Order Code IB92075
CRS Issue Brief for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues
Updated August 8, 2003
Alfred B. Prados
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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CONTENTS
SUMMARY
MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
Syrian Politics and External Relations
Internal Situation
Foreign Affairs
Syrian-U.S. Bilateral Issues
Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations
Syrian and Israeli Roles in Lebanon
Relations with Iraq
Trade Trends
Operation Iraqi Freedom
Escapees and Money
Oil from Iraq
Military Equipment to Iraq
Arms Proliferation
Terrorist Activity
Reaction to Terrorist Attacks on the United States
Secretary Powell’s Visit
Syria’s Human Rights Record and Related Issues
U.S. Aid and Sanctions
General Sanctions Applicable to Syria
Specific Sanctions against Syria
Recent Congressional Action
The Syrian Accountability Acts
Other Legislation
Alternatives and Implications

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Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues
SUMMARY
Syria, governed by President Hafiz
between the two countries. Syria has report-
al-Asad from 1970 until his death in June
edly cooperated with the United States in
2000, is a prominent player in the Middle East
investigating Osama bin Laden’s Al Qaeda
scene. Within the region, a number of border
organization in the aftermath of the September
disputes, problems of resource allocation, and
11 attacks but has been unwilling to sever
+ political rivalries have caused frequent
connections with some other terrorist organi-
tensions between Syria and its neighbors. In
zations. U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell
particular, the Syrian Golan Heights territory,
warned Syria to withdraw support from terror-
which Israel occupied in 1967, has been one
ist organizations during a visit to Damascus
of the most intractable issues in the
on May 3, 2003.
Arab-Israeli dispute.
On April 18, 2002, similar bills were
Syria participated in U.S.-sponsored
introduced in the House (H.R. 4483) and
bilateral peace talks with Israel between 1991
Senate (S. 2215), that would have imposed
and 1996, when talks were suspended. A few
further U.S. sanctions against Syria unless it
months after the election of Israeli Labor Party
halts support for international terrorism and
leader Ehud Barak as Prime Minister of Israel,
takes other specified actions. (The 107th
Syrian-Israeli talks resumed briefly under U.S.
Congress adjourned without floor action on
auspices in December 1999 and January 2000
either bill.) Largely similar bills, H.R. 1828
but stalled again as the two sides disagreed
and S. 982, were introduced on April 12, and
over the sequence of issues to be discussed. A
May 1, 2003, respectively. After Operation
March 26, 2000 meeting in Geneva, Switzer-
Iraqi Freedom began in March 2003, senior
land, between then Presidents Clinton and
U.S. officials warned Syria to stop permitting
Asad failed to produce an agreement on re-
transit of military supplies and volunteer
starting the talks. Asad’s successor, President
fighters through Syria to Iraq (Syria denies
Bashar al-Asad, has expressed support for the
these allegations).
peace process but has not been willing to
make concessions on territorial issues.
An issue for U.S. policy makers is the
degree to which the Administration should go
An array of bilateral issues continue to
in seeking to enlist Syrian support for U.S.
affect relations between the United States and
endeavors in the Middle East. Many U.S.
Syria: the course of Arab-Israeli talks; ques-
observers believe removal of legislative sanc-
tions of arms proliferation; Syrian connections
tions should be contingent on evidence of
with terrorist activity and previous involve-
improvements in Syria’s human rights record,
ment in narcotics traffic; Syria’s human rights
a clear renunciation of terrorism, and reversal
record; Syria’s role in Lebanon; and a warm-
of other policies injurious to U.S. interests.
ing trend in Syrian relations with Iraq. A
Others favor quiet diplomacy aimed at encour-
variety of U.S. legislative provisions and
aging Syria to play a constructive and respon-
executive directives prohibit direct aid to
sible role in the Middle East.
Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
On June 20, 2003, Secretary of State Colin Powell said the Syrians “took some limited
steps” against terrorism but went on to say that “these limited steps are totally inadequate.”
In an interview published by the State Department on August 1, Secretary Powell told an
Israeli newspaper that there are areas of cooperation that the United States would like to
pursue with Syria, but that until Syria changes its policies on terrorism and several other
issues, “we are not going to do anything that would improve the [U.S.-Syrian] relationship
right now.” He went on to say that Syria risks isolation as the Middle East peace process
moves forward without the Syrians and added that “I think there are opportunity costs in this
for Syria if they don’t change their policies.”
During an attack on an Iraqi convoy that U.S. officials suspected of carrying former
Iraqi officials seeking to escape, U.S. forces captured five Syrian border guards in the vicinity
of the Iraqi-Syrian border on June 18. U.S. forces released the Syrians on June 30, despite
what an unidentified U.S. military official called circumstantial evidence that the Syrians
were helping Iraqis escape. On July 14, the commander of a Syrian border post near Iraq told
New York Times reporters that U.S. helicopters and planes routinely enter Syrian air space
and frequently fire across the border into Syria. The officer said Syrian forces had not
returned the fire.
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
Although U.S.-Syrian relations improved somewhat in the 1990s, further strains
appeared after the breakdown in Syrian-Israeli negotiations in 2000 and Syria’s opposition
to a U.S. military campaign in Iraq. Members of Congress have periodically introduced
legislation to tighten U.S. sanctions against Syria or to condition relaxation of existing
restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not
inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to
encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process and support other
U.S. initiatives. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States
should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on
regional issues.
Syrian Politics and External Relations
Internal Situation. The death of Syrian President Hafiz al-Asad in June 2000
removed one of the longest serving heads of state in the Middle East and a key figure in the
affairs of the region. A former air force commander and Minister of Defense, the late
president exercised uncontested authority for almost 30 years through his personal prestige
and his control of the principal pillars of the regime: the ruling Ba’th Party, the armed forces,
and the intelligence apparatus. President Bashar al-Asad, who succeeded his father in a
smooth transfer of power, has pursued some political reforms, but many observers believe
he remains circumscribed by power elites who have a vested interested in maintaining the
status quo. Observers have described President Bashar al-Asad’s modernization program as
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akin to the Chinese model, with emphasis on economic reform while retaining one-party rule.
In his inaugural address in July 2000, the new president called for “steady, yet gradual steps
toward introducing economic changes” and “removing bureaucratic obstacles to the flow of
domestic and foreign investments.”
