed fourth in the table.
! Petroleum (¢/gal) for heating oil and gasoline.
! Natural Gas ($/MMBtu)
! Electricity ($/megawatt hour)
This site is updated two to three times per day.
AAA’s Daily Fuel Gauge Report [http://www.fuelgaugereport.com/index.asp]
At-the-pump retail fuel prices for gasoline and diesel fuel. Gives average price for
today, yesterday, a month ago and a year ago. for wholesale & crude oil. Also
displays line chart showing the averages for the previous 12 months. National,
state, and metropolitan data.
International Energy Agency
[http://www.iea.org]

---

CRS-31
The International Energy Agency is an autonomous body within the Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). It gathers and analyzes
statistics and “disseminates information on the world energy market and seeks to
promote stable international trade in energy.”
A subscription is required to access most of the information on this Website,
although a limited amount of information is available to nonsubscribers. Members
of Congress and their staff should contact CRS for a copy of anything that
requires a subscription.

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