Foreign Affairs. Syria’s relations with its neighbors have been marred in the past by
border problems (with Turkey and Israel), disputes over water sharing (with Turkey and
Iraq), and political differences (sometimes with Jordan and — until recently — with Iraq,
which was governed by a rival wing of the Ba’th Party); Iraq, in particular, resented Syrian
support for Iran during the Iraq-Iran war of 1980-1988 and Syrian support for the allied
coalition that expelled Iraq from Kuwait in 1991. Syrian relations with all three neighbors
improved, however, in the late 1990s. In 2003, Syria opposed the U.S.-led campaign to
overthrow the regime of former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.
Syrian-U.S. Bilateral Issues
Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations
Syrian-Israeli negotiations remain
Syria in Brief
deadlocked over Syria’s demand that
Israel withdraw unconditionally from
Population (2002): 17,155,814 (Growth 2.5%)*
the Golan Heights, a 450-square mile
Area: 185,180 sq km (71,498 sq mi, slightly larger than
North Dakota)
portion of southwestern Syria that Israel
Ethnic Groups: Arabs 90.3%; Kurds, Armenians,
occupied during the 1967 Arab-Israeli
others 9.7%
war. The late President Asad said he
Religious Sects: Sunni Muslim 74%; Alawite, Druze,
accepted the principle of “full
Ismaili 16%; Christian 10%; Jewish (less than 0.01%)
Literacy (1997): 71% (M-86%; F-56%)
withdrawal for full peace” and would
GDP (2000): $19.3 billion
establish peaceful, normal relations
External Debt (2000): $22 billion, including up to $12
with Israel in return for Israeli’s
billion to Russia (inherited from Syria’s debt to the
withdrawal from Golan (and from
former Soviet Union)
southern Lebanon as well). Israeli
Inflation (2001): 0.3%
Unemployment: 9% (Some estimates are as high as
governments have differed over the
20%)
question of withdrawal, but all have
Armed Forces: personnel, 319,000;
demanded a prior Syrian commitment
tanks, 4,,700 (including 1,200 in storage)
to establish full diplomatic relations
Combat aircraft, 611
and agree to security arrangements
*In addition, approximately 20,000 Arabs and 20,000
before any withdrawal takes place.
Israeli settlers live in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights
territory (2003 estimate).
Furthermore, Syria and Israel
disagree over what would constitute
Source: CIA World Factbook 2002; press
full withdrawal, because of slightly
differing boundary lines defined in the
past. Israel regards the boundary as the
international border established in 1923 between what was then the British-controlled
territory of Palestine and the French-controlled territory of Syria, while Syria believes it
should be the line where Syrian and Israeli forces were deployed on the eve of the June 1967
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war. The latter boundary line, among other things, would give Syria access to the
northeastern shore of the Sea of Galilee (also known as Lake Kinneret or Lake Tiberias).
After a hiatus of almost 4 years, teams headed by then Israeli Prime Minister Ehud
Barak and Syrian Foreign Minister Faruq al-Shar’a held two rounds of talks in Washington
and West Virginia in December 1999 and January 2000, respectively, at the invitation of then
President Clinton. Further talks, however, failed to materialize as the parties disagreed over
the sequence of discussions. Syria wanted to address border issues before dealing with other
topics, while Israel wanted to concentrate first on security, water, and future bilateral
relations. A meeting in Geneva between then Presidents Clinton and Hafiz al-Asad in March
2000 produced no agreement; Israeli territorial proposals conveyed by Clinton were
unacceptable to Asad, who insisted on full Israeli withdrawal to the June 1967 border. In his
inaugural address in July 2000, President Bashar al-Asad stated that “we are in a hurry for
peace, because it is our option,” but added that “we are not prepared to concede territory.”
Other Syrian officials have reiterated this position.
At an Arab summit conference on March 27-28, 2002, Syria joined other Arab states
in endorsing a peace initiative by Saudi Arabia’s Crown Prince Abdullah involving full
Israeli withdrawal from Arab territories occupied since 1967 in return for normal relations
with Israel in the context of a comprehensive peace. In elaborating on Syria’s position,
President Bashar al-Asad described the initiative as a “first step” and said “what is required
is a mechanism” to implement the plan. He also demanded that Israel commit itself publicly
to returning occupied Arab lands and maintained that “for us, terrorism comes from Israel.”
Meanwhile, Syria abstained on U.N. Security Council Resolution 1397 (March 12, 2002) and
boycotted the vote on a follow-on resolution (Resolution 1402, March 30), both calling for
cessation of violence in Israel and the Palestinian territories. Syria objected to the resolutions
on grounds that they did not meet Arab concerns and did not condemn Israeli attacks on
Palestinians. Later, on March 27, 2003, President Asad criticized current and previous U.S.
peace plans, saying that all of them are “destined for failure because they do not meet the
aspirations and restore the rights of the Palestinian people.”
In early May 2003, the Israeli press carried reports that a Syrian emissary (a brother of
President Asad according to one source) had met with a former Israeli government official
in March and offered to re-open negotiations without preconditions — a longstanding Israeli
demand. Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon reiterated his readiness for negotiations with
any Arab country including Syria without preconditions; however, he indicated that such
talks should take place later to give the United States more time to pursue its own initiatives.
A Syrian spokeswoman denied that Syria had held secret talks with Israel and said it would
be unacceptable to interpret previous U.N. resolutions and terms of reference at the
international peace conference held in Madrid in 1991 as “preconditions.” President Asad,
in an interview published on May 11, 2003, reiterated this denial and said any peace talks
with Israel should be based on U.N. resolutions, the 1991 Madrid conference, and the March
2002 Saudi plan.
Meanwhile, an Israeli-Palestinian peace plan put forward by the “Quartet” (the United
States, the United Nations, the European Union, and Russia) and made public on April 30,
2003, includes a Syrian-Israeli peace settlement as one of the goals it is designed to achieve.
President Asad, however, in an interview with a Kuwaiti newspaper on May 25, commented
that the Quartet’s plan (known as the “Road Map”) was directed at Israeli-Palestinian issues
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and added that “Syria and Lebanon are mentioned only in passing” in the Road Map. On
June 4, following summit conferences held in Egypt and Jordan at the initiative of President
Bush to start implementing the Road Map, a spokeswoman from the Syrian Foreign Ministry
described the plan as “a Palestinian-Israeli affair” and commented that “Syria did not expect
to be invited to the summit and did not wish to [attend]....” On August 1, the State
Department published the text of an interview Secretary Powell gave to an Israeli newspaper
Ma’ariv, in which he emphasized that “the President’s vision includes a comprehensive
settlement that deals with the issues of interest to Syria and to Lebanon.”
Syrian and Israeli Roles in Lebanon
Syrian Army units moved into large parts of northeastern and central Lebanon shortly
after civil strife began in that country in 1975. Syrian forces have remained in there since
1976, ostensibly under an Arab League peace-keeping mandate. Meanwhile, Israel occupied
a portion of Lebanon between 1982 and 1985 in an operation designed to root out armed
Palestinian guerrillas from southern Lebanon. From 1985 until May 2000, Israel maintained
a 9-mile wide security zone in southern Lebanon, enforced by Israeli military patrols and an
Israeli-funded Lebanese militia called the Army of South Lebanon (ASL). At an Arab
League sponsored meeting at Taif, Saudi Arabia in October 1989, the Lebanese Parliament
agreed on a revised formula for power sharing within the Lebanese government; it also
adopted a plan for reestablishment of central authority and phased Syrian redeployment to
the eastern Biqa’ (Bekaa) Valley within two years of the agreement’s implementation, after
which Lebanon and Syria would agree on the ultimate status of Syrian forces in eastern
Lebanon.
U.S. Administrations and Members of Congress have expressed the view that Syrian
forces should have redeployed in accordance with the Taif Agreement by 1992, and have also
criticized Syrian toleration of the presence of the pro-Iranian Hizballah militia in southern
Lebanon. Syrian officials and pro-Syrian Lebanese have countered that not all conditions
of the Taif Agreement have been met so far, and that the Lebanese armed forces are not yet
capable of maintaining internal security. Prior to May 2000, Syrian and Lebanese leader also
argued that Syrian forces should remain in Lebanon as long as Israel maintained its security
zone in southern Lebanon, and that Hizballah activity constituted legitimate resistance
activity in southern Lebanon as long as Israeli forces were present.
On May 24, 2000, Israel unilaterally withdrew its forces from the security zone in
southern Lebanon. On June 7, then Secretary of State Albright noted that Israel had fulfilled
its obligations by withdrawing from Lebanon and said “I think that the Syrians should do so
also.” Lebanon and Syria claim that a complete Israeli withdrawal should have included a
small enclave at the eastern end of the Israeli security zone called “the Shib’a (Chebaa)
Farms,” which they assert is part of Lebanon but Israel considers part of the Golan Heights.
(For further information, see CRS Report RL31078, The Shib’a Farms Dispute and its
Implications, August 7, 2001, by Alfred B. Prados.) The Shib’a Farms enclave remains a
source of tension, as Israeli forces periodically target Hizballah, as well as Syrian, positions
in retaliation for Hizballah raids on Israeli forces in the Shib’a Farms area. (For further
information on the Syrian role in Lebanon, see CRS Issue Brief IB89118, Lebanon, by Clyde
R. Mark.) More recently, in the July 2003 Ma’ariv interview, Secretary Powell urged Syria
to encourage Lebanon to deploy its armed forces into southern Lebanon (presumably in the
areas evacuated by Israel in May 2000).
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For some years, Syrian troop strength in Lebanon ranged from 25,000 to 35,000. Since
mid-2001, Syria has carried out troop redeployments or withdrawals, in June 2001, April
2002, and February 2003. According to news reports, in some cases troops were redeployed
to more distant parts of Lebanon and in others troops were withdrawn all the way to Syria.
The February 2003 withdrawal reportedly resulted in a reduction of Syria’s force presence
in Lebanon from approximately 20,000 to approximately 16,000. Lebanese and Syrian
sources described the troop movements as another phase in implementing the 1989 Ta’if
agreement, but other analysts speculated that these movements were designed to mollify
Lebanese opponents of Syria’s presence in Lebanon, win favor with the United States (which
welcomed the troop withdrawals), avoid provoking Israel, and deal with potential unrest on
the Syrian-Iraqi border as the likelihood of a U.S.-led campaign against Iraq increased. In
a possibly related development, Lebanese sources in January 2003 indicated that the Syrian
regime has urged Hizballah to reduce attacks on Israeli targets. A Reuters news wire story,
quoting Lebanese security sources and eye witnesses, reported on July 15, 2003, that
approximately 1,000 Syrian troops had evacuated at least four large military positions in
northern Lebanon and returned to Syria, leaving approximately 15,000 Syrian military
personnel in Lebanon.
Relations with Iraq
Trade Trends. A marked improvement in Syria’s relations with its former adversary
Iraq after 1997 created new concerns on the part of U.S. officials. Since 1997, the two
countries have exchanged diplomatic missions, though not at the ambassadorial level, and
trade relations have expanded. According to news reports, bilateral trade increased from
$500 million in 2000 to $1 billion in 2001, and estimates range from $1 to $3 billion for
2002. Bilateral trade largely ended in early 2003 as U.S. forces mounted Operation Iraqi
Freedom and Syria reportedly closed border crossings to Iraq in April 2003 under U.S.
pressure. (See below.) According to news reports in the summer of 2003, however, the
United States has not objected to the resumption of Syrian trade with Iraq in the post-war
period, and the head of the federation of Syrian chambers of commerce estimated that
bilateral trade in early August at an annual equivalent of between $100 million and $200
million, still only a fraction of reported pre-war levels. (“Syria Resumes Trade with Iraq
Unhindered by U.S. Regional Ties,” London Financial Times, August 6, 2003.) Syrian
exports to Iraq reportedly include food, plastics, generators, refrigerators, and formerly
banned items such as satellite dishes. Syrian business people hope to gain some contracts
for the reconstruction of Iraq; however, in his Ma’ariv interview published on August 1,
Secretary of State Powell predicted that Syria would have to improve its relationship with
the United States and with the interim Iraqi authorities if it wants to play a role in rebuilding
Iraq.
Operation Iraqi Freedom. As the United States began to move toward confrontation
with Iraq, Syria expressed opposition to the use of military force against Iraq and called for
lifting economic sanctions, while publicly urging Iraq to comply with pertinent U.N. Security
Council resolutions. In an interview published on June 18, 2002, President Bashar al-Asad
warned that any military attack on Iraq would be a mistake and said “[n]o country in the
world has the right to change the system [of government] in another country.” On November
8, 2002, Syria joined the other members of the U.N. Security Council in voting for
Resolution 1441, which cited Iraq as remaining in “material breach” of its obligations and
mandated an enhanced weapons inspection regime in Iraq, despite widespread predictions
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that Syria would vote against or abstain on the resolution. A Syrian official told Reuters
news agency on November 9 that Syria voted for the resolution “with the aim of saving Iraq
from a military strike and safeguarding its (Iraq’s) interest.” On November 13, the Syrian
Foreign Minister took the position that Resolution 1441 did not automatically authorize an
attack on Iraq and said Syria would not participate in any strike against Iraq “outside the
framework of the United Nations.” Subsequently, Syria worked with like-minded members
of the Security Council to avert passage of a second resolution that would authorize use of
force against Iraq.
After the United States and its allies launched Operation Iraqi Freedom on March 19,
2003, Syria became a leading critic of the U.S.-led campaign against Iraq. On March 30,
Syrian Foreign Minister Shar’a told the Syrian parliament that “Syria has a national interest
in the expulsion of the invaders from Iraq.” These and similar Syrian statements drew strong
criticism from senior U.S. officials, who accused Syria of facilitating shipments of military
equipment to Iraq (see below) and of allowing volunteer fighters from other Arab countries
to transit Syria on their way to Iraq to join in the defense of Saddam Hussein’s regime. On
March 28, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld told reporters that “[w]e have information
that shipments of military supplies are crossing the border from Syria into Iraq, including
night vision goggles.” He went on to say that “[t]hese deliveries pose a direct threat to the
lives of coalition forces. We consider such trafficking hostile acts.” On March 30, Secretary
of State Colin Powell told a Washington audience that “Syria’s leadership faces a critical
choice .... Syria can continue direct support for terrorist groups and the dying regime of
Saddam Hussein, or it can embark on a different and more hopeful course.... Either way,
Syria bears responsibility for its choices and for the consequences.”
After the conclusion of Operation Iraqi Freedom, in an interview on May 25, President
Asad drew a distinction between Syria’s stand on the former regime of Saddam Hussein and
on the country of Iraq. Asad maintained that “we are not with Saddam” but called for “the
unity of Iraqi territory, withdrawal of the foreign occupation forces as soon as possible, ...
freedom of the Iraqi people to determine their future, and preservation of the funds and
resources belonging to the Iraqi people.” On July 14, the commander of a Syrian border post
near Iraq told New York Times reporters that U.S. helicopters and planes routinely enter
Syrian air space and frequently fire across the border into Syria. The officer said Syrian
forces had not returned the fire.
Escapees and Money. As the regime of former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein
began to collapse, there were reports that Syria had provided safe haven to Saddam himself
and other high-level Iraqi officials fleeing from the U.S.-led coalition. In late April, U.S.
officials credited Syrian leaders with helping seal the border with Iraq and two visiting
Members of Congress said President Bashar al-Asad had promised to expel high-ranking
Iraqis seeking refuge in Syria. During his visit to Syria on May 5 (see below), Secretary
Powell said he had given Syria the names of Iraqis suspected to have fled to Syria but added
that he thought the Syrian President “has no interest in serving as a haven for any of these
individuals.” In an interview with Washington Post journalist Lally Weymouth published
on May 11, 2003, President Asad said Iraqi officials who approached the Syrian border had
been turned back, except for some who had come to Syria before Operation Iraqi Freedom
began. He said Syria also permitted entry by female relatives and children of would-be
escapees. There have also been allegations that currency illegally withdrawn from Iraqi
banks by Saddam Hussein and his agents has passed through Syria, as well as Jordan,
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possibly in conjunction with oil trading. Some commentators think it will be very hard to
track money reaching Syria from Iraq, because the Syrians reportedly have commingled such
funds with their own monetary assets.
On June 18, during an attack on an Iraqi convoy that U.S. officials suspected of carrying
former Iraqi officials seeking to escape, U.S. forces captured five Syrian border guards in the
vicinity of the Iraqi-Syrian border. U.S. forces released the Syrians on June 30, despite what
an unidentified U.S. military official called circumstantial evidence that the Syrians were
helping Iraqis escape. Commenting on the June 18 skirmish on June 30, Secretary Rumsfeld
said the role of the Syrian guards remained unclear.
Oil from Iraq. Between November 2000 and March 2003, there were reports that Iraq
has been shipping between 120,000 and 200,000 barrels of oil per day through a recently
reopened 550-mile pipeline through Syria; some recent estimates were as high as 230,000.
Analysts believe Syria was buying Iraqi oil at a discount of $2 or $3 per barrel and selling
its own oil at international market prices. According to a Los Angeles Times article of
January 29, 2002, Syria may have been earning $50 million or more per month from these
oil transactions, while a Washington Post article of May 12, 2003, cited somewhat higher
profits ranging from $1 billion to $1.5 billion per year. Syrian and Iraqi officials maintained
that the pipeline was only being tested for future use. In February 2001, President Asad told
visiting Secretary Powell that Syria would handle any future oil shipments from Iraq in
accordance with the U.N. oil-for-food program; however, there is no evidence that Syria
fulfilled this commitment. Commenting on Syria’s unfulfilled pledge on the eve of his May
2003 visit to Damascus, Secretary Powell remarked that “I will always have that in my
background software and on my hard drive.” (“Powell to Detail Concerns to Syria”,
Washington Post, May 3, 2003.) A Kuwait newspaper reported that U.S. forces blew up the
pipeline from Iraq through Syria in late March 2003, after the United States launched
Operation Iraqi Freedom.
Military Equipment to Iraq. During 2002 there were increasing reports that Syria
had become a conduit for shipments of military equipment from eastern European countries
to Iraq. Alleged suppliers include Ukraine, Belarus, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Bulgaria,
and Serbia. In late April 2002, three recent Iraqi military defectors told a British newspaper
(The Guardian, April 29, 2002) that the first of three arms consignments bound for Iraq had
arrived in the Syrian port of Latakia on February 23. The defectors said the shipment came
from the Czech Republic and contained anti-aircraft missiles, rockets, and guidance systems
for SCUD surface-to-surface missiles. According to an article by one of Israel’s foremost
military journalists in the Israeli newspaper Haaritz on July 15, 2002, Syria was facilitating
the transhipment to Iraq of Russian-made jet engines and refurbished tank engines, Czech
anti-aircraft guns, radar, and engines bought from the Ukraine for Russian-manufactured
MiG-29 fighter aircraft and other equipment from Hungary and Serbia. A leading U.S.
defense expert told a congressional committee on July 31, 2002, that deliveries of military
equipment to Iraq through Syria have “become significant since mid-2001,” mainly
consisting of spare parts and weapons assemblies for MiG and Sukhoy combat aircraft, for
armored equipment, and for ground-based air defense weapons. He commented that so far
these shipments have probably had “only a limited impact on the overall readiness of Iraqi
forces.” Both the Czech and Hungarian governments denied that they had exported military
equipment to Syria in recent years, although the Czech spokeswoman did not rule out the
possibility of smuggling. In an interview quoted by Associated Press on July 16, 2002,
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Syria’s U.N. Ambassador accused Israel of fabricating the Haaritz story in an effort to
damage U.S.-Syrian relations.
U.S. officials issued fresh warnings to Syria over its alleged involvement in resupply
of Iraqi military forces after Operation Iraqi Freedom began. Also, Israeli sources have
referred to reports that Iraq has shipped some of its missiles and its chemical and biological
weapons to Syria for safekeeping. On April 7, 2003, however, U.S. General Richard B.
Myers, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, told reporters that there is no evidence that
weapons of mass destruction have been moved from Iraq to another country (“For Some,
Syria Looms as Next Goal,” Washington Post, April 8, 2003).
Arms Proliferation
In a speech to the Heritage Foundation on May 6, 2002, Undersecretary of State for
Arms Control and International Security John R. Bolton grouped Syria with Libya and Cuba
as rogue states that support international terrorism (see below) and are pursuing the
development of mass destruction weapons (WMD). On October 9, 2002, Undersecretary
Bolton reportedly told the Senate Foreign Relations Committee that “[w]e remain very
concerned that nuclear and missile programs of Iran and others, including Syria, continue to
receive the benefits of Russian technology and expertise.” The allusion to nuclear programs
prompted a complaint from the Syrian Foreign Ministry, which averred that Syria has been
calling for a WMD-free zone in the Middle East since 1987. Previously, a CIA report
covering the period from January to June 2002 stated that access to Russian expertise could
provide opportunities to expand its indigenous capabilities, should it decide to pursue nuclear
weapons. Later, according to a London Financial Times report on January 16, 2003, Russian
government sources indicated that Russia is negotiating to build a nuclear power plant in
Syria, but Syrian officials said they could neither confirm nor deny the report. According to
a New York Times article of July 18, 2003, a briefing on Syrian WMD capabilities by Mr.
Bolton scheduled for presentation to Members of Congress on July 15 was postponed after
the CIA and other agencies objected to Bolton’s planned testimony, on grounds that it
overstated Syrian capabilities. A State Department spokeswoman attributed the
postponement to scheduling problems.
Russian officials have talked of reviving former Syrian-Soviet military links and helping
Syria modernize its inventory of older Soviet equipment, much of which is now obsolescent.
On April 2, 1999, the Clinton Administration imposed sanctions on three Russian firms —
Tula Design Bureau, Volsky Mechanical Plant, and Central Research Institute for Machine
Tool Engineering — for supplying antitank weapons to Syria. The Administration also
determined that the Russian government was involved in the transfer but waived sanctions
against the Russian government on grounds of national interest. The CIA report mentioned
above noted that Syria continued to acquire small amounts of advanced conventional
weapons mainly from former Soviet bloc countries and added that Syria wants to acquire
Russian-made air defense missiles, combat aircraft, and tanks, along with upgrades of older
equipment; however, Syria’s outstanding debt to Russia has hampered negotiations toward
this end.
U.S. officials are concerned that Syrian acquisition of additional weapons including
improved missiles will cause further regional tensions, increase potential threats to Israel,
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and undermine arms control efforts. Syria resents what it regards as U.S. interference in its
attempts to resupply its armed forces.
Terrorist Activity
Allegations of Syrian involvement with terrorist groups have been a longstanding point
of contention between Washington and Damascus. Some observers believe Syria was
involved in the 1983 bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks by Shi’ite Muslim militants in
Lebanon; others have blamed Iran, which had closer ties with the group responsible for this
atrocity. Syrian intelligence was implicated in an abortive attempt to place a bomb on an El
Al airliner in London in 1986, after which the United States withdrew its ambassador to
Syria for a year. Initial reports indicated that the destruction of the Pan American Flight 103
over Lockerbie, Scotland in December 1988 was the work of a Palestinian group
headquartered in Damascus and responsive to Syria; however, subsequent international
police investigations led the international community to charge Libya with responsibility.
Syria agreed to expel PKK leaders in late 1998 at Turkey’s insistence (see above).
Since 1979, Syria has appeared regularly on a list of countries which the State
Department identifies as supportive of international terrorism (see below). According to the
State Department’s April 2002 report on terrorism, Syria continued to provide safe haven and
support to several Palestinian terrorist groups maintaining camps or facilities in Damascus
or in Lebanon’s eastern Biqa’ (Bekaa) Valley. Moreover, Syria has continued to facilitate
resupply of the Lebanese Shi’ite Muslim militia Hizballah, which has conducted raids against
Israeli forces in southern Lebanon and sometimes against northern Israel (see above). The
State Department adds that Syria appears to have maintained its long-standing ban on attacks
launched from Syrian territory or against Western targets. Syria maintains that maintains that
the Palestinian offices in Damascus are engaged only in political and informational activities
rather than terrorism. Syria acknowledges its support for Palestinians pursuing armed
struggle in Israeli occupied territories and for Shi’ite Muslim militias resisting the former
Israeli military presence in southern Lebanon; Syria claims that such operations constitute
legitimate resistance activity, as distinguished from terrorism.
Reaction to Terrorist Attacks on the United States. Since the September 11
attacks, a number of reports indicate that Syria has cooperated with the United States in
investigating Osama bin Laden’s Al Qaeda organization and persons associated with it. In
June 2002, press articles reported that Syria had provided the United States with information
gained from the interrogation of a key figure in the September 11 planning, Muhammad
Hayder Zammar, who was extradited from Morocco to Syria, where he faced pending
charges. (Sources quoted in a Washington Post article of January 31, 2003 alleged that
Zammar had been tortured by Syrian authorities.) In mid-June, President Bashar al-Asad told
reporters that Syria had provided information to the United States in recent months on a
planned Al Qaeda operation that would have killed U.S. soldiers had it succeeded. On June
18, U.S. Assistant Secretary of State William Burns told a congressional panel that “the
cooperation the Syrians have provided in their own self-interest on Al Qaeda has saved
American lives.” The State Department’s 2003 report on terrorism notes that Syria has
discouraged any signs of public support for Al Qaeda including in the media and at mosques.
According to a subsequent news report (“Syrian Reforms Gain Momentum In Wake Of
War,” Washington Post, May 12, 2003), Syria helped unravel a plot by an Al Qaeda group
in Canada to attack U.S. and Canadian government institutions.
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On the other hand, Syria remains unwilling to sever its ties with Hizballah and with
militant Palestinian organizations such as Hamas and Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ) that have
carried out suicide bombings in Israel and the West Bank. In a speech on April 4, 2002,
President Bush noted that “Syria has spoken out against Al Qaeda. We expect it to act
against Hamas and Hizballah, as well.” In his speech on June 24, 2002, President Bush said
nations committed to peace must halt the flow of money, equipment, and recruits to terrorist
groups seeking the destruction of Israel, including Hamas, Islamic Jihad, and Hizballah.
President Bush added that “Syria must choose the right side in the war on terror by closing
terrorist camps and expelling terrorist organizations.” In a subsequent interview published
on July 1, 2002, President Bashar al-Asad said Syria supports “the Lebanese national
resistance, including Hizballah ... politically and in the media because the brothers in the
Lebanese resistance do not need military support from Syria.” Regarding Palestinian groups,
Asad said “their work is limited to political and media activities” and “their offices in
Damascus provide political representation to the 400,000 Palestinians living in Syria.....”
More recently, in an interview published on May 25, 2003, reiterated his previous position
that Hizballah is a Lebanese resistance party and asserted that Israel rather than Hizballah is
responsible for provoking attacks in this area.
Secretary Powell’s Visit. Secretary Powell addressed current U.S. concerns during
talks with Syrian President Bashar al-Asad in Damascus on May 3, amid earlier speculation
that Syria might be a future target of U.S. military action. Powell subsequently described the
May 3 talks as a “good, candid exchange of views” but went on to say that there would be
consequences to Syrian actions, especially if Syria continued supporting terrorist
organizations or attempted to harbor escapees from Iraq. After the talks, Powell told
reporters that Syria had closed some Palestinian offices linked to terrorism; however,
representatives of the affected organizations and Syrian government officials did not confirm
the closures, and some commentators thought Syria was scaling back the offices rather than
closing them entirely. In the Washington Post interview mentioned above, President Asad
drew a further distinction, stating that “I talked with Mr. Powell about stopping ‘activities,’
not closures.” Commenting on alleged promises by Asad during the May 3 meeting, Powell
said “[o]bviously, I welcome what he said he was going to do. And I hope he, on reflection,
is willing to do even more. But the only thing that really counts is performance.”
Since the May 3 meeting, Secretary Powell has expressed dissatisfaction with Syria’s
failure to take meaningful steps against terrorism. On May 11, Powell warned that President
Asad “will find that he is on the wrong side of history” if he does not move against terrorism,
help round up key aides of Saddam, and discourage the spread of weapons of mass
destructions (WMD). At a press conference on June 20, he said the Syrians “took some
limited steps, those limited steps are totally inadequate.” He went on to say that the United
States will continue to press the Syrians on the issue of terrorism and make clear to them that
“until they move in this more positive direction ... there will not be a better relationship with
the United States, and ultimately it will affect their interests.” He added that “Syria can
either be a contributing member to this process [peace in the Middle East], or continue to be
a terror-supporting regime that does not want to be a part of this process, in which case there
will be consequences....”
In the Ma’ariv interview published on August 1, 2003, Secretary Powell said that there
are areas of cooperation that the United States would like to pursue with Syria, but that until
Syria changes its policies on terrorism and several other issues, “we are not going to do
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anything that would improve the [U.S.-Syrian] relationship right now.” He went on to say
that Syria risks isolation as the Middle East peace process moves forward without Syrian
participation and added that “I think there are opportunity costs in this for Syria if they don’t
change their policies.” Powell also warned that “Syria can either be a positive force or it can
be a negative force.”
Syria’s Human Rights Record and Related Issues
Syria has been under a state of emergency tantamount to martial law since 1963, except
for a brief interval in 1973-1974. In its annual 2002 report to Congress on human rights
practices (published in March 2003), the State Department commented that the human rights
situation remained poor, and the government continued to commit serious abuses. It notes
that citizens do not have the right to change their government and that the government used
its powers to prevent any organized political opposition. According to the report, serious
abuses include the use of torture in detention; poor prison conditions; arbitrary arrest and
detention; prolonged detention without trial; fundamentally unfair trials in the security
courts; an inefficient judiciary that suffers from corruption and, at times, political influence;
and infringement on privacy rights. The report states that the government significantly
restricted freedom of press and placed some limits on freedom of religion and movement.
Although the law does not provide for freedom of assembly, the government did allow some
meetings of unlicensed civil society forums in 2002, according to the State Department
report.
In November 2000, the government declared a general pardon for non-political
prisoners and an amnesty for 600 political prisoners as well; the State Department believes
this is the first time the Syrian government has acknowledged holding prisoners for political
reasons. The current number of political detainees is unknown; Amnesty International
estimated the number at 1,500 in July 2000 (before the November 2000 releases). Another
140 were reportedly released late in 2001. But two Syrian members of parliament were
sentenced to 5-year jail terms in 2002 for hosting discussion forums without permission, and
at least eight other prominent dissidents had been arrested and sentenced to jail as well as of
late August 2002.
Syria supports freedom of religion and women’s rights to a greater degree than do many
Middle East governments. Aside from Lebanon, Syria is the only Arab- speaking country
whose constitution does not establish Islam as the state religion, although it does require that
the President be a Muslim. In accordance with the largely secular philosophy of the ruling
Ba’th Party, the country’s Christian community and tiny Jewish minority (see below) have
been free to practice their religion without interference; some Christians have held high-level
positions in the government and armed forces. Syrian law specifies equal rights for women;
government policies stipulate equal pay for similar work; the government discourages
conservative religiously based restrictions on women; and women serve in governmental and
diplomatic posts. (Twenty-six women won seats in the most recent parliamentary elections.)
Syria’s Jewish community, estimated at 3,770 in early 1992, were targets of
discrimination and periodic oppression in the past; however, their situation gradually
improved under the regime of the late President Hafiz al-Asad. In 1992, then President Asad
issued an order lifting travel restrictions and real estate controls on the Syrian Jewish
community. According to the State Department human rights report published in February
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1995, the Syrian government had “completed issuance of travel permits to all Jews wishing
them.” In early 1997, U.S. officials said only a few hundred Syrian Jews remained in Syria.
U.S. Aid and Sanctions
Since 1950, the United States has provided a total of $627.5 million in aid to Syria:
$34.0 million in development assistance, $438.0 million in economic support, $155.4 million
in food assistance, and $61 thousand in military training assistance. Most of this aid was
provided during a brief warming trend in bilateral relations between 1974 and 1979.
Significant projects funded under U.S. aid included water supply, irrigation, rural roads and
electrification, and health and agricultural research. No aid has been provided to Syria since
1981, when the last aid programs were closed out. At present, a variety of legislative
provisions and executive directives prohibit U.S. aid to Syria and restrict bilateral trade.
Principal examples follow. (For a more comprehensive list of sanctions applicable to Syria,
see CRS Report RL30644, Syria: Sanctions and Aid, August 20, 2000.)
General Sanctions Applicable to Syria
The International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976 [P.L.
94-329]. Section 303 of this act [90 Stat. 753-754] required termination of foreign assistance
to countries that aid or abet international terrorism. This provision was incorporated into the
Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 as Section 620A [22 USC 2371]. (Syria was not affected by
this ban until 1979, as explained below.)
The Export Administration Act of 1979 [P.L. 96-72]. Section 6(i) of this act [93 Stat.
515] required the Secretary of Commerce and the Secretary of State to notify Congress
before licensing export of goods or technology valued at more than $7 million to countries
determined to have supported acts of international terrorism (Amendments adopted in 1985
and 1986 re-lettered Section 6(i) as 6(j) and lowered the threshold for notification from $7
million to $1 million.)
A by-product of these two laws was the so-called “terrorism list.” This list is prepared
annually by the State Department in accordance with Section 6(j) of the Export
Administration Act. The list identifies those countries that repeatedly have provided support
for acts of international terrorism. Syria has appeared on this list ever since it was first
prepared in 1979; it appears most recently in the State Department’s annual publication
Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, published in April 1999. Syria’s inclusion on this list
in 1979 triggered the above-mentioned aid sanctions under P.L. 94-329 and trade restrictions
under P.L. 96-72.
Omnibus Diplomatic Security and Antiterrorism Act of 1986 [P.L. 99-399]. Section
509(a) of this act [100 Stat. 853] amended Section 40 of the Arms Export Control Act to
prohibit export of items on the munitions list to countries determined to be supportive of
international terrorism, thus banning any U.S. military equipment sales to Syria. (This ban
was reaffirmed by the Anti-Terrorism and Arms Export Amendments Act of 1989 — see
below.) Also, 10 U.S.C. 2249a bans obligation of U.S. Defense Department funds for
assistance to countries on the terrorism list.
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Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1986 [P.L. 99-509]. Section 8041(a) of this Act
[100 Stat. 1962] amended the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 to deny foreign tax credits on
income or war profits from countries identified by the Secretary of State as supporting
international terrorism. [26 USC 901].
The Anti-Terrorism and Arms Export Control Amendments Act of 1989 [P.L. 101- 222].
Section 4 amended Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act to impose a congressional
notification and licensing requirement for export of goods or technology, irrespective of
dollar value, to countries on the terrorism list, if such exports could contribute to their
military capability or enhance their ability to support terrorism.
Section 4 also prescribed conditions for removal of a country from the terrorism list:
prior notification by the President to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the
chairmen of two specified committees of the Senate. In conjunction with the requisite
notification, the President must certify that the country has met several conditions that clearly
indicate it is no longer involved in supporting terrorist activity. (In some cases, certification
must be provided 45 days in advance of removal of a country from the terrorist list.)
The Anti-Economic Discrimination Act of 1994 [Part C, P.L. 103-236, the Foreign
Relations Authorization Act, FY1994-1995]. Section 564(a) bans the sale or lease of U.S.
defense articles and services to any country that questions U.S. firms about their compliance
with the Arab boycott of Israel. Section 564(b) contains provisions for a presidential waiver,
but no such waiver has been exercised in Syria’s case. Again, this provision is moot in
Syria’s case because of other prohibitions already in effect.
The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 [P.L. 104-132]. This Act
requires the President to withhold aid to third countries that provide assistance (Section 325)
or lethal military equipment (Section 326) to countries on the terrorism list, but allows the
President to waive this provisions on grounds of national interest. A similar provision
banning aid to third countries that sell lethal equipment to countries on the terrorism list is
contained in Section 549 of the Foreign Operations Appropriation Act for FY2001 (H.R.
5526, passed by reference in H.R. 4811, which was signed by President Clinton as P.L. 106-
429 on November 6, 2000).
Also, Section 321 of P.L. 104-132 makes it a criminal offense for U.S. persons (citizens
or resident aliens) to engage in financial transactions with governments of countries on the
terrorism list, except as provided in regulations issued by the Department of the Treasury in
consultation with the Secretary of State. In the case of Syria, the implementing regulation
prohibits such transactions “with respect to which the United States person knows or has
reasonable cause to believe that the financial transaction poses a risk of furthering terrorist
acts in the United States.” (31 CFR 596, published in the Federal Register August 23, 1996,
p. 43462.) In the fall of 1996, the Chairman of the House International Relations Committee
reportedly protested to then President Clinton over the Treasury Department’s implementing
regulation, which he described as a “special loophole” for Syria. Several subsequent
measures were introduced in previous Congresses to forbid virtually all financial transactions
with Syria but were not enacted.
Section 531 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2003 (P.L. 108-7) bans aid to
countries not in compliance with U.N. Security Council sanctions against Iraq. This ban
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would be applicable to exports of Iraqi oil through Syria or to reported shipments of military
equipment via Syria to Iraq; however, it may be moot following the collapse of Saddam
Hussein’s regime in Iraq.
Specific Sanctions against Syria
In addition to the general sanctions listed above, specific provisions in foreign
assistance appropriations enacted since 1981 have barred Syria by name from receiving U.S.
aid. The most recent ban appears in H.J.Res. 2, the Consolidated Appropriations Resolution,
2003 (P.L. 108-7, February 20, 2003). Section 507 bans direct U.S. assistance to seven
named countries including Syria. Section 527 bans U.S. aid to countries identified as
supporting international terrorism, while Section 543 bans aid to countries that provide lethal
equipment to such countries.
Section 307 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, amended by Section 431 of the
Foreign Relations Authorization Act for FY1994-1995 (P.L. 103-236, April 30, 1994),
requires the United States to withhold a proportionate share of contributions to international
organizations for programs that benefit eight specified countries or entities, including Syria.
Section 512 of H.J.Res. 2 (P.L. 108-7), sometimes known as the Brooke Amendment after
an earlier version of this provision, bans assistance to any country in default of to the United
States for over a year. As of December 31, 2001 (latest figures available), Syria owed the
United States $237.8 million (including $116.3 million in arrears) in principal payments,
mainly on loans under the Commodity Credit Corporation or from the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID) remaining from the period when Syria received U.S.
assistance; Syria also owed $138.8 million in interest arrears.
Drawing on appropriate legislation, U.S. Administrations have imposed detailed trade
restrictions on exports to Syria. Under Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of
1979, trade controls were instituted after Syria was designated as a country supporting
international terrorism in 1979, and further controls were imposed after Syrian intelligence
was implicated in an abortive airline bombing in 1986. At present, the Department of
Commerce list 31 categories of exports requiring a validated license for shipment to Syria;
these include aircraft, vessels, most vehicles, parts, machine tools, computer equipment, and
other high technology goods. (Routine exports like foodstuffs are exempt from these
controls.) Moreover, the Commerce Department generally denies export licenses for dual
use equipment or to military end-users in Syria. In 2002, Syria ranked 94th among U.S.
trading partners, with $112.4 million in U.S. imports from Syria (mainly mineral oils and
fuels, antiques, apparel, spices) and $269.4 million in U.S. exports to Syria (mainly cereals,
machinery, appliances and parts, tobacco, and electronic appliances). These figures
represent a decrease in U.S. imports from Syria ($142.9 million in 2001) and an increase in
U.S. exports to Syria ($224.0 million in 2001).
Recent Congressional Action
The Syrian Accountability Acts. On April 18, 2002, largely similar bills were
introduced in the House (H.R. 4483) and the Senate (S. 2215), both entitled The Syria
Accountability Act of 2002, that would have imposed additional U.S. sanctions against Syria
unless it halted support for international terrorism, ended its occupation of Lebanese territory,
stopped the development of mass destruction weapons, and ceased illegal imports of Iraqi
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oil. In press interviews on September 3 and 4, 2002, a U.S. State Department official said
the Bush Administration disapproved of the proposed legislation; the official was quoted as
saying it would restrict the President’s maneuverability in dealing with Middle East affairs.
Hearings on H.R. 4483 were held by the House International Relations Committee,
Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia, on September 18, 2002. The 107th
Congress adjourned without floor action on either bill.
On April 12, 2003, Representatives Ileana Ros-Lehtinen and Eliot Engel introduced the
Syria Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty Restoration Act of 2003, which is largely
similar to the predecessor bill H.R. 4483. According to a statement by Representative
Engel’s office, this bill “holds Syria accountable for its support for terrorism, occupation of
Lebanon, and possession and continued development of weapons of mass destruction.” The
bill would require the President to impose penalties on Syria unless it ceases support for
international terrorist groups, withdraws all military and security personnel from Lebanon,
ceases the development of WMD, and is no longer in violation of U.N. Security Council
resolutions imposing trade bans on Iraq (Section 5(a) and 5(d)). Sanctions would include
bans on the export of military items (already banned under other legislation) and of dual use
items to Syria, and there would be no provision for waiving these bans (Section 5(a)(1)).
In addition, the President would be required to impose two or more sanctions from a menu
of six: a ban on all exports to Syria except food and medicine, a ban on U.S. businesses
operating or investing in Syria, a ban on landing in or overflight of the United States by
Syrian aircraft, reduction of diplomatic contacts with Syria, restrictions on travel by Syrian
diplomats in the United States, and blocking of transactions in Syrian property (Section
5(a)(2)). With the partial exception of the ban on Syrian aircraft, the sanctions listed on this
menu represent new sanctions over and above those already in effect against Syria. The
President would have the authority to waive Section 5(a)(2) on grounds of vital national
security interest.
Another provision of H.R. 1828, Section 5(c), sets additional requirements for
resumption of U.S. development aid to Syria and Lebanon: fulfillment of the conditions in
Section 5(d) above; substantial progress toward peace treaties between Israel and Syria and
between Israel and Lebanon; and respect by Syria for the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and
independence of Lebanon.
H.R. 1828 is similar in most respects to its predecessor bill in the 107th Congress, H.R.
4483. However, H.R. 1828 omits two sanctions contained in the predecessor bill, H.R. 4483:
a ban on U.S. government assistance to U.S. businesses investing in Syria; and a ban on the
conduct of programs of two small agencies — the Overseas Private Investment Corporation
and the Trade Development Agency — in Syria. These bans already effectively exist under
other legislation and related U.S. government guidelines.
On May 1, 2003, Senators Barbara Boxer and Rick Santorum introduced a companion
bill, S. 982, which imposes largely similar sanctions to those contained in H.R. 1828. The
Senate bill, however, does not contain one item on the menu of sanctions listed in H.R. 1828,
namely, the ban on Syrian aircraft landing in or overflying the United States.
Although the Administration opposed the predecessor bill in the 107th Congress (H.R.
4483), it has not taken a public position on H.R. 1828. Secretary Powell, however, while
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discussing U.S. concerns over Syrian policies, mentioned that this bill is gathering support
in Congress.
Other Legislation. On May 14, 2002, President Bush signed H.R. 3525, the
Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-173), which bans
non-immigrant visas to any alien from any country that sponsors international terrorism
unless the Secretary of State and other senior U.S. officials certify that such alien does not
pose a threat to U.S. national security.
An amendment incorporated as Section 3002 of the House version of H.R. 1559, the
Emergency Wartime Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2003, stated that no funds made
available in this act for reconstruction efforts in Iraq “may be used to procure goods or
services from any entity that includes information on a response to a Request for Proposal
(RFP) that indicates that such entity is organized under the laws of France, the Russian
Federation, or Syria.” The Senate version did not contain this provision, and it was not
included in the conference report.
Alternatives and Implications
Debate has continued within U.S. Administrations and Congress over the lengths to
which the United States should go in seeking to enlist Syrian support for U.S. endeavors in
the Middle East. According to one theory, normal bilateral relations should be contingent
upon improvements in Syria’s human rights record, a clear renunciation of terrorism and
narcotics trafficking, and reversal of other policies deemed inimical to U.S. interests.
Advocates of this view are particularly concerned over any possibility that the
Administration has made promises to ease sanctions (for example, removing Syria from the
terrorism list) to obtain Syrian cooperation in regional affairs. They tend to discourage
bilateral contacts such as visits by Syrian officials, which they see as a potential vehicle for
trapping a U.S. Administration into premature concessions. They favor continued legislation
to ensure that relaxation of sanctions can occur only with congressional approval.
According to a second theory, quiet diplomacy aimed at encouraging Syria to play a
constructive and responsible role in regional affairs could yield benefits. Proponents of this
approach do not advocate the immediate termination of sanctions (such as removing Syria
from the terrorism list) without further action on Syria’s part; however, they support wider
contacts between diplomatic and security officials of the two countries to discuss sensitive
issues, seek common ground, and identify possible areas of cooperation. They favor a series
of small, reciprocal steps that could lead to a warmer relationship over time. Rather than
legislative sanctions, they generally prefer an arrangement under which the Administration
has the flexibility to apply or ease sanctions in accordance with the current state of bilateral
relations.
